ࡱ > 4C 6C B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C [ F{^ bjbj B^ ΐ ΐ U : | + + O8 O8 O8 O8 O8 c8 c8 c8 8 8 < S v c8 h " . ȟ ܟ $ 4 5 Q O8 7 7 7 5 O8 O8 7 2 O8 O8 7 # ңF c8 i L 0 / | _ 8 | | O8 $ !2 5 5 X 7 7 7 7 | + 7 : EVANGELICAL BIBLE COLLEGE OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA A CHURCH AGE CHRONOLOGY OMNIBUS EDITION BY DR PETER MOSES [BOOK 260] JULY 2010 WHO IS JESUS CHRIST? Professor Simon Greenleaf was one of the most eminent lawyers of all time. His Laws of Evidence for many years were accepted by all States in the United States as the standard methodology for evaluating cases. He was teaching law at a university in the United States when one of his students asked Professor Greenleaf if he would apply his Laws of Evidence to evaluate an historical figure. When Greenleaf agreed to the project he asked the student who was to be the subject of the review. The student replied that the person to be examined would be Jesus Christ. Professor Greenleaf agreed to undertake the examination of Jesus Christ and as a result, when he had finished the review, Simon Greenleaf personally accepted the Lord Jesus Christ as his Saviour. Professor Greenleaf then sent an open letter to all jurists in the United States saying in part I personally have investigated one called Jesus Christ. I have found the evidence concerning him to be historically accurate. I have also discovered that Jesus Christ is more than a human being, he is either God or nothing and having examined the evidence it is impossible to conclude other than he is God. Having concluded that he is God I have accepted him as my personal Saviour. I urge all members of the legal profession to use the Laws of Evidence to investigate the person of the Lord Jesus Christ and if you find that he is wrong expose him as a faker but if not consider him as your Saviour and Lord HOW CAN I BE SAVED? Salvation is available for all members of the human race. Salvation is the most important undertaking in all of God's universe. The salvation of sinners is never on the basis of God's merely passing over or closing His eyes to sin. God saves sinners on a completely righteous basis consistent with the divine holiness of His character. This is called grace. It relies on God so man cannot work for salvation, neither can he deserve it. We need to realise that the creation of this vast unmeasured universe was far less an undertaking than the working out of God's plan to save sinners. However the acceptance of God's salvation by the sinner is the most simple thing in all of life. One need not be rich, nor wise, nor educated. Age is no barrier nor the colour of one's skin. The reception of the enormous benefits of God's redemption is based upon the simplest of terms so that there is no one in all this wide universe who need be turned away. How do I become a Christian? There is but one simple step divided into three parts. First of all I have to recognise that I am a sinner (Romans 3:23; 6:23; Ezekiel 18:4; John 5:24). Secondly, realising that if I want a relationship with Almighty God who is perfect, and recognising that I am not perfect, I need to look to the Lord Jesus Christ as the only Saviour (I Corinthians 15:3; 1 Peter 2:24; Isaiah 53:6; John 3:16). Thirdly, by the exercise of my own free will I personally receive the Lord Jesus Christ as my Saviour, believing that He died personally for me and that He is what He claims to be in an individual, personal and living way (John 1:12; 3:36; Acts 16:31; 4:12). The results of Salvation The results of this are unbelievably wonderful: My sins are taken away (John 1:29), I possess eternal life now (I John 5:11,12), I become a new creature in Christ (2 Corinthians 5:17), The Holy Spirit takes up His residence in my life (I Corinthians 6:19), And I will never perish (John 10:28-30). This truthfully is life's greatest transaction. This is the goal of all people; this is the ultimate of our existence. We invite and exhort any reader who has not become a Christian by trusting in the Lord Jesus Christ to follow these simple instructions and be born again eternally into God's family (Matthew 11:28; John 1:12; Acts 4:12; 16:31). Evangelical Bible College of Western Australia 2004 - PO Box 163 Armadale Western Australia 6992 Many other Christian resources are available freely from our internet web site: HYPERLINK "http://www.ebcwa.org.au" www.ebcwa.org.au and www.newstartbibleministries.org.au for weekly messages. For further information contact Dr Peter Moses at PO Box 163 Armadale WA 6992 or email Brian Huggett HYPERLINK "mailto:brianhuggett@bigpond.com.au" brianhuggett@bigpond.com.au We encourage you to freely copy and distribute these materials to your Pastor and friends. You only, need written permission from EBCWA if you intend using the materials in publications for resale. We encourage wide distribution freely! CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 CHAPTER 1 The First Century Church 32-96 AD 4 CHAPTER 2 The Persecuted Church 97-311 AD 35 CHAPTER 3 The State Church 312-589 AD 78 CHAPTER 4 The Universal Church 590-1510 AD 149 CHAPTER 5 The Reformation Church 1511-1730 AD 343 CHAPTER 6 The Missionary Church 1731-1910 AD 491 CHAPTER 7 The Apostate Church 1911 onwards 682 BIBLIOGRAPHY 734 INDEX 735 INTRODUCTION The series of seven books which make up the Chronology of the Church Age involve a wide spectrum of people. These people and events are provided in the form of micro biographies which in themselves are obviously not comprehensive. They are however indexed to allow for those interested in the subject to produce and amplify material into a form of books on various subjects. To complement this series a number of outline books and guidelines have been produced including the Archbishops of Canterbury, The Roman Empire and Christianity, The Bishops and Popes of Rome and the Bishops and Patriarchs of Constantinople, Hymn Writers and Protestant Missionaries. DEFINITIONS It is important to define two specific phrases used to present this work, the Saints and the Church Age. The Saints In many denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church saints are defined and named by the denomination to designate a person whom they believe has served their group in an outstanding manner. However the Biblical definition of a saint or one who is sanctified is a person who has trusted the Lord Jesus Christ as their Saviour and have therefore been sanctified or set apart by God as a member of the Body of Christ. The Bible also tells us that we will be known by the spiritual fruit we produce. We therefore in our daily walk need to be fruit inspectors and to a certain extent are able to do this for historical figures portrayed in these biographies. Therefore the appendage saint associated with various denominations has not been used specifically in these volumes The Church Age It should be noted that this is not a Church Chronology as that would be a history of the Saints alone, but it is a Church Age Chronology showing how believers and unbelievers have interacted over the last 2000 years in Christianity and Christendom. In the gospels the Lord Jesus Christ said On this rock I will build my church showing that the Church at the time of His Ministry was still in the future. The Church Age in fact started on the Day of Pentecost and will terminate when our Lord returns for His Church in the future. This is known as the Rapture of the Church. Bearing this in mind this must be seen as an unfinished volume. THE BOOK OF THE REVELATION AND THE CHURCH AGE The last book of the Bible, the Book of the Revelation, viewed in a literal and futurist way can be divided into a number of sequential sections commencing with the Revelation of Christ Himself in chapter 1, a group of seven churches in chapters 2-3, the resurrected church in chapters 4 and 5, the Tribulation period from chapter 6 to 18, the Second Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ in chapter 19, the Millennial reign of Christ in chapter 20 and Eternity Future in chapters 21 and 22. SEQUENCE OF CHURCHES IN CHAPTERS 2 and 3 This book therefore has seven chapters based on the sequence and characteristics of the churches in the order given in Revelation 2 and 3. When viewed as the predominant church in a sequence from Pentecost to the Rapture by comparing the seven chapters to the Scriptures the veracity of the concept of the chronological sequence is clearly demonstrated. Hence each chapter can be related back in sequence as follows. CHAPTER 1 EPHESUS The First Century Church 32-96 AD CHAPTER 2 SMYRNA The Persecuted Church 97-311 AD CHAPTER 3 PERGAMOS The State Church 312-589 AD CHAPTER 4 THYATIRA The Universal Church 590-1510 AD CHAPTER 5 SARDIS The Reformed Church 1511-1730 AD CHAPTER 6 PHILADELPHIA The Missionary Church 1731-1910 AD CHAPTER 7 LAODICEA The Apostate Church 1911 onwards Note For a detailed study of the Book of the Revelation please see EBCWA Book 97-2 I must thank Mrs Joan Huggett for her outstanding efforts in assisting me so greatly in this work CHAPTER 1 CHURCH: EPHESUS THE EARLY CHURCH 3296 ad EPHESUS - REVELATION 2:1-7 1 Unto the angel of the church of Ephesus write; These things saith he that holdeth the seven stars in his right hand, who walketh in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks; :2 I know thy works, and thy labour, and thy patience, and how thou canst not bear them which are evil: and thou hast tried them which say they are apostles, and are not, and hast found them liars: 3 And hast borne, and hast patience, and for my name's sake hast laboured, and hast not fainted. 4 Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee, because thou hast left thy first love. 5 Remember therefore from whence thou art fallen, and repent, and do the first works; or else I will come unto thee quickly, and will remove thy candlestick out of his place, except thou repent. 6 But this thou hast, that thou hatest the deeds of the Nicolaitanes, which I also hate. 7 He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches; To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God. INTRODUCTION The church of Ephesus was founded by the Apostle Paul (Acts 18:18-21, 19:1-20). John came there before the destruction of Jerusalem and made Ephesus the centre of his circuit ministry. "Ephesus" means "beloved," yet this church is rebuked for losing its love for Christ. They had many good works but had fallen from their occupation with the person of Christ Historically Ephesus illustrates church history from 32 to 100 A.D. Ephesus had been one of the first Asian centres of the Imperial cult and Domitian had allowed Ephesus the title of guardian of his temple. Inscriptions also show that Ephesus had a sizeable Jewish population of which the Christians themselves had been a sizeable part. [Acts 18:19-20, 26, 19:8-9] The description of the Lord Jesus Christ comes from Revelation 1:13, 16,20 Here we see the Lord is in the middle of his churches and is holding the messengers or preachers of the churches in His hand - he is obviously interested and in control. In verse 2 the Lord's commendation on the church at Ephesus is for testing and rejecting false teachers. In Acts 20:29-31 Paul warned the elders at Ephesus that false teachers would come in and cause havoc in the church. By the time that Paul wrote the books of 1 and 2 Timothy, the false teachers had arrived and were causing corruption in the church. [1 Timothy 1:3-4,18-20, 6:3-10,20-21 2 Timothy 2:14-18, 4:1-4]. The Lord Jesus Christ commends the church at Ephesus for rejecting the false teachers who had infiltrated the church by testing them. By application we need to guard our church against false practice and teaching on the basis of what the Scripture tells us. - Jude 3 where it says we have to defend the Scriptures which were once and for all given to us by the apostles. There are no people alive today with the Biblical gift of apostleship. The canon of scriptures is therefore complete. The word 'to labour' means to work to the point of exhaustion. We should be willing to work for the Lord whole heartedly to the point of exhaustion. The church at Ephesus had been diligent and had persevered and not given up. Patience is one of the facets of the fruit of the Spirit Here in contrast with the previous verse they are not weary. We may become weary because of the work but we should never be weary of the work. It is tragic if we are weary of the work. The church at Ephesus however is criticised as they have lost their first love. This refers to the love for Christ and His Word. The second generation of believers have become slack and cold and have not retained the fervour of the first generation. A similar problem is seen in those who received the book of Hebrews who as a second generation of Jewish believers had become lax in their attitude and lost their first love. We should maintain our love of the Lord Jesus Christ and of the Word with a close and constant walk in fellowship with him. Sound doctrine and perseverance are inadequate without love [1 Corinthians 13:1-3] In verse 5 the Ephesians are urged to remember their first love, repent and return to it. Failure to do so will lead to the removal of the witness of the church. Eventually only a village, several kilometres from the original site, remained of what was once mighty Ephesus. Due to silt deposits in its harbour it was already beginning to lose its geographical importance as a coastal city in Johns day. If we have lost our first love we need to follow the road of recovery as remembrance, repentance, and return to first acts of love for Christ. If we still have sufficient residual doctrine we can recover from a backslidden condition. If you are alive there is always opportunity to come back. In verse 6 Satan had attempted to infiltrate the church through the Nicolaitans. The word comes from the Greek words "niko" which means to rule or conquer and "laos'" meaning the people. The Nicolaitians from the meaning of the Greek sought to rule the people. This attempted establishment of a church hierarchy which distinguished between clergy and laity was rejected in the first century. Other sources state that this was a sect set up by Nicholas one of the first people with the responsibility of a deacon who introduced into the church joint meetings with the pagans. The Ephesians hated this type of thing and the Lord Jesus Christ commended them for this attitude. From this verse we see whether it is fraternising with the pagan or heretical group or the setting up of a clergy and laity that Lord despises it and condemns it. Christian unity is not obtained from fellowship with religious groups who call themselves Christians as true doctrine will be compromised and we will not be the salt of the earth. We are all believer priests and have access to our heavenly Father through prayer. We do not need to go to the Father through intermediary priests as we have our own High Priest the Lord Jesus Christ 1 John 2.2. The letters are addressed to churches as a whole but the promises are to individual believers, the overcomers. The concept of overcoming is given in 1 John 5:4,5 where it is shown that the overcomer is the person who believes in Christ that is all born again believers. The promise to the overcomer at Ephesus given in verse 7. Here it is stated that he will eat from the fruit of the tree of life which is in the paradise of God. Eating with someone represents fellowship The tree of life shows a restoration of paradise [Genesis 2:9, 2 Corinthians 12:2-4] Each of these prophecies have their counterpart in Revelation 21-22. By definition we are overcomers at the point of salvation because of what the Lord Jesus Christ has done for us. From the point of salvation we remain eternally secure. We as an overcomer will have eternal fellowship with the Lord Jesus Christ in heaven. CHRONOLOGY 32 40 ad 32 THE BEGINNING Jerusalem, 6th Sivan 32ad This was the first day of a new Dispensation, the birth day of THE CHURCH AGE. It was Sunday, the day after the seventh Sabbath i.e. the fiftieth day from Firstfruits, and therefore fifty days from the resurrection of Jesus. (Leviticus 23:15-16; Acts 2:1; Luke 24:1-3; 1Corinthians 15:23) THE BAPTISM OF THE HOLY SPIRIT 6th Sivan is another special day of the Jewish feasts calendar; it celebrates the Feast of Shavuot Hebrew for Weeks or as its called in the Greek, PENTECOST meaning fiftieth. On this occasion, 32ad, it was momentous, being marked by partial fulfilment of Joels prophecy in the OUTPOURING OF THE HOLY SPIRIT upon 120 disciples of Christ who were gathered together. (Acts 2:16 & 33; Joel 2:28) LUKE, the physician and first church historian, records that the Holy Spirits arrival was announced by a sound like a rushing mighty wind, then the appearance of tongues of fire, which separated and sat upon each of them. And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other languages, as the Spirit enabled them. So dramatic were the sound effects which accompanied the phenomenon that a huge crowd gathered outside. They were local and visiting Jews, and proselytes, who were about to witness the fulfilment of prophecy in a most spectacular fashion; a miraculous event never to occur before or since on such a scale where the Galilean disciples of Christ were given the ability to speak languages not their own, but the languages of the nations from which the visiting Jews came from, i.e. the Jews of the Dispersion. Luke described the crowds reaction to this momentous milestone, and wrote that they were beside themselves with amazement; that they were perplexed and marvelled as they witnessed this divine manifestation of power; How is it that we hear, each in our own language in which we were born? We hear them speaking in our own language the wonderful works of God. Others of the crowd reacted too, and explained it away with, They are drunk. (Acts 2:1-13) PETER, THE APOSTLE, stood up with the other eleven apostles, and addressed the crowd. He preached the first sermon of the Church Age and thus opened the door of the kingdom of heaven to all the house of Israel: God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Christ. The theme of Peters message was the gospel of the risen Lord. 3,000 CONVERTS At least 3,000 of the people listening to Peter believed, were baptised, and added to the church this day. (Acts 2:14-41) THE LAST DAYS The miraculous event of the Baptism of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost 32ad ushered in the Church Age and the countdown began for the time period called the last days. The believers enjoyed great rapport and continued together in: steadfast study of the doctrines taught by the apostles, fellowship, the breaking of bread, and prayers; they sold possessions to provide for any of their number who were in need. It was a daily occurrence for the believers to eat their meals together, go to the Temple, and witness to everyone through their joyful praise of God. Their conduct found approval with the population and every day, people were being saved. So the church kept growing in number. (Acts2:42-47) THE HEALING OF THE LAME MAN provided Peter the opportunity for his second sermon. This message was delivered to those who had rushed to Solomons Porch to hear a response from him regarding the healing miracle they had just witnessed at the gate of the Temple, the Beautiful Gate. A man, whom they knew to have been lame from birth, was now walking, leaping, and praising God. He was giving praise to God because he had just been healed in the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth. (Acts 3:1-11) In this message, as in his first, Peter reminds the people of the dreadful choice they recently made when they preferred the release of a murderer instead of the Holy and Righteous One. He bluntly tells them they had killed Jesus the Prince of life, whom God had raised from the dead and that it was through faith in His name, the lame man had been made strong. He again appeals to them to, Repent, be converted, and be forgiven brethren, (and in reference to the Second Advent) so that times of refreshing may come, and He (God) will send Jesus the Messiah. (Acts3:12-26) The hope of the early Jewish church in Jerusalem was that the people of Israel would before too long accept their Messiah and upon His return enter into the Millennial Kingdom there and then. This however was not to be; that blessing would come upon the nation after the fullness of the Gentiles has come in, and the mystery hidden from past ages had been fully revealed in the Church Age. Only the remnant of true Israel would receive the baptism of the Spirit and continue into the new dispensation the Church Age. 5,000 CONVERTS Although the entreaty by Peter was rejected by the nation as a whole, another 5,000 believed and were added to the church, an event that infuriated the Jewish leadership, especially the sect of Sadducees who didnt believe in the resurrection of the dead. While Peter and the Apostle John were still speaking at the Temple they were arrested and locked up until their court case the next day, at which time they were threatened with violence by the Sanhedrin if they continued to speak in the name of Jesus. (Acts 4:1-22) THE SANHEDRIN Sanhedrin is Greek for together and seat. It was the Supreme Court of the nation, and made up of priests, scribes, and elders. The members of these three groups were from the nobility and other aristocratic families of Israel. This ruling body of men were from two religious sects: Sadducees, who were in the majority, and Pharisees who did believe in the resurrection and were popular with the people. The Sanhedrins powers had been restricted by Rome but it still had jurisdiction over religious and some civil matters and could judge criminal cases which didnt involve capital punishment. Many miracles and other signs of Gods presence were worked by the apostles, and all who saw these things were filled with awe. The Sanhedrin became incensed by the continued miraculous healings, and found the peoples faith in the power of Jesus name alarming, for there was a huge stir in Jerusalem and neighbouring districts. They were outraged for being blamed for His death saying, you intend to bring this mans blood on us; they contradicted and blasphemed in their opposition, and were filled with envy for they knew their power over the people would dwindle if the exercise of the Jewish right of obeying God rather than men continued. This is only where the authorities commands were contrary to Gods Word. Although some of the priests and others of the Sanhedrin responded to the Lords grace and were saved, the majority continued on in their opposition to the church, and, in their joining with thugs for murderous purposes displayed a vicious hatred for Christ. (Acts 4:23-5:42, 6:7) THE CHURCH AT JERUSALEM The believers in Jerusalem did not separate themselves from Judaism. For some time they remained very Jewish in their worship; they continued going to the temple and kept the Mosaic laws. It was a time of transition for them, a gradual realisation of Church Age truth. Bear in mind that it took the rest of the first century to complete the writing of the New Testament. Gone was the opportunity for the nation of Israel to accept the gospel of the Messianic Kingdom before the Cross; it had been rejected by all but the remnant - true Israel . This was the dawn of the New Covenant offered to all races of people: the gospel of the resurrection and eternal salvation through Christ Jesus the Lord. There were two groups in the Jerusalem church, identified as Grecians and Hebrews in Acts 6:1. Both of these groups were Jews, the Grecians were Greek-speaking Jews, and the Hebrews were Hebrew and/or Aramaic-speaking Jews. DEACONS came to be appointed in the church because of a dispute that arose between the two groups about the unfair distribution of food to Grecian Jewish widows from monetary gifts. The apostles called the congregation together and directed them to choose seven men from among the congregation to be responsible for administering social aid (Acts 6:1-6). Later in the Pastoral Epistles, there are detailed instructions regarding both offices of leadership - elders and deacons. 33 34 35 STEPHEN, the first mentioned in the list of deacons, was singled out in the group for high praise as a man full of faith and of the Holy Spirit, then again, some time after the deacons were ordained, doing great wonders and miracles among the people. Stephen had a very effective ministry, with many saved through his powerful gift of evangelism, and it caused disputes with the Jews from Greek-speaking Synagogues. But his knowledge of the Old Testament Scriptures was so profound that they couldnt contend with him. (Acts 6:5,8-10) 36 THE FIRST MARTYR Stephen was the first recorded martyr of the church. Martyr is Latin, from late Greek martus witness. The opposition from the Synagogues was such that they were prepared to induce false witnesses to testify against him before the Sanhedrin on the charge of blasphemy. He answered their accusations in a comprehensive and penetrating speech in which he summarised the OT. Stephen then brought an indictment against them of being as disobedient as their fathers to the Scriptures, which foretold the coming of the righteous one, of whom you now have become the betrayers and murderers. The expressions used by Luke in Acts 7:54, 55, 57 show the terrible rage this produced in the council; they were being convicted, and made to feel that they were the ones on trial. Screaming with fury, they rushed at him like men possessed and dragged him out of the city and stoned him. Stephen was martyred in 36ad. (Acts 6:9-7:60) SAUL OF TARSUS was at the scene of Stephens stoning giving his approval and guarding the coats of the mob who cast the stones (Acts 7:58, 8:1). He was from the tribe of Benjamin; born a Roman citizen in Tarsus of Cilicia and brought up in Jerusalem. He was also fluent in the Greek language, and knowledgeable in their culture; a Pharisee from the school of the distinguished rabbi Gamaliel, he was without peer or reproach. In fact, in parentage, education, and devotion to Judaism he had more to boast about than anyone. Philippians 3:5-6; Acts 22:3, 27-28; Galatians 1:14; Acts 17:22-28 [According to C.I. Scofield, v28 comprises quotations from two Greek poets Epimenides and Aratus.] Further description of himself at this time when less than 30 years of age, as well as contributions from his later close companion Luke, is of a raving fanatic, seething with hatred for the fledgling church. His zeal for Judaism fed by self-righteousness had him breathing threats and murder as he relentlessly and immeasurably persecuted the church, trying to destroy it; totally waste it. (Acts 8:1,3, 9:1-2, 22:4-5; 26:10-11; Galatians 1:13; Philippians 3:6) This young man is the person who will be brought to his knees by the grace of God on the Damascus Road and become the most loving, the most influential in the history of the church the Apostle Paul. To him will be revealed the whole realm of Christian doctrine, and the doctrines pertaining to church government and church life. During his missionary journeys he will found many churches throughout Asia Minor and Europe, as well as found and pastor the dominant church of this apostolic era the church at Ephesus. THE GOSPEL SPREADS OUT FROM JERUSALEM The murder of Stephen precipitated a terrible persecution of the church at Jerusalem, and yet through that persecution Gods will is seen in the spread of the gospel as believers scattered to other regions of Judea and Samaria, as well as Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Antioch in Syria. Only the apostles stayed in Jerusalem; they were safe for the moment from the Sanhedrin because of their popularity with the people. (Acts 4:21, 5:26, 8:1, 11:19-21) Jews also of the Dispersion who had come to Jerusalem for the Feast of Pentecost and been converted would have already taken the gospel back to their home towns in far-away lands. Thus Christianity from the earliest times spread far and wide to all points of the compass; to Rome, the island of Crete, the province of Asia, Pontus (south of the Black Sea), Parthia (south-east of the Caspian Sea), Mesopotamia, Arabia, Egypt, Libya, and Cyrene (north African city), and others mentioned in Acts 2:9-11. THE WAY The early church community was called The Way by both themselves and their opponents (Acts 9:2, 19:9,23, 22:4, 24:14,22) and almost certainly derived from our Lords statement in John 14:6 I Am the way. The name seems to have dropped out of use after the first century. PONTIUS PILATE Roman procurator of Judea [26-36ad] who had his appointment from Emperor Tiberius and was governing at the time of the trial and crucifixion of Jesus, and was still governing at this time. The Jewish historian Josephus records incidents with Pilate directly involved, firstly in which Jews were slaughtered, and then some time later, Samaritans. As a result Pilate was dismissed, ordered back to Rome by Vitellius the Roman legate of Syria, to answer accusations of murder by the Samaritan Senate and the Jews. Vitellius sent Marcellus to Judea to take his place. Josephus notes it was while Pilate was en route to Rome that Tiberius died, the year 37. The early church historian Eusebius tells us that Pilate committed suicide, rather than be beheaded. The traditional account of Pilates life states that he was of the ancient Samnite clan of the Pontii of southern Italy, hence his name Pontius. The name Pilate is derived from the Latin pileatus, which meant wearing the cap or badge of a freedman. MARCELLUS Roman procurator of Judea under Tiberius, and Caligula, until 38ad. 37 SAUL OF TARSUS IS CONVERTED ON THE ROAD TO DAMASCUS Saul and his party set out for Damascus with official papers from the president of the Sanhedrin - the high priest, to arrest and bring back to Jerusalem, offenders against Judaism who had fled there. Just as they approached the city he and those he journeyed with were surrounded by a light so bright it outshone the midday sun, and was so awesome that they all fell to the ground, then God spoke and asked Saul in the Hebrew language why he was persecuting Him. Saul, acknowledging Him as Lord, asked His name, and went into a state of shock when he heard, I am Jesus Still on the ground and shaking with fright Saul asked what he should do, while the others stood utterly dumbfounded. He was given very simple instructions from the Lord to go into Damascus and wait for orders. He was left blind and had to be led by the hand into the city where he was in such distress that he neither ate nor drank but only continually prayed for three days, during which time he received a vision of a man called Ananias through whom he would regain his sight. (Acts 9:1-9, 11b-12) Ananias was a well respected Jew in Damascus who knew the Law thoroughly and believed in Jesus the Messiah. Despite understandable fear of Saul he obeyed the commission he had received in a vision from the Lord, and went to him, calling him Brother, having been told in the vision that God had chosen this man to evangelise Gentiles, kings, and Israel. (Acts 9:10-17, 22:12) For three years after his conversion Saul retired to Arabia (Galatians 1:17) and then returned to Damascus (Acts 9:22) where believers had to rescue him from Jews who plotted to kill him (Acts 9:23-25). After this he visited Jerusalem but had to be rescued again from another attempt on his life and was escorted by the brethren to Caesarea and sent on to Tarsus (Acts 9: 26-30, 11:25). TIBERIUS [42 BC - 37 AD] Roman Emperor, Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/42_BC" \o "42 BC" 42 BC March 16, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AD_37" \o "AD 37" AD 37). He was the second Roman emperor following the republic and Triumvirates, Augustus being the first from 30bc-14ad. Tiberius was by birth a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_(gens)" \o "Claudius (gens)" Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced his father and was remarried to Octavian Augustus in 39 BC, making him a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step-son" \o "Step-son" step-son of Octavian. Tiberius would later marry Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder (from an earlier marriage) and even later be adopted by Augustus, by which act he officially became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julii" \o "Julii" Julian, bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar. All the emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both families for the next forty years a period called by historians the Julio-Claudian dynasty. In his early years Tiberius had shown great military expertise, Augustus elevating him (in 6bc) to a share of his tribunician power (a major element in the emperor's authority). Tiberius was one of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" \o "Ancient Rome" Rome's greatest HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General" \o "General" generals, whose campaigns in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia" \o "Pannonia" Pannonia, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyricum_(Roman_province)" \o "Illyricum (Roman province)" Illyricum, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhaetia" \o "Rhaetia" Rhaetia and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germania" \o "Germania" Germania laid the foundations for the northern frontier. But he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" \o "Pliny the Elder" Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men." After the death of Tiberius son HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drusus_Julius_Caesar" \o "Drusus Julius Caesar" Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD the quality of his rule declined and ended in a terror. In the year 26, Tiberius exiled himself from Rome to the island of Capri and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_Prefect" \o "Praetorian Prefect" Praetorian Prefects HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejanus" \o "Sejanus" Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naevius_Sutorius_Macro" \o "Naevius Sutorius Macro" Naevius Sutorius Macro. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caligula" \o "Caligula" Caligula [see below], Tiberius adopted grandson, succeeded the emperor upon his death. The Church started in the latter reign of Tiberius. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel" \o "Gospel" Gospels record that during Tiberius' reign, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus" \o "Jesus" Jesus of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazareth" \o "Nazareth" Nazareth preached and was executed under the authority of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontius_Pilate" \o "Pontius Pilate" Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea" \o "Judea" Judea. In the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible, Tiberius is mentioned by name only once, in Luke 3:1 stating that HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_the_Baptist" \o "John the Baptist" John the Baptist entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of his reign. Many references to Caesar (or the emperor in some other translations), without further specification refer to Tiberius. Similarly, the " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Render_unto_Caesar..." \o "Render unto Caesar..." Tribute Penny" referred to in Matthew 22:19 and Mark 12:15 would in all likelihood be the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver" \o "Silver" silver HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denarius" \o "Denarius" denarius coin of Tiberius. Pontius Pilate was dismissed in 36ad, ordered back to Rome to answer accusations of murder by the Samaritan Senate and the Jews, and the Jewish historian Josephus notes that it was while Pilate was en route to Rome that Tiberius died; in the year 37. CALIGULA Roman emperor [3741ad]. Vicious, and mentally unstable, Caligula terrorised those around him. He changed his title, from Princeps the inoffensive concept of Augustus meaning the first among equals or first citizen, to a Hellenistic form - the divine monarch, the Caesargod. Veneration of the emperor as divine was then required, as Caligula thought of himself as Alexander, Caesar and God. In the year 39, Caligula ordered his statue to be erected in the Temple in Jerusalem. This was to be carried out by Petronius, who had succeeded Vitellius as legate of Syria, with as many troops as necessary to accomplish it in the event of the Jews trying to stop this happening. It caused such a stir amongst the Jews that proceedings were slowed and the statue was still not dedicated in the year 41. Tens of thousands of Jews staged a protest, and prostrating themselves they bared their necks for the sword rather than break the commands of God and see the Temple defiled. Petronius, unwilling to shed so much blood encouraged them to go back to ploughing their fields as it was his intention to do all in his power to assist their plight; he would write to the emperor informing him of their resolution. Caligula sent a letter back ordering Petronius to take his own life for his insolence. This letter was aboard a slow ship and another letter informing Petronius of Caligulas death arrived before it, and so Petronius was spared. Caligula was assassinated by his Praetorian Guards, and Claudius took his place. From the fact that he wished his statue to be worshipped in the Jewish Temple he could therefore be considered as a type of Antichrist. Divine intervention prohibited the fulfilment of the prophecy of the Abomination of Desolation at this time. 38 PHILIP second on the list of deacons. This was not the Apostle Philip, since the seven deacons were ordained by the 12 Apostles so they themselves were free to devote their time to prayer and teaching - Acts 6:2-4. Philip, like Stephen had the gift of evangelism, which was endorsed by many categories of miraculous healing. He was used mightily by the Lord in spreading the gospel to the Samaritans and the Ethiopians. SAMARIA AND ETHIOPIA In Samaria, there was such a response to Philip from the people turning to Christ that the whole city was filled with joy. Then, the angel of the Lord instructed Philip to go to the region of Gaza so that he could witness to one person only, who however, would then take the gospel to Africa. This man was a distinguished eunuch from the court of Ethiopias Queen, who had come to Jerusalem to worship, and would be the first son of Ham to be converted to Christianity. Both accounts are told in Acts 8. Philip became known as the evangelist and had a home in Caesarea with four unmarried daughters who had the gift of prophecy (Acts 21:8-9). Samaria north of Judea and south of Galilee. Samaritans were a mixed race, comprising Jews who were the remnants of the Northern Tribes of Israel left in the land after the bulk were deported into captivity, and Gentiles of a mixed race group brought in by the Assyrian conquerors to repopulate the land [711bc]. Hostilities over the centuries between Jews and Samaritans are well recorded, with each group hating the other, both considering themselves superior. Ethiopia the Greek name given to the Hebrew name Cush. Ethiopia of the Bible is the land in Africa now known as Nubia, and the Sudan. MARULLUS made procurator of Judea by Caligula, until 41ad. STACHYS Bishop of Byzantium [38-54] said to have been closely associated with the Apostle Andrew who Origen stated evangelised in this area and set up Stachys as the first bishop here. It is not clear if this is the same one who is referred to in Romans 16:9. 39 HEROD ANTIPAS Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, son of Herod the Great. In the year 39, Caligula banished Antipas to Gaul and added his dominions, Galilee and Perea, to those of Antipas' nephew Herod Agrippa, and also gave him the title of king - Herod Agrippa I. The banished Herod Antipas was the one whod had John the Baptist beheaded, our Lord referred to as that fox, and to whom Pilate had sent our Lord for judgement Mark 6:14-28, Luke 13:32, Luke 23:7-12. HEROD AGRIPPA I He was descended on his grandmothers side (Mariamne) from the Hasmonean Jewish family (the Maccabees). His grandfather was Herod the Great, an Edomite. Agrippa had grown up in the imperial courts of Augustus and Tiberius, having been sent to Rome when aged three for his safety and education after the murder of his father Aristobulus. He left Rome when he was 33 years of age and settled in Beersheba but returned again 13 years later. There had been a long friendship between Agrippa and Caligula even though Agrippa was nearly twice Caligula's age. In the year 37 he was made king of the territories his uncle Philip had held (east of Galilee, Lebanon, and southern Syria) and adjoining regions, and then given (Galilee and Perea) the territories of his banished Uncle Antipas in 39. To ingratiate himself with the Jews Agrippa carefully observed all the Pharisaic traditions, offered many sacrifices and conformed to Mosaic ritual. 40 CONVERSION OF CORNELIUS Cornelius was a Roman centurion at the garrison of Caesarea. He was in command of about 600 men belonging to the Italian regiment (therefore had the equivalent rank of a Lt Colonel). He was a Gentile, known to worship the God of Israel, and well respected by all the Jews; a man of prayer, just, and generous to the poor. (Acts 10:1-2) At this time, the Apostle Peter had been visiting various new churches in all parts of the country, and while visiting the brethren in the town of Lydda, had, through the power of the Holy Spirit, healed Aeneas, who had been paralysed for 8 years, and then raised Dorcus (Tabitha) from the dead in the nearby fishing village of Joppa. These miracles had caused many in the whole region of the plain of Sharon to turn to the Lord. While staying in Joppa with Simon who was a tanner by trade, Peter was given a vision of various living things, all of which he recognised as unclean and kept on refusing to eat, but was told by the Lord, What God had cleansed you must not call common. The day before Peters vision, Cornelius in Caesarea had also been given a vision from the Lord, and in obedience to the Lords commands had sent for Peter, his men arriving at Simons house in Joppa about 55 kilometres south at the very moment Peter was still wondering about the vision hed just had. Waiting for Peter at the house of Cornelius were many Gentiles, all eager to hear the things God has commanded. Peter delivered the message of Christ, opening the door of the kingdom of heaven to them, and the Jews who had travelled to Caesarea with him were astonished when they witnessed the same pouring out of the Spirit on these Gentiles, even as Peter was still speaking. (Acts 9:32-10:48) LYDDA is now a village called Lod and is eight kilometres from the David Ben Gurion International Airport of Tel Aviv. JOPPA is Jaffa, the southern suburb of Tel Aviv on the Mediterranean coast. CAESAREA Built by Herod the Great over the period from 22-10bc at the site of an ancient Phoenician settlement called Stratos Tower, and named in honour of Emperor Augustus Caesar. Caesarea, about 85 kilometres northwest of Jerusalem, became the Roman administrative capital of the province of Judea in ad6. It was known as Caesarea Maritima and later Caesarea Palaestina to distinguish between the different cities of the same name, Caesarea Philippi, Ceasarea in Cappadocia, and there was also Neocaesarea in Pontus. Caesarea Maritima was not rebuilt after its destruction by Muslims in the thirteenth century. Today it is called Horbat Qesari Ruins of Caesarea, and parts of Herods famous artificial harbour can still be seen on Israels Mediterranean coast 40 kilometres south of Haifa. Excavation work has gone on since 1950, and many ruins can be seen at the site, but the large amphitheatre is still beneath the ground and seen only by infrared photography. The find in 1961 that is of particular interest to us is the inscription stone found in the Roman semi-circular theatre with the name of Pontius Pilate carved in Latin. 41 50 ad 41 CLAUDIUS I Roman emperor [4154ad]. He returned to the traditions of Augustus, by publishing edicts, stating that the nation of Jews be not deprived of their rights and privileges on account of the madness of Gaius (Caligula), that they may continue to keep their ancient customs without being hindered so to do, and, I think it also very just that no Grecian city should be deprived of such rights and privileges, since they were preserved to them under the great Augustus. Then to both Jews and Greeks, I do charge them also to use this my kindness to them with moderation, and not to shew a contempt of the superstitious observances of other nations, but to keep their own laws only (quotations in Josephus). An edict in 49ad by Claudius expelled Jewish residents from Rome including Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2), and the Roman historian and biographer Suetonius in giving the reason, states, Because the Jews of Rome caused continuous disturbances on account of Chrestus. This refers to Christ and is a mispronunciation. Much later, Tertullian (second and early third century theologian from Carthage) wrote a defence of Christianity to Rulers of the Roman Empire and referred to this mispronunciation by the Romans because they also mispronounced the word Christians and said Chrestianus instead of Christianus. He wrote it is wrongly pronounced by you Chrestianus and added, for you do not even know accurately the name you hate. The famine predicted by the prophet Agabus (Acts 11:28), happened while Claudius was emperor. HEROD AGRIPPA I had additional territory bestowed on him by Claudius (besides those that had been added to him, along with the title of king, by Caligula), and with his dominion now the same as his grandfather Herod the Greats had been, he became king also of Judea and Samaria (Acts 12:1), thus the land of Israel returned to the Herodian dynasty. CUSPIUS FADUS made procurator of Judea by Claudius, until 46ad. 42 THE GOSPEL IS SPREAD FURTHER by those who were scattered after the persecution that arose over Stephen, north to the area of Phoenicia (narrow strip of coastline in northern Palestine), west to the island of Cyprus, and further north to the large city of Antioch in Syria, where some preached to Jews only, but men from Cyprus and Cyrene (a north African city) preached the Lord Jesus to Greeks, and a great number of these Gentiles believed and turned to the Lord (Acts 11:19-21) which made very big news. BARNABAS When the Jerusalem church heard of the activities in Antioch they sent Barnabas to investigate. He was a Levite from the island of Cyprus with relatives in Jerusalem; a believer of good character who lived out his faith. He is first mentioned in Acts 4:36-37 as Joseph, the property owner who sold land to give the proceeds to the Jerusalem church for the poor amongst them. The apostles had given him the name of Barnabas son of encouragement. (Acts 11:22, 24; Colossians 4:10) THE CHURCH AT ANTIOCH (SYRIA) Barnabas rejoiced at what he found there, encouraged them to continue, and immediately departed for Tarsus to seek SAUL. And when he had found him he brought him to Antioch. For a whole year Barnabas and Saul taught the large congregation at Antioch, and it was here that the disciples were first called CHRISTIANS (Acts 11:23-26). Writing about this matter of being first called Christians at Antioch, Harold L Willmington says, This refers to a practice with which the nimble wits of Antioch prided themselves. They are known to have coined words to describe persons and events. Perhaps as a derogatory term originally, Antiochenes called those who had claimed Jesus as Messiah the Christ-ones. The name is used three times in the New Testament: by Luke in giving its origin (Acts 11:26), Herod Agrippa II addressing Paul (Acts 26:28), and by Peter, who tells believers not to be ashamed of it (1Peter 4:16). ANTIOCH, SYRIA Situated on the river Orontes, 24 km from the Mediterranean, Antioch was the third largest city in the Roman world (after Rome and Alexandria), and the capital of the Roman province of Syria. It had been built around 300bc by the Syrian ruler Seleucus I Nicator (one of the four generals who inherited Alexanders empire), and was named after his father Antiochus. Today (situated in Turkey), it is a poor town of a few thousand people called Antakya. 43 MARK I the Evangelist Patriarch of Alexandria [43-61] see 61. Mark was born in Cyrene of Pentapolis. At a young age he went to live in Jerusalem. He was a nephew of Barnabas whom he followed together with Paul on their first Missionary journey (Acts 13:4-5). In Asia Minor he was confronted by the angry mob of citizens of Perges which forced him to return to Jerusalem. Because of this, Paul refused to allow Mark to participate in the work of the Gospel, and so Barnabas, accompanied by Mark, went to Cyprus where he preached the Christian faith and established the islands Church. Then some years later, as is mentioned in Pauls Epistle to the Colossians (Colossians 4:10) Mark went to Rome with the Peter. According to Church tradition Mark arrived in Alexandria around 40 AD where he preached Christianity and established the Alexandrian Church of which he was the first bishop. On the day of Pascha during which the pagans celebrated the Feast of Serapidos, Mark was arrested while conducting a service and was imprisoned. The next day he was dragged through the streets of Alexandria by the crowd and died as a Martyr. He was buried by the Christians of the city in the area of Bucolus where the beautiful church in his memory was later erected. In the 9th century, Venetian traders took his holy relics to Venice where they are housed in the Cathedral of St Mark. 44 MARTYRDOM OF JAMES; IMPRISONMENT OF PETER It has been eight years since Stephens death and the persecution that followed, and now Herod Agrippa I in order to further conciliate the Jews begins a new assault, stretching out his hand to vex certain of the church. He put the Apostle James (son of Zebedee) to death by the sword and because he saw that it pleased the Jews, he proceeded to take Peter also. Peter would have been killed as well if he had not been miraculously delivered from prison by the angel of the Lord. Agrippa had all of the soldiers who were on guard put to death. (Acts 12:1-19) Eusebius writes of an account he first read in the works of Clement of Alexandria, concerning James, in which the officer, who was commissioned to guard him when he went on trial, was so impressed with the apostles witness, that before James was martyred, this officer confessed Christ as Saviour and was beheaded with the apostle. DEATH OF HEROD AGRIPPA I A short time after the martyrdom of James, while Herod Agrippa was in Caesarea sitting on the judgement seat in a royal robe of silver, the people saluted him as a god, whereupon he was suddenly smitten with a terrible disease, and in violent pain had to be carried into the palace, dying five days later after ruling little more than three years. Herod Agrippa did not deny he was a god and Luke tells us Immediately the angel of the Lord smote him, because he gave not God the glory: and he was eaten of worms and gave up the ghost. (Acts 12:20-23) 45 FIRST MISSIONARY JOURNEY OF BARNABAS AND SAUL commenced at Antioch (Syria). During a time of fasting and prayer by the teachers and prophets of the church at Antioch, it was revealed by the Holy Spirit that Barnabas and Saul should be sent out for a special work, a work which marked the beginning of a series of great missionary journeys throughout the Roman Empire. Barnabas and Saul took John Mark with them as their helper (Acts 13:5). (John Mark was the nephew of Barnabas - Colossians 4:10, whom they had brought to Antioch from Jerusalem after they had delivered a famine relief gift there (Acts 11:29-30, 12:25). From Antioch the three proceeded to the large port of Seleucia - known as Seleucia by the sea, situated 8 kilometres north of the mouth of the Orontes, and sailed 108 nautical miles (200km) across the Mediterranean Sea to the island of Cyprus where Barnabas was born, landing at Salamis a populous maritime port. CYPRUS The missionaries preached in the synagogues of Salamis and after traversing the island in a westerly direction, reached the capital Paphos. (Acts 13:4-5) At Paphos, SERGIUS PAULUS, the Roman proconsul of Cyprus, wanted to hear the word of God and sent for Barnabas and Saul. One of the proconsuls advisors was at the meeting; a magician (of the Magi) and false prophet who acquired his income from fraud; he was Jewish but used the Arabic name, Elymas. Seeing the proconsuls interest in the faith, Elymas argued fiercely against Barnabas and Saul, trying to turn him away, but Saul looked him in the eye and told him he was full of deceit and fraud, you son of the devil, you enemy of all righteousness, and that he would be struck blind for a time for his perversion of the truth, which is exactly what happened. Sergius Paulus was converted this day, being astonished at the teaching of the Lord. (Acts 13:6-12) SAUL OF TARSUS IS KNOWN AS PAUL his Roman name from this point on (Acts 13:9). Paul and his companions then sailed from Paphos across the Mediterranean to the southern shore of Asia Minor and landed at Perga in the coastal district of Pamphylia. Pamphylia bordered Pauls homeland of Cilicia, and was one of the countries from where Jews came to Jerusalem to the feast of Pentecost - Acts 2:10. PERGA was the ancient port of Pamphylia, on the river Cestrus about 11 kilometres up river. Paul became ill at some stage during this missionary journey (Galatians 4:13) and it is possible that it may have been in this area, which is low-lying and where malaria was common. There is no mention of preaching in Perga at this time. Here John Mark left the group and returned home to Jerusalem (Acts 13:13) while Paul and Barnabas crossed the Taurus mountain range to Antioch of Pisidia. This Antioch was also built around 300 bc by Seleucus I Nicator, and named after his son, Antiochus. ANTIOCH OF PISIDIA A flourishing commercial town in the province of Galatia and situated on the great road from Ephesus to Asia. It was the principle road of three great trade routes. Antioch was a Roman colony, which at this time, endowed them with the privileges and rights of Rome. Colonies were virtually garrison towns governed by Roman laws. Antioch had been made a colony by Augustus not long after 25bc. The ruins of Antioch of Pisidia are near the town of Yalvac, Turkey. Paul and Barnabas attended the synagogue on the first Sabbath and were invited to speak, whereupon Paul preached his first recorded sermon to the Jews (Acts 13:1641). On the next Sabbath he preached to the Gentiles who had begged him for the same message, and practically the whole city turned out to hear Paul (Acts 13:42-44). The central theme of his good news message was Gods victory in the resurrection of Jesus Christ which Paul pointed out, had been prophesied, and by whom, all who believe are justified. He also pointed out that the bad news had been prophesied as well: the despisers of this message would perish. Many of the Jews, proselytes and Gentiles accepted the message with joy and were filled with the Holy Spirit (Acts 13:52), but the majority of the Jews were filled with envy; and contradicting and blaspheming, they opposed the things spoken by Paul. In view of this predominant rejection by his Jewish listeners, Paul reminded them that even though it was the chosen peoples privilege that the word of God should be spoken to them first, salvation had always been extended to the Gentiles, and then went on to say, we turn to the Gentiles, since you judge yourselves unworthy of everlasting life. (Acts 13:45-48) The Jewish leaders, who were concerned at the way the gospel was spreading throughout their region, instigated a persecution by stirring up the men and women with influential standing in the city, with the result that Paul and Barnabas were expelled. When they left the city they implemented a very Jewish custom; the one in which our Lord had instructed the disciples, saying, And whoever will not receive you, when you go out of that city, shake off the very dust from your feet as a testimony against them. (Acts 13:51; Luke 9:5) ICONIUM Having been driven out of Antioch by the rulers, they followed the great road to the city of Iconium (Acts 13:51), situated on the tableland of Lycaonia in the province of Galatia; the city was still predominantly Greek. Iconium is about 152 kilometres from the Mediterranean coast. Today, it is the city of Konya, Turkey. Following the same pattern, Paul and Barnabas went first to the synagogue of the Jews, where a great number of both Jews and Greeks believed, and this flowed on to the other pattern beginning to emerge, of the unbelieving Jews stirring up the Gentiles and poisoning their minds. The missionaries therefore stayed teaching in Iconium a long time, with their ministry accompanied by miracles (Acts 14:1-3). The hostile Jews succeeded at length to incite a factious mob of Jews and Gentiles to riot, and an attempt was made to stone Paul and Barnabas. However, they escaped to the small rural town of Lystra, 38 kilometres south of Iconium, then went 32 kilometres east to Derbe, as well as other areas in the region of Lycaonia, and preached the gospel in all of these places (Acts 14:4-7,20). LYSTRA (another Roman colony see also 49) There is no mention in Acts of a synagogue here, only a temple to Zeus at its front gate and a priest of Zeus. However, a crowd gathered to hear the visiting missionaries. While Paul was preaching the gospel, he was moved to apply his healing gift by the faith of a crippled man who had never walked, and the man began leaping and walking. Then, all the people who witnessed this, taking them for the gods Zeus (Jupiter) and Hermes (Mercury), were on the point of offering sacrifice to them, when Paul prevented them, and by argument drawn from natural religion prepared their minds to receive the Christian faith (Acts 14:8-18). Only a few of the people became believers on this day (Acts 14:20), but it is of interest to note that among the new disciples were Timothy and his mother (16:1-3). Soon however, influenced by the hostile Jews who arrived from Antioch and Iconium, the rest of the people stoned Paul, and dragged his body outside the town. The disciples gathered around Pauls body, and when he miraculously rose up, he first went back into the town then departed with Barnabas the next day, to Derbe. (Acts 14:19-20) DERBE was a small town away from the high road, near the famous mountain pass called the Cilician Gates". Here, free from trouble, they preached the word and there were many converts. From Derbe they returned to their missionary base via the same route, through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia. Follow-up teaching was carried out at each place, with elders now being ordained in every church (Acts 14:21-23). PERGA On their return through Perga they did preach the word this time, and then travelled 25 kilometres to Attalia, a fine port (modern Antalya, Turkey) from where they sailed back to home base in Antioch, Syria. (Acts 14:24-25) BACK AT ANTIOCH (SYRIA) Here they gave a report of their completed work to a full assembly of the church and stayed there for some time (Acts 14:2728). It is now 46ad. 46 THE EPISTLE OF JAMES It is considered by its content to be the first book penned of the New Testament. The human author of the letter was James "the Just", half brother of our Lord, and mentioned (by Paul) along with Peter and John as a pillar of the church at Jerusalem Galatians 2:9. It was written to Jewish believers everywhere exhorting them to put their Christianity into practise. TIBERIUS ALEXANDER made procurator of Judea by Claudius, until 48ad. 47 PETER AT ANTIOCH Some time prior to the writing of Galatians Peter had come to Antioch and spent time with the Christians. At the time, Jewish and Gentile believers, including Peter, ate at the same table. That is until legalists came who were from the Jerusalem church, whereupon Peter, fearing them which were of the circumcision left that table and transferred to their kosher table, and Barnabas and other Jewish believers went with him. Paul says he publicly reprimanded Peter to his face over this inconsistent behaviour because he was guilty of compromising conduct by which he was obliging the Gentiles to Judaise, i.e. to adopt Jewish customs and observe Jewish statutes: Why compellest thou the Gentiles to live as do the Jews? Galatians 2:1116. 48 VENTIDIUS CUMANUS made procurator of Judea by Claudius, until 52ad, when he was banished by the emperor over an incident between Jews and Samaritans. THE EPISTLE TO THE GALATIANS written by Paul to the churches he had established in southern Galatia on his first missionary journey, saying he was staggered that they could be so soon misled by the false teaching of some of the Judaisers, into believing that salvation was by a mixture of the law and faith, and that the believer is made perfect by keeping the law. THE JUDAISERS COME TO ANTIOCH Acts 15:1; Judaisers were Jewish believers from the sect of the Pharisees [v5]. They tried to force the Gentile Christians to conform to Jewish practices, and some of them went so far as to suggest that Gentiles couldnt be saved unless they changed to Judaism. When these Jewish believers arrived from Judea and began teaching their legalistic ideas to the church at Antioch, they met with fierce opposition from Paul and Barnabas (Acts 15:2). This then, was the topic that began church councils, and shortly the issue would be settled at the first council, the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem Acts 15: 612; 2329. Later we find some of the Judaisers in Galatia and Colossae turning away from this type of legalism on the basis of Paul's letter to the Galatians. 49 APOSTOLIC COUNCIL OF JERUSALEM Acts 15: 629. The conference that dealt with the question of the requirement for Gentile salvation, and the outcome was that God had made no distinction between Jews and Gentiles, purifying their hearts by faith and giving them the Holy Spirit as He had to the Jews. Leading up to the council, the assembly at Antioch had decided to send Paul and Barnabas, with others from the congregation (certain others included Titus Galatians 2:3), to Jerusalem, to see the apostles and elders of the church about the issue that had caused such serious strife (Acts 15:1-2). The group arrived in Jerusalem and reported in detail all that had been accomplished through them, describing the conversion of the Gentiles, just as they had to all the brethren as they passed through Phoenicia and Samaria on their way. But some believers who were of the sect of the Pharisees stood up and said, It is necessary to circumcise them, and to command them to keep the law of Moses (Acts 15:3-5). And so, the apostles and elders came together to consider this matter (v6). After much discussion back and forth, Peter stood up and made it clear that God himself had already spoken clearly in this matter, saving the members of Cornelius house and giving them the Holy Spirit just as He did to us. In other words, the Gentiles didnt need the things the Pharisee group were asking for, because God had acknowledged them, making no distinction between us and them, purifying their hearts by faith. (Acts 15:7-11) Then Paul and Barnabas stood up to speak, and fully reported the evidence they had seen to back up Peters comments. Their account of the miraculous signs and wonders was a testimony to Gods seal upon their work among the Gentiles. (Acts 15:12) Last of all, James, the leader of the Jerusalem church spoke. He first of all covered prophetic teaching that lined up with Paul, Barnabas and Peters experience, and then gave his judgement. He was clear and uncomplicated; they were all to stop irritating and causing distress to those whom the Lord had accepted (Acts 15:13-21), and a letter was written to this effect (Acts 15:22-29), which brought great joy and encouragement to the church at Antioch when it arrived (v31). Also in the letter, the Jerusalem council identified some things that Gentile believers were to avoid for they are not only identified as evil in Gods Word, but a significant reason for the ban on these things is given in verse 21, that it is for the purpose of evangelism amongst the Jewish unbelievers; i.e. the need of being sensitive to the customs of different cultures when evangelising. PAULS SECOND MISSIONARY JOURNEY commenced at Antioch (Syria). Paul and Barnabas were still at Antioch teaching and preaching, when Paul suggested that they revisit the Christians in the churches they had founded. Barnabas agreed and wished to take John Mark again, but Paul strongly objected, with the result that Barnabas and his nephew sailed to Cyprus, while Paul set out with Silas Acts 15:35-40. SILAS one of the leaders of the Jerusalem church who had been sent to accompany Paul and Barnabas back to Antioch after the Jerusalem Council Acts 15:22. He is also referred to as Silvanus, his Roman name, in Pauls letters as well as Peters (2Corinthians 1:19; 1Thessalonians 1:1; 2Thessalonians 1:1; 1Peter 5:12). Silas, like Paul, was a Roman citizen (Acts 16: 37). He was the scribe for Peters first letter (1Peter 5:12). SYRIA AND CILICIA Paul and Silas, having been sent out by the church at Antioch, travelled through Syria and Cilicia, teaching the churches in these regions (Acts 15:40-41). DERBE AND LYSTRA PHRYGIA AND GALATIA They proceeded probably past Tarsus to Derbe and Lystra where Paul had been stoned to death during the first mission (Acts14:19) and Paul met up with Timothy again, who had become a disciple on the previous visit (Acts 16:1; 2 Timothy 1:5), and was now well spoken of by the brethren at Lystra and Iconium Acts 16:2. After circumcising Timothy (vs3) for cultural reasons, Paul took him with them, travelling on through Phrygia and Galatia. As they went through the cities, they delivered the decrees of the Council of Jerusalem, and strengthened the churches, which were growing in number daily. (Acts 16:4-6) FORBIDDEN TO PREACH IN ASIA AND BITHYNYA Having been warned by Divine guidance not to preach in the province of Asia (where the most important city was Ephesus, and much will be done there later but not at this point), they made their way north to the region of Mysia, and then headed north east toward Bithynia but were again forbidden by God to proceed. (Acts 16:6-7) Therefore, they made their way to Troas. PAULS VISION IN TROAS Alexandria Troas was a Roman colony on the north west coast of Asia Minor, a few hundred metres from ancient Troy. It was here that Luke joined Paul, Silas and Timothy; his narrative in Acts changing from they to we v10. In Troas, Paul saw a vision in the night of a man of Macedonia pleading and saying, Come over to Macedonia and help us. He shared his vision with the group and they sought to leave by the next available ship for Europe. (Acts 16:8-10) ARRIVAL IN EUROPE Sailing from Troas across the Aegean Sea, they stayed overnight on the island of Samothrace and landed in Europe the next day at Neapolis, a seaport of the Roman province of Thrace. They walked about 16 kilometres west across the Pharsalian plain to Philippi, in the province of Macedonia. PHILIPPI Around 357bc, Alexander the Greats father, Philip, had conquered this area and rebuilt the small village of Crenides, naming it after himself. When Paul and his team arrived, Philippi had become a Roman colony, established by Emperor Augustus. (Acts 16:11-12) As there was no synagogue in Philippi they looked around and found a group of Jews and proselytes who met for prayer outside the city on the banks of the river Gangites, and joined them on the Sabbath day. LYDIA The group who met by the riverside were women, and one of them, called Lydia, was a business woman in Philippi who sold purple cloth; she was from the clothing and textile town of Thyatira, in the Roman province of Asia (in Asia Minor). Lydia was the first person in Europe to be converted; then her whole household too, and they were all baptised. (Acts 16:13-15) DEMON CAST OUT A slave girl, indwelt by the demon called Pythonos, kept following Paul around and chanting as he preached the gospel. Eventually, being grieved for her, Paul expelled the demon in the name of Jesus Christ, setting her free, but as a result of the miracle, she could no longer bring in money for her owners with her soothsaying, which upset them to say the least. Her masters seized Paul and Silas, and dragged them before the magistrate, accusing them of being Jews, and virtual anarchists. The mob that had gathered joined in at this point with a near riot. Paul and Silas had their clothes ripped off by the authorities and they were scourged and imprisoned to await the final verdict in the morning. (Acts 16:16-24) PHILIPPIAN JAILER CONVERTED At midnight, Paul and Silas having been beaten to the point of collapse, and now with open wounds and in stocks in a rat infested inner prison, were singing and praying while the other prisoners listened. Suddenly there was an earthquake so great that it shook the foundations of the prison, the cell doors opened and everyones chains shook loose from the walls. The jailer, when he saw the open doors assumed the prisoners had fled and was about to fall on his sword but was stopped by Paul who shouted, Do yourself no harm, for we are all here. (Acts 16:25-28) The whole affair overwhelmed the jailer; he trembled at the awesome power of the God of the Jews. He fell at their feet and asked the most important question of his life, What must I do to be saved. The Philippian jailer, his family and his household, were all converted and baptised that night. And the city officials, terribly alarmed upon learning they had disgracefully abused Roman citizens, bowed and scraped their way out of it. (Acts 16:29-39) THESSALONICA Leaving Luke at Philippi, Paul, Silas and Timothy travelled south west for about 100 kilometres along the famous Roman highway, the Egnatian Way, passing through the large cities of Amphipolis and Apollonia to Thessalonica. They were now in Greece proper. Thessalonica was the chief city and capital of Macedonia, and had a magnificent harbour. The city also had a synagogue of the Jews (Acts 17:1). It seems they were in Thessalonica for some time; Paul makes reference to working there in 1Thessalonians 2:9, probably at tent-making, and the church at Philippi twice sent monetary support Philippians 4:16. As was his custom, Paul preached the gospel first to the Jews, and was able to speak in the synagogue for three Sabbaths, before envy became an issue again. In his messages he presented prophecies from the Scriptures that related to the Messiah His death and resurrection, in order to prove to them that this Jesus, whom I preach to you, is the Christ (Messiah). The result was significant, with some of the Jews, a number of God-fearing Greeks and quite a few prominent women, believing. (Acts 17:2-4) His enemies however, the unbelieving Jews, used the marketplace riff-raff to create a huge riot in the city. They attacked the house of Jason where Paul was lodging, and not finding him there, dragged Jason (and other brethren) off to the authorities, saying they were harbouring those who defy the decrees of Caesar, saying there is another king Jesus. (Acts 17:5-9) They succeeded in driving Paul out of Thessalonica, but the gospel had been established and the newly founded church group smuggled the missionaries out of town and sent them to Berea. (Acts 17: 10) BEREA This town, about 80 kilometres south west of Thessalonica, wasnt on the Egnatian Way; it was situated in the foothills north of the Olympian Range. As soon as they arrived, they went straight to the synagogue. In Berea, the gospel was eagerly received and believed by both Jews and Greeks, but Pauls enemies, dogging his footsteps, arrived from Thessalonica and made it impossible for him to stay. (Acts 17:10-13) ATHENS Paul was escorted all the way to Athens by the Berean believers, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind in Berea waiting for instructions about where to join him, which would come via his escorts upon their return (Acts 17:14-15). Athens, in the Roman province of Achaia with its landmark Acropolis was no longer the city of commercial or political influence that it had once been, but it did have the most sort after university in the Greek world, and was still the famous philosophical centre it had always been. While Paul waited for the team to join him in Athens, he was disturbed to the point of grief as he walked around and saw how the city was given over to idols. Therefore he took every available opportunity to reason with anyone who would listen, and in a city that loved discussions and debate, there were many, with Jews in the Synagogue and Gentiles in the open marketplace. (Acts 17:16-17) Representatives from both Epicurean and Stoic philosophy, the two dominant schools, encountered Paul, with one group trying to put him down, calling him a babbler, and the other deciding he should be brought before the Areopagus (the Athenian council at Mars Hill) and given the opportunity to explain his teaching more clearly, because he seemed to be proclaiming a new belief with two gods, called Jesus and Resurrection. (Acts 17:18-21) MARS HILL From the view on Mars Hill, Paul was surrounded by many temples, numerous idols and statues, including he had noted, an altar with the inscription TO THE UNKNOWN GOD. Using these immediate surroundings as a starting point for his address Paul mentioned their preoccupation with religion, and then told them he was here to bring them knowledge of the one God they admit they did not know the creator, who is the saviour and judge of the world (Acts 17:22-31). C.I. Scofield says, Pauls sermon contains a most remarkable refutation of the specific views of both of these schools (of philosophy), which were extremely widespread in the apostolic world. There were a few in Athens who joined Paul and were saved; among them was one of the council Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts 17:32-34). After his time here, and without Silas or Timothy, Paul moved on to Corinth (Acts 18:1, 5). 50 HEROD AGRIPPA II the last of the Herodian kings [50-100ad]. He was the son of Herod Agrippa I, and had been raised and educated at the imperial court in Rome where he was a childhood friend of Nero. He was only seventeen when his father died, and it was five years later in 50ad that Claudius gave him the title and rulership as the client king of Chalcis in southern Lebanon, then, exchanged it for territory in Syria in 53ad where his capital was Caesarea Philippi (modern Banyas) at the foot of Mount Hermon. When Nero became emperor in 54ad, he greatly extended Agrippas territory, and Agrippa, in honour of his friend and patron enlarged his capital and renamed it Neronias. Because of his knowledge of Jewish tradition and law he was also given the role of governor of the Temple in Jerusalem, and had the right to appoint the high priest. The extensions he built to his palace in Jerusalem overlooked the Temple (which angered Jewish authorities), and he held the high priests vestments in the palace to ensure there was absolute control over the Temple processes (another point of resentment). Politically, Agrippa was staunchly Roman, but he was thoroughly Jewish in culture. He loved the religious ceremony and was very knowledgeable, but unsaved (Acts 26:1-3, 28). 51 60 ad 51 CORINTH the capital of the Roman province of Achaia in Greece. Corinth was situated on the isthmus separating the Peloponnesian peninsular from mainland Greece (its ancient ruins are 4 kilometres from present-day Corinth), and at this time in its history was at least five times as large as Athens. Corinth had twin ports, one on each sea front, and for the most part shipped cargo from the East across to Italy. Cargo was unloaded in Cenchreae and the ship dragged on rollers to Lecheaum across the six kilometres of road that separated the two ports. Smaller ships were dragged across cargo and all. It was a busy cosmopolitan city Greeks, Roman government and military people, sailors and merchants from the entire Roman world. The immorality of this city was infamous and led to the term a Corinthian being used to describe dissolute behaviour. Corinth at this time had a population of around 700,000, which included a large Jewish community. AQUILA AND PRISCILLA Corinth is where Paul met Aquila and his wife Priscilla, who, along with all Jews had been expelled from Rome by the edict of Claudius in the year 49, and being of the same tent-making trade he worked and lodged with them (Acts 18:1-3). They became valued friends, great fellow-workers with Paul in his ministry, and at some stage risked their own lives that his might be saved (Romans 16:3, 4). THE SYNAGOGUE IN CORINTH In the beginning Paul expounded the Scriptures in the Synagogue every Sabbath, proving that Jesus was the Saviour, and he was very successful for many Jews and Greeks were saved. However, the Jews who didnt believe were in strong opposition and spoke blasphemy against his message, at which point Paul shook his clothes (very Jewish sign of disgust) and virtually told them that if they ended up in Hell, he would be free of responsibility for he had given them the truth. And he departed from the Synagogue. (Acts 18:4-7) SILAS AND TIMOTHY arrived from Macedonia just before the incident with the Jews at the Synagogue Acts 18:5. THE UNBELIEVING JEWS werent finished yet; they had lost Crispus, the ruler of their Synagogue who believed on the Lord with his entire household, plus many other Corinthians; they were seething and would rise up against Paul later. Paul must have been fearful of violence erupting again because the Lord spoke to him in the night by a vision, Do not be afraidfor I am with youI have many people in this city. (Acts 18:8-10) PAUL BROUGHT TO COURT BEFORE GALLIO After some time, the Jews made a united attack against Paul, and dragged him before Gallio, the Roman proconsul, with the rather obscure charge of breaking the law. However, just as Paul was about to speak in his defence, Gallio brought proceedings to a close. He not only treated the accusers and their accusation with indifference, but drove them from his judgement seat by ordering his guards to give them a few blows to send them on their way Acts 18:12-17. It is of interest to note, that one of the Jewish accusers was the new ruler of the Synagogue, Sosthenes, whom the crowd of onlookers beat up when they joined the free-for-all. He too became a believer and Paul refers to him in 1Corinthians 1:1 as Sosthenes our brother. GALLIO was born into a wealthy family in Spain and was the elder brother of Seneca who was the well known philosopher, writer of tragedy, and tutor of Nero. Originally named Novatus, Gallio changed his name after being adopted by the wealthy senator, Junius Gallio. He became proconsul in Corinth in 51 under Claudius and due to ill health moved to Rome where he became consul in 55 under Nero. In 65, when Nero forced Seneca to commit suicide, Gallio also took his own life. The archaeological discovery of the Gallio inscription at Delphi has enabled scholars to accurately date Pauls first visit to Corinth. HEADQUARTERS IN CORINTH For 18 months Paul made this city his headquarters, teaching the word of God among them. (Acts 18:11) 1 and 2 THESSALONIANS written by Paul during his time in Corinth to the church he had established at Thessalonica. Judging from the reference we thought it good to be left in Athens alone in 1Thessalonians 3:1-2, it seems that Silas and perhaps Timothy as well may have joined Paul for a time while he was still in Athens when it was decided that it would be of greater value for Timothy to go to Thessalonica to strengthen and comfort the new church there. But Silas also must have subsequently left and joined Timothy because they both arrived in Corinth from Macedonia (Acts 18:5), Timothy with good news about the Thessalonian church, and Paul immediately wrote the first epistle 1Thessalonians 3:1, 2, 6. 52 M. Antonius FELIX made procurator of Judea by Claudius until 59ad when he was recalled to Rome by Nero after Jewish complaints. (Paul will be brought to trial before Felix in the year 57.) 53 EUODIUS Primate of Antioch [53-68] see also 45 and 68 who is said to have followed the Apostle Peter as Primate of Antioch PAUL LEAVES EUROPE Eventually Paul left Corinth with Aquila and Priscilla, and sailed from its port Cenchreae to Ephesus, where he left his two companions, going on himself to Caesarea, and thence by land to Jerusalem to keep the feast of Pentecost, after which, he returned to his home church in Antioch, where he remained for some time (Acts 18:18-23). Paul did speak at the Synagogue in Ephesus, and when pressed to stay longer, promised to return vv19-20. 54 NERO Roman emperor [5468ad]. Originally guided by his former tutor, the philosopher and senator, Seneca, as well as Burrus, Prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Nero's early years were happy ones for Rome. He deteriorated in the early 60's, his behaviour scandalising not only the Senate and aristocracy of Rome but also the soldiers, and the public in general. Nero turned against his mentors and killed them; he sent Burrus poison instead of cough medicine and forced Seneca to commit suicide. He blamed Christians for the great fire in Rome in 64ad and tortured and persecuted them. In 67ad both Peter and Paul will be martyred during his reign. PAULS THIRD MISSIONARY JOURNEY Acts 18:23ff After some time at Antioch, Paul, accompanied by Timothy and perhaps Titus, commenced his journey by re-visiting and teaching in the churches he had founded in Galatia and Phrygia, and also exhorted the members to assist those of their brethren in Judea who were poor, due to the severe famine (1Corinthians 16:1, 2). Eventually he arrived at Ephesus, which city then became the centre of his work for 3 years (Acts 20:31). APOLLOS It was while Paul was revisiting his churches in Galatia and Phrygia that a very learned man of the Scriptures arrived in Ephesus. He was Apollos, a cultured Alexandrian Jew. He had a most effective teaching ministry, but had not yet heard that the prophecies of John the Baptist he expounded so faithfully had already been fulfilled in Jesus. When Aquila and Priscilla heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the way of God more accurately. (Acts 18:24-26) Soon after this, Apollos felt led to minister in the province of Achaia in Greece, and he left Ephesus with letters from the church urging the brethren there to welcome him. The Corinthian church that Paul had planted was greatly encouraged by Apollos, for he vigorously refuted the Jews publicly, using his excellent knowledge of the Old Testament Scriptures to prove that Jesus was the Messiah, the Christ. (Acts 18:27-28; 1Corinthians 3:6) EPHESUS On the western shore of Asia Minor, Ephesus was one of the chief commercial cities of the Roman province of Asia. The city was located near the mouth of the Cayster River, on the Aegean Sea, but with erosion and silting the ruins are now nearly ten kilometres inland. The archaeological diggings at Ephesus are the largest in the world. It was one of the most beautiful cities in the region; its architecture was stunning; Pliny called Ephesus the Queen of Asia. A marble road called the Arcadian Way, lined with columns and originally with statues also, still connects the theatre to the ancient port. The theatre held 25,000 people. The facade of the library can still be seen; it held 200,000 volumes (200,000 hand written volumes). This was a fabulously wealthy city. The ancient culture of Ephesus was centred in the Satanic worship of the sex goddess Diana (Gk. Artemis); the temple being one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The remains of earlier temples have been found layered beneath; some scholars say the earliest is a temple to an ancient Hittite deity which would date the founding of Ephesus to 1400bc. At around 1100bc colonists from Athens settled in the region, after which time it began to be known as Ionia, and in the eighth century bc 12 major cities formed an exclusive religious league called the Panionion, Ephesus being one of them. In the sixth century bc, Croesus, the last king of Lydia captured Ephesus, but he in turn was defeated by Cyrus, the Persian. It was during the sixth century that the worship of the goddess Diana surfaced in their cultural traditions. In 412bc Ephesus sided with Sparta against Athens in the Peloponnesian War and served as a key naval base. In 333bc the Macedonian Alexander the Great took the city and after his death and the dividing of his Greek Empire between four of his generals, one of them, Lysimachus, eventually became master of Ephesus, and thus began its Hellenistic prosperity. Early in the second century bc, Ephesus sided with Antiochus III of Syria (from the line of another of Alexanders generals) against Rome, but Rome conquered the Greek Empire in 68bc and following years, and Ionia became the Roman province of Asia, and eventually Ephesus took over from Pergamos as its capital. PAUL IN EPHESUS With the Apostle Pauls arrival, a great spiritual awakening was about to rock this city, and its impact would be felt for centuries. The church Paul established in Ephesus was the outstanding church of the Apostolic period; it will exemplify the New Testament church, and they will be commended by the Lord for jealously guarding the truth. They will nevertheless be admonished for one thing when they receive their letter from the Lord in forty years time. In their zeal for doctrine they will forget the love they have for their Saviour. Upon his arrival, Paul found a group of the disciples of John the Baptist, whom he enlightened and rebaptised (Acts 19:1-7). He taught in the Synagogue for three months but at length when his message of the Way was spoken of as evil by the Jews he left there, and using as his venue the school of Tyrannus, taught daily for two years in between toiling at his tentmaker trade to provide for himself and his team. He became famous, his preaching known by virtually everyone throughout the province. (Acts 19:8-10, 20:34). BOOKS OF THE OCCULT BURNT The forces of evil were a real power here in Ephesus with the city given over to workers of the black art, and it took powerful preaching and extraordinary miracles to bring enlightenment to these people. Items of Pauls clothing taken to sufferers delivered those indwelt by demons and healed all manner of sickness and disease. Unbelievers who tried to imitate the power of Paul in using Jesus name came to grief against the power of Satan, Jesus I know, and Paul I know; but who are you? and their lot was injury and humiliation. This in itself was witness to the need of a personal relationship with the Lord of Glory. Fear fell on them all, and the name of the Lord Jesus was magnified. Then, many of those who had practised magic came together and publicly burned their books of the occult and confessed the error of their ways. Throughout this whole region that had been steeped in pagan error there was a mighty and comprehensive prevailing of the word of God. (Acts 19:11-20) ONESIMUS Bishop of Byzantium [54-68] who succeeded Stachys [see 38]. After his period in Byzantium, Onesimus is said to have followed as bishop in Ephesus. During the Domitian persecution he was taken to Rome and martyred. Because of the date of his reign this was not the Onesimus mentioned in Pauls epistle to Philemon. 55 1 CORINTHIANS The epistle was written by Paul during his time at Ephesus (1Corinthians 16:8-9) after having received a letter from them asking for answers to several questions (7:1), and also receiving word from the household of Chloe that there were contentions among them (1:11), as well as other reports of sexual immorality (5:1). The letter was entrusted to Timothy to deliver to the church in Greece and then he was to return (4:17, 16:11). Aquila and Priscilla were still in Ephesus when this letter was written 16:19. (Its of interest to note that in 5:9 Paul mentions another letter he had written to the Corinthians prior to this one.) 56 RIOT AT EPHESUS Demetrius, a silversmith who manufactured statues of Diana and could foresee the guilds businesses going broke instigated a riot during the great Panionia festival. The enraged mob dragged some of the believers to the huge theatre where they worked themselves into frenzy, chanting Great Diana of the Ephesians for 2 solid hours. Typical of any hysterical mob, half of them didnt know why they were there. When Paul found out what was happening, he was ready to join his brethren in the arena and risk his life with theirs but others of the church begged him and were able to prevent him from going. Eventually, the level headed chief magistrate restored order. (Acts 19:23-41) PAUL CONTINUES HIS THIRD MISSIONARY JOURNEY Paul recognised that it was time to move on, and immediately after the uproar he took leave of the brethren (Acts 20:1), then he and his team departed with two of the brethren from Ephesus, Tychicus and Trophimus (Acts 20:4). Pauls movements when he left Ephesus are very difficult to follow. We know from Acts and his own letters that on this third mission he went to Troas (2Corinthians 2:12-13), to Philippi (Acts 20:6), encouraged the brethren throughout the region of Macedonia (Acts 20:2); he went to Greece also (v2) even penetrating as far as the parts about Illyricum on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea (Romans 15:19), and visited Corinth for a third time 2Corinthians 13:1. When the second visit occurred is not stated but apparently it was a rather sorrowful time for Paul 2Corinthians 2:1. It is the sequence of events that is hard to determine. It seems likely that from Ephesus, Paul went first to Troas, but unable to find Titus in Troas who was to bring him news of the Corinthians he became more and more concerned about the effect his letter to them might have had, and finally, when the suspense became unbearable he decided to proceed to Macedonia, probably to Philippi (2Corinthians 2:12,13; Acts 20:1), where he was at last relieved by news from Titus of the Corinthian church (2Corinthians 7:6-8). 2 CORINTHIANS written by Paul from MACEDONIA as a result of the news from Titus. While Titus took this letter to Corinth (2Corinthians 8:6, 18), Paul continued his work for three months in Greece (Acts 20:2-3a) in the north including Illyricum (Romans 15:19), and with the approach of winter went south to Corinth (2Corinthians 13:1). THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS Paul wrote the letter to the Christians in Rome during his stay in CORINTH. Paul had been longing for many years to visit Rome, and tells them that when he has delivered the monetary gift to the saints in Jerusalem, he will see them on his way to Spain (15:23-26, 28). Note that Aquila and Priscilla were back in Rome when Paul wrote this letter (16:3). We know that Paul was in Corinth when he wrote Romans because he mentions Erastus in 16:23 as the treasurer of the city; that Corinth is that city is known from an inscription found in the ruins of Corinth in the stone pavement beside the theatre stating that it was laid by Erastus, the city treasurer, in appreciation of his election. 57 JEWS PLOT TO TAKE PAULS LIFE Pauls intention to sail to Syria (and go on to Jerusalem with the completed offering for the poor) was frustrated by a plot formed by the Jews against his life, and instead, he travelled back through Macedonia to Philippi. Here, he kept the feast of unleavened bread with Luke, while the rest of his team sailed to Troas. (Acts 20:3-6) After Unleavened Bread, they too set sail from Philippi, taking five days to reach Troas, where they joined the rest of the team, and stayed for 7 days (Acts 20:6). EUTYCHUS RESTORED TO LIFE IN TROAS Here, on Sunday (the last day of their stay), Paul preached in the upper room on the third floor very late into the night. Eutychus went to sleep during the message and fell from the window to the street below where he was miraculously raised from the dead by Paul. Amidst great joy they celebrated communion and Paul continued his message until dawn. (Acts 20:7-12) Paul then walked the 22 kilometres to meet his friends who had gone on ahead by ship around the cape at Assos, the seaport of Mysia, where he joined them onboard. They sailed to Miletus, briefly calling at Mitylene (the capital of the island of Lesbos) and the island of Samos en route. (Acts 20:13-15) AT MILETUS, Paul summoned the elders of Ephesus (which was 45 kilometres north), to take his leave of them and commend them to God. He reviewed the past three years, told them he felt compelled to go to Jerusalem, reminded them that he had taught them the whole realm of Bible doctrine, exhorted them to tend the flock committed to their charge, and amid tears farewelled them all. (Acts 20:17-38) From Miletus, they sailed first to Patara, where they changed ships, before sailing across the Mediterranean Sea, past the island of Cyprus, to Tyre (Acts 21:13). TYRE Phoenician city on the Mediterranean coast (north west of Galilee) in the province of Syria. First mentioned in Scripture as part of the inheritance of Asher (Joshua 19:29), Tyre was the city whose pride drew against itself some of the strongest prophetic denunciations in Scripture and whose king was used as a Type to describe Satan, in his unfallen state, his fall, and judgement (Ezekiel 28:12-19). Originally the city had two sections, one on the mainland and the other 800 metres offshore on an island, where the majority of the population lived behind heavy fortifications. In 332bc Alexander the Great conquered Tyre, first destroying the mainland section then used the rubble to build a huge causeway to the island (prophesied two and a half centuries earlier in Ezekiel 26:12, 27:27,32) which, over time has become a peninsular. By New Testament times Tyre had become an important centre once again. Our Lord withdrew to the region of Tyre and Sidon to seek seclusion for a time (Mark 7:24). Excavations in Lebanon have uncovered parts of the city of Greco-Roman and later times, but ancient Phoenician Tyre lies beneath the modern town of Sur (or Tyre), 19 kilometres north of the border with Israel. AT TYRE, Paul and his team found the Christians and were able to stay with them for seven days while the ships cargo was unloaded. On the day the ship was departing for Ptolemais, the entire church including the wives and children, accompanied them out of the city to the beach where they all knelt and prayed. (Acts 21:4-7) PTOLEMAIS was the ancient port city of Acco, which, before the time of Christ had been rebuilt and renamed. (In the thirteenth century, the Crusaders will call it Acre.) The travelling group stayed with the brethren in Ptolemais for a day and then set out on foot for Caesarea. (Acts 21:7-8) AT CAESAREA Paul and the team stayed many days in the home of Philip the Evangelist. Philip was one of the original seven deacons of the Jerusalem church who had taken the gospel to the Samaritans and the Ethiopian eunuch. It was here at Caesarea that the prophet AGABUS bound his own hands and feet with Paul's belt, signifying the forthcoming imprisonment of Paul, and Luke and the rest of the group pleaded with him not to go to Jerusalem. Paul however, with the team, set out by land in the company of some of the believers from Caesarea, as well as Mnason of Cyprus, with whom they were to lodge in Jerusalem. (Acts 21:8-16) PAULS ARREST IN JERUSALEM When the missionaries arrived in Jerusalem they were received by a full assembly of apostles and elders who encouraged Paul to take a Nazarite vow, which included a sacrifice in the Temple in order to placate the religious Jews and show himself as an observer of the Jewish law (Acts21:1725). Paul, having taken the vow was accused of defiling the holy place, which put the entire city in uproar. The riotous mob, who wrongly assumed he had taken Gentiles into the Temple were in the process of dragging Paul out in order to stone him, when he was rescued by Claudius Lysias, the commander of the Roman Guard who arrived with several Centurions and their troops. The violence of the mob was so extreme that the soldiers had to fight their way through to Paul whereupon he was arrested and carried to the Antonia Barracks. (Acts 21:26-34) On the stairway leading from the Court of the Gentiles to the barracks, Paul was allowed to address the people, who had quietened down until he mentioned Gentiles, the password for instant rage, at which point they screamed and tore their clothes and threw dust in the air (Acts 21:35-22:23). The next day, Claudius Lysias, in order to establish whether there was just cause for a charge to be made, commanded the chief priests and the Sanhedrin to appear and hear Paul, but when another fight broke out, this time over the resurrection of the dead, the commander, fearing lest Paul might be torn to pieces, had him removed (Acts 22:30-23:10). THE LORD JESUS CHRIST visited Paul on this night and stood by him, encouraged him and gave specific directions about going to Rome (Acts 23:11). CONSPIRACY A plot was formed by some of the Jews together with chief priests and the Sanhedrin to ambush and kill Paul, but thanks to his nephew it was uncovered, and Claudius Lysias sent him under heavy escort to the procurator, Felix, at Caesarea (Acts 23:1235). FELIX had been a slave, but was made a freedman, and then made procurator of Judea (52ad) because of the friendship between his brother Pallas and Emperor Claudius. He had been married to Antony and Cleopatras granddaughter, but at this time was married to a Jewess, Drusilla, sister of Herod Agrippa II, who at 16, had been seduced by Felix away from her husband, King Azizus of Emesa, Syria. Felix is said to have been a man of great cruelty and lust whose money hungry attitude offended everyone. His time as procurator was marked by unrest due mainly to his abuse of power, which finally led to his recall to Rome by Nero in the year 59 after Jewish complaints. It is not known what became of him after his brother Pallas (a favourite of Nero also) interceded on his behalf in Rome. PAULS TRIAL BEFORE FELIX; IMPRISONED IN CAESAREA FOR TWO YEARS Paul appeared before Felix in Caesarea and was accused by Ananias the high priest who had arrived from Jerusalem. The high priests entourage included the professional orator and lawyer, Tertullus. The charges brought against Paul were treason, heresy, and desecration of the Temple. After hearing Pauls defence Felix deferred sentence at this time, and in fact he kept putting it off, hoping for a bribe. Paul was kept imprisoned in Caesarea for 2 years and was often sent for to converse with Felix. Once, a few days after Paul had first arrived, when Felix came with his wife Drusilla also, he was sent for to speak to them concerning the faith in Christ, and Felix was convicted but it seems his love of money meant more than eternal life. (Acts 24:1-27) 58 MATTHEW The gospel account written by Matthew, who was a tax-collector, disciple of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one of the twelve apostles. Matthew's Jewish name is Levi, and his gospel is presented in a very Jewish way. There are many, many references to the Old Testament in Matthew's Gospel. Jesus is presented as the Mashiach Nagid (Messiah the King), the Son of David, the Son of Abraham; He is the fulfilment, the realisation of the Jewish hope. The very long discourses from our Lord that are in the Gospel would suggest that Matthew took shorthand, which was indeed a job requirement of Roman custom's officials. The order in which the gospels appear in the New Testament has been accepted throughout church history as the order in which they were written. 59 MARK The gospel account written by John Mark and, by its content, indicates a close association with Peter. According to the early church fathers, it reflects Peters view of Christ. It is also believed that Mark wrote his Gospel from Rome, for the Romans. The Gospel of Mark presents Christ as the Suffering Servant of God. From Eusebius we learn that Mark was the first to take the gospel to Egypt where he founded a church in Alexandria. PORCIUS FESTUS sent by Nero in the year 59 to succeed Felix as procurator of Judea until 61. Though Festus was disposed to act in a righteous manner, he found it impossible to undo the harmful acts of his predecessor. After barely two years he died in Judea and was succeeded by two procurators (Albinus and after him, Gessius Florus) who did all in their power to intensify the bitter conflict which inevitably ended in the siege and destruction of Jerusalem. Festus travelled from Caesarea to Jerusalem on the third day after arriving from Rome, where he rejected the favour asked of him by the high priest and other prominent Jews to summon Paul there to answer charges, and he told them to bring their accusations to Caesarea. Their intention had been to try yet again to kill Paul by ambush. (Acts 25:1-5) PAULS TRIAL BEFORE FESTUS Many serious charges were laid against Paul by the high priest and his associates (though none could be proved), along with their advice as to his sentencing: he was not fit to live (v24). Paul spoke in his own defence as he had also done 2 years previously. His Roman judges were disposed to let him go free, but the Jews objected (Acts 28:17-19). When Festus asked if he would be willing to be tried in Jerusalem, Paul said he was willing to face the death penalty if he had done anything worthy of death, but would rather be tried where he would receive justice since he was guilty of no crime against his accusers, and he exercised the right of a Roman citizen charged with a capital offence I appeal to Caesar, which then left no other option possible (Acts 25:612). The case was not as Festus had expected; the charges were to do with the Jewish religion, and he, not having an understanding of it, or of Jesus or the resurrection, was unsure of what to write to Emperor Nero. Being in a quandary since no real charges existed, he asked Agrippa for help. Agrippa had arrived in Caesarea with his other sister, Bernice, to welcome the new procurator. (Acts 25:13-22) PAUL BEFORE AGRIPPA II Having appealed from the tribunal of Festus to that of the emperor of Rome, no decision could now be made regarding the case; Paul would without question go to Rome. Nevertheless, a great show of Roman pomp and power was put on display before King Agrippa and Bernice, and then Paul was brought in to testify, during which time he also took the opportunity to preach the gospel message before the assembled dignitaries of government officials, military officers and members of the city council (Acts 25:23-26:32). LUKE The gospel written by Luke, more than likely while Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea, and when Luke had time to travel around and interview the many eyewitnesses of his account. Luke presents Christ as the "Son of man", emphasising His perfect humanity, and in the last chapter he sets the stage for the sequel. Acts is the fulfilment of the promise of the coming of the Holy Spirit in Luke 24:29. PAUL SENT TO ROME Paul set sail from CAESAREA in a ship of Adramyttium, a seaport of Mysia, in the charge of Julius, a centurion of the Augustine cohort, who had other prisoners to escort to Rome as well as the Apostle. Luke was aboard the ship, and Aristarchus also who was from Thessalonica. (Acts 27:1-2; 19:29; 21:4) The ship called into SIDON, probably for the purpose of trade, where Paul was received on shore by friends before it sailed north west, past the island of Cyprus and on to MYRA, a flourishing seaport of Lycia (on the southwest shore of Asia Minor). Here the centurion found an Alexandrian grain ship bound for Italy onto which Paul and the others were transferred. Due to unfavourable winds it was only after many days of difficult sailing along the coast of the province of Asia that they arrived off the port of Cnidus, but unable to make any further progress the vessel was driven southwards to Salmone the eastern promontory of the island of Crete. (Acts 27:3-7) Following the islands southern coast, they sailed into FAIR HAVENS, Cretes harbour, where Paul suggested they should winter, but he was overruled and it was decided to continue to Crete's port of PHOENIX, the town of palms. After days of waiting for lighter winds, they weighed anchor and sailed close along the coastline of Crete but were caught by violent winds beating down from the heights of Mount Ida, and unable to control the ship they were helplessly driven out into the open sea. (Acts 27:8-15) The bad weather continued, forcing them to make a series of attempts to lighten the vessel but to no avail, and after many days of raging storm, with neither sun nor stars, all gave up hope except Paul. He was visited by an angel of the Lord during the night and immediately passed on to them all, both the encouragement and the prophecy that although they would run aground on an island, no lives would be lost. (Acts 27:16-44) MALTA They were shipwrecked on the island of Malta (95 kilometres south of Sicily), where they were well received by the inhabitants, but when Paul was bitten by a viper, they considered him to be a murderer getting his just deserts, and then changed their minds when he was found to be unharmed and believed him to be a god. When Paul miraculously healed the father of Publius, the chief Roman officer on Malta, the rest of those on the island who had diseases also came and were healed. (Acts 28:1-9) (Christianity in Malta is dated to this time, and the traditional site of the shipwreck is called St Pauls Bay.) 60 PAUL CONTINUES TO ROME They stayed three months on Malta before sailing to the Sicilian port of SYRACUSE on another Alexandrian ship, Castor and Pollox, which had wintered at the island. After spending 3 days at Syracuse, they sailed to the port of REGIUM (on the toe of the boot which is Italy) for a one-day stopover, before sailing on to PUTEOLLI (the modern city of Pozzuoli) in the bay of Naples, the normal harbour for Alexandrian grain fleets, where Paul and his team stayed with Christians for one week. (Acts 28:11-14) Paul, his team, and their Roman escorts, completed the journey to Rome on foot, travelling 210 kilometres along the Appian Way, the Roman Highway built 370 years before this time. Proceeding to APPII FORUM, a town at the 43rd milestone from Rome (seventy kilometres), Paul received great comfort from a group of Christians (no doubt the recipients of his letter sent from Corinth) who had travelled from Rome to welcome him. Fifteen kilometres further on, a second group joined them at the THREE TAVERNS. (Acts 28:15) PAUL REACHES ROME AT LONG LAST He and the other prisoners were handed over by Julius to the prefect of the praetorian guard, although Paul was permitted to have his own rented accommodation and dwell by himself with the soldier who guarded him (Acts 28:16,30). PAULS FIRST ROMAN IMPRISONMENT 60 to 62ad For the duration of two years Paul was under house arrest and chained to a Roman soldier but he was allowed the freedom of speaking about the Lord Jesus Christ to all who came to see him, and of writing the four letters we refer to as the Prison Epistles (Acts 28:30-31). Luke and Timothy were both with Paul during this time (Philemon 1:1; Colossians 1:1; Philippians 1:1). PHILEMON the prison epistle written by Pauls own hand to Philemon, a Christian slave owner and fellow-worker of Pauls who resided in Colossae, which was situated near the Lycus river, in the Roman province of Asia. Paul was in high expectation of being released and able to visit Colossae, and asked Philemon to prepare a guest room for me Philemon 22. COLOSSIANS the prison epistle from Paul to the church at Colossae, and taken there by Tychicus at the same time as the letter to Philemon. Onesimus, the runaway slave, who had been converted by Paul, accompanied Tychicus back to Colossae (Colossians 4:9.) This letter to the Colossians was to be afterward read in the church of Laodicea and likewise their letter read in Colossae (Colossians 4:16). EPHESIANS the manual for Church Age living on how to walk the Christian life, written by Paul while in chains in Rome, and Tychicus again was the bearer of the letter (Ephesians 6:20-22). Dr. John McEwan, dean of EBCWA, says, There was a group of churches in Asia Minor in a circuit from Ephesus to Laodicea as stated in the book of the Revelation, and it was to these which the letters were probably circulated. 61 70 ad 61 PHILIPPIANS written by Paul toward the end of his first imprisonment when he was expecting to be soon released and able to visit the church at Philippi (Philippians 1:25-26, 2:23-24). Epaphroditus, who had arrived in Rome from Philippi with generous gifts for Paul from the church, became seriously ill to the point of death, and then when recovered enough to return, Paul sent this letter of thanks back with him (Philippians 4:18, 2:25-27). ACTS written by Luke, and finalised while in Rome when Paul was there awaiting trial. It was for the same person of high rank who was the recipient of his gospel account, Theophilus. Acts is a continuation from Lukes Gospel of historical events as they unfolded up until the end of Pauls two year imprisonment. Some scholars believe that Lukes Gospel and Acts may have been a compilation of trial documents to support Paul in his appeal to Rome. ALBINUS made procurator of Judea by Nero until 64ad. ANIANUS Patriarch of Alexandria [61-82] (see 43 and 83). Anianus was a countryman of Mark and is said to have attracted many Jews and Greeks to Christianity. MARTYRDOM OF THE LORDS HALF BROTHER, JAMES Josephus records that the Jewish high priest Ananias thought he had a good opportunity; Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the Sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus (who was called Christ), whose name was James, and some others, and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned. There was such an outcry from the Jerusalem community in general over this breach of the law and murder of a man considered just by all, that Agrippa stripped Ananias of the high priesthood, for Rome alone had jurisdiction over capital crime. Eusebius quotes the church historian Hegesippus, a converted Jew, whom he said lived nearest the days of the apostles, saying, He (James) was in the habit of entering the temple alone and was often found upon his bended knees, and interceding for the forgiveness of the people; so that his knees became as hard as camels, in consequence of his habitual supplication and kneeling before God. 62 PAULS FURTHER TRAVELS The information as to where Paul journeyed after his release from his first imprisonment is gleaned from his epistles, but the order in which he visited these places and where he was again arrested is uncertain. PAULS POSSIBLE VISIT TO SPAIN Romans 15:2428. It was Paul's intention to visit Spain, and if he ultimately carried out his desire, it would have been some time after his release from prison. At the end of the first century, the Christian writer, Clement, who was bishop of Rome, stated that Paul reached to "the extreme limit of the West", and this to the Romans, was Spain. SIMEON I Primate of Jerusalem [62-99]. After the death of James the Christians elected Simeon to take his place. During the reign of Emperor Trajan, it was reported to the Roman governor Atticus that Simeon was of the lineage of HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/David" \o "David" King David and that he confessed the Christian Faith. The pagans seized him and after prolonged torture, crucified him. 63 PAUL AGAIN IN MACEDONIA It is clear that Paul visited Macedonia more than once; Scripture seems to indicate three visits. Luke records the first (around 49ad) when he and Timothy and Silas were with Paul (Acts 16:12-17:14), and there is a second visit (around 56ad) after the uproar at Ephesus when again Luke, Timothy and others are with Paul (Acts 20:1-6), and then Paul himself mentions another visit when Timothy was not with him. This is in 1Timothy 1:3 where he says As I urged you when I went into Macedonia remain in Ephesus, and Paul hoped to join him there, These things I write to you, though I hope to come to you shortly (3:14). 1 TIMOTHY Macedonia is the most likely place from where Paul wrote this letter to Timothy. It is known as a Pastoral Epistle, along with 2Timothy and Titus. 1 PETER Peters letter was written from Babylon, which name he may have used symbolically of Rome, although there are good scholars who believe Peter did in fact write from Babylon, Mesopotamia. The letter was sent to the Christians of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia; all were Roman Provinces in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), and Peter sent greetings to them from She (the church) who is in Babylon, and from John Mark also (5:13), who was with him. Silvanus (Silas) was also with Peter and was his scribe for this letter (5:12). 64 PAULS TRIP TO CRETE When Paul wrote to Titus and said, I left you in Crete, it must have been a visit to that island other than when sheltering in its harbour, Fair Havens, during the voyage to Rome and when he was shipwrecked on Malta. During that voyage Paul was a prisoner of Rome, and Luke makes no mention of any activity on Crete itself (Acts 27:7-13) or of Titus being with them, saying only that Aristarchus, a Macedonian of Thessalonica was with us 27:2. Titus 1:5 is another verse whereby we know that Paul had two Roman imprisonments, and visited Crete with Titus after being released from the first. TITUS the pastoral letter written by Paul from somewhere near the town of Nicopolis on the west coast of Greece, where Paul planned to spend the winter, and sent to Titus, whom he had left on Crete to pastor the churches and appoint elders. (Titus 3:12, 1:5) PAUL INSTRUCTS TITUS TO JOIN HIM AT NICOPOLIS as soon as the relief pastor arrived on Crete (Titus 3:12). After this, Titus also ministered in the Roman province of Dalmatia (2Timothy 4:10), a region close to Illyricum, where Paul had been years before (Romans 15:19). These regions are now a part of Yugoslavia and Albania. Today, the name of Titus is still honoured in many villages, churches, and monasteries on Crete. NERO BLAMES CHRISTIANS FOR THE GREAT FIRE OF ROME 64ad. The Roman historian Tacitus, who was born during Neros reign, wrote in The Annals of Imperial Rome, that rumours persisted that Nero had set the city alight himself in order to fulfill an ambition to found a new city called after himself, and to suppress this rumour, Nero fabricated scapegoats and charged the Christians. Judaism had long since been ruled a legal religion by Rome and Christians had been protected under that umbrella, but it all changed from the time of the fire. Rome now became more and more conscious that Christianity was distinct from Judaism. Although the major pressure of this persecution was restricted to the environs of Rome, Neros torture and execution of believers was terrible. Tacitus said that large numbers of Christians were condemned Dressed in wild animals skins, they were torn to pieces by dogs, or crucified, or made into torches to be ignited after dark as substitutes for daylight. Nero provided his Gardens for the spectacle, and exhibited displays in the Circus, at which he mingled with the crowd or stood in a chariot, dressed as a charioteer. GESSIUS FLORUS made procurator of Judea by Nero until 66ad; he was incompetent and anti-Semitic. Josephus records great cruelties and crimes against the Jews by this man, and says he was no way different from him (Nero) in wickedness, then after descriptions of his corrupt rule and cruel oppression, says And what need I say any more upon this head? since it was this Florus who necessitated us to take up arms against the Romans It is noted in Encyclopaedia Britannica that Florus, the heir to a long tradition of hostility between the large Hellenized populations of Palestine and the Jews, allowed the Greek population of Caesarea Maritima to massacre the Jews of that city with impunity. Greeks in other towns of Palestine repeated the assault. In turn, the Jews responded by slaughtering Gentiles in Samaria, Galilee, and elsewhere. Soon Florus lost control of the situation. 65 HEBREWS Written to Jewish believers when the sacrificial system was still operating in the Temple (Hebrews 8:4, 5; 10:8, 11). The writer exhorts and encourages his Jewish brethren in Christ to recognise and hold fast to the indisputable reality of the superiority, and finality, of the New over the Old; of the pre-eminence of Jesus, the Christ, the eternal high priest. Note that in verse 23 of chapter 13, the writer tells the recipients that Timothy had just been released from an imprisonment and he hoped to visit them with him. The letter seems to have been written from Italy (13:24). 66 JEWISH REVOLT AGAINST ROME COMMENCES In Jerusalem, angry Jews set palaces and public buildings ablaze, as well as the high priests house, then made an assault on Antonia Barracks and slew the garrison after a two-day siege. The Jewish Zealots took the Romans by surprise at Masada and captured the fortress which became their last stronghold and was overthrown in 73ad. Cestius Gallus who was the Roman legate of Syria came to the aid of Gessius Florus and marched on Jerusalem with his army and attacked the city, but when it seemed that he would have the victory, and for no apparent reason, he withdrew, which then became full-scale retreat, and he was pursued by the Jews all the way to Antipatris. ANTIPATRIS The town built by Herod the Great and named for his father Antipater. It was about 47 kilometres north west of Jerusalem, and is mentioned in Acts 23:31 as the place from where Paul (under Roman escort), continued with the horsemen to Caesarea. ALL OUT WAR AGAINST THE JEWS BEGINS In the year 66, the Roman general Vespasian mustered the army (the Fifth, Tenth, and Fifteenth Legions) in Syria, and beginning his campaign in the north, moved slowly but surely toward Jerusalem, securing and fortifying as he conquered. MARCUS ANTONIUS JULIANUS made procurator of Judea until 70ad. 67 LINUS bishop of Rome [6776ad]. It wasnt until the end of the second century that lists of bishops began to be made. Irenaeus, one of the church fathers, lists Linus as the first bishop of Rome and that he was the Linus mentioned by Paul in his last letter to Timothy (2Timothy 4:21). According to tradition it was Linus who ruled that all women in the church must have their heads covered when they enter a church. He was succeeded by Cletus [see 76]. PAUL TAKEN TO ROME AND IMPRISONED By the end of the year 67 Paul had been arrested and was back in Rome and in prison again, and this time, due to the persecution of Christians by Nero, which began in 64, he knew he would not be leaving; the time of my departure is at hand he wrote to Timothy in verse 6 of chapter 4 in the second letter. 2 TIMOTHY The final words of the Apostle Paul. It is a pastoral letter to Timothy, and in it Paul attacks the errors of heretics and warns about apostates. Also in the letter he asks for his coat and parchments and for Timothy and John Marks company. Only Pauls Beloved physician Luke is still with him (4:11-13). Tychicus was sent (probably with the letter) to Ephesus (4:12), where Timothy was pastor (1Timothy 1:3), and we do not know whether there was time for Mark and him to arrive before Pauls death. Note that Aquila and Priscilla are once again in Ephesus (4:19). 2 PETER written by the Apostle Peter to the same recipients of his first letter (2Peter 3:1) the Christians in Asia Minor of the Roman provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, with warnings about false teachers, denunciating their heresy, and commending the flock to the deep teaching of our beloved brother Paul. The letter was written from Rome where he, like the Apostle Paul, was awaiting martyrdom (2Peter 1:14-15). JUDE written by the half-brother of our Lord Jesus Christ, to the churches in Israel (who knew James vs1), and the purpose is to encourage and warn them to hold firm against the attack of false teachers. MARTYRDOM OF PAUL According to tradition he was beheaded just outside Rome on the Ostian Road. MARTYRDOM OF PETER Tradition also records that the Apostle Peter was crucified upside down in Rome where he was made to witness the death of his wife just prior to his own death. Dr. John McEwan, quoting the early Christian historian Heggesippus, says that Peter encouraged her to keep her eyes on the Lord throughout her ordeal. 68 DEATH OF NERO In 68ad Nero fled Rome and committed suicide after his world collapsed: the Senate condemned him, the legions in Spain made their general Galba emperor, and both the Praetorian Guard and Palace Guard abandoned him. THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM By 68ad, the mountains and plains surrounding Jerusalem had been secured by Vespasian, and the inhabitants of the city could neither come nor go. When about to march from Ceasarea on Jerusalem itself, Vespasian received news of Neros death and that General Galba had been made emperor, whereupon he bided his time to see how affairs went in Rome before continuing his campaign. THE BREAK IN THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM While this pause in fighting seems surprising to secular historians, it was fulfilment of prophecy, which allowed the Christians in Jerusalem to escape to Pella across the Jordan because they heeded the warning of Luke 21:20-21. The prophecy will be fulfilled fully during The Tribulation. GALBA Roman emperor [6869ad]. Galba was appointed by the Senate when the JulioClaudian line became extinct with the death of Nero. He attempted to counteract errors from the reign of Nero but was slain in the Forum, along with Piso whom he had adopted as heir to the empire, by Praetorian Guards after ruling a little over 7 months. IGNATIUS I Primate of Antioch [68-100] see also 53 and 100. 69 OTHO and VITELLIUS Roman emperors in 69ad amid turmoil in Rome. Otho was emperor for 3 months and Vitellius, a little over 8 months. This was Aulus Vitellius, who when legate of Syria had ordered Pontius Pilate to Rome. POLYCARPUS I Bishop of Byzantium [69-89] succeeded Onesimus [see 54]. The last eight years of his bishopric was when the Christians were being persecuted during the reign of Emperor Domitian [see 81]. VESPASIAN Roman emperor [6979ad]. General Vespasian, having received the news of Galbas death, followed quickly by the deaths also of Otho and Vitellius, returned to the capital having been declared emperor by the armies in the east, and assumed power, bringing to an end a year of anarchy in Rome. He left the siege of Jerusalem to his son Titus. 70 DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM in August 70ad by Titus and four legions. (Along with his fathers three, he was allotted the Twelfth Legion from Syria.) Jewish historian, Josephus, witnessed and recorded in detail the horrors of the siege of Jerusalem, the early stages of which he says, internal feuds contributed to as many deaths as the siege itself, and the only point of agreement between the three factions was the plundering and killing of all who were for peace with the Romans. Josephus was used by Titus throughout the siege to ride to the walls and plead with his countrymen to surrender but to no avail. Hundreds of thousands perished; the city overflowing with Jewish worshippers who had gathered from afar for the Feast of Unleavened Bread and had been trapped by the advancing army. The entire city, including the Temple, was levelled and set ablaze, except for Herods three towers and a section of the Western Wall for protection of the garrison, the Tenth Legion. Of the Jews that survived Titus kept the finest looking for his triumphal march in Rome, and those under 17 were sold as slaves; a great number were sent to the capital and the provinces as sport for the amphitheatres, and he gave orders to slay those who had held arms as well as the aged and infirm. Of interest are the words of Josephus in the record of his own life, that when Titus had taken the city of Jerusalem and given him leave to take whatever he wanted, he made the request to Titus that his family might have liberty: and then stated, I had also the holy books by Tituss concession. He wrote also in The Wars of the Jews that after the triumphal celebrations of Vespasian and Titus, upon the latters return to Rome after the conquest, that Vespasian built a temple, which was adorned with vast quantities of trophies from various exploits; he also laid up therein, as ensigns of his glory, those golden vessels and instruments that were taken out of the Jewish temple. But still he gave order that they should lay up their law, and the purple veils of the holy places, in the royal palace itself, and keep them there. Later, in 455 when the Vandals sacked Rome they carried their booty off, including the Temple treasures, to the area of southern France and Spain. SEARCH FOR THE ROYAL LINE OF DAVID From Eusebius we learn It was also said that Vespasian, after the capture of Jerusalem, commanded all of the family of David to be sought, that no one might be left among the Jews who was of royal stock, and that in consequence another very violent persecution was raised against the Jews. His son Domitian also carried out this search when he became emperor. LUCILIUS BASSUS made legate of Judea by Vespasian. According to Josephus, Bassus received the army in Judea from CEREALIS VITELLIUS. After the destruction of Jerusalem the senior governmental official of Judea now had the rank of legate, and under Bassus, LIBERIUS MAXIMUS was procurator. SPIRITUAL LEADERSHIP OF THE CHURCH The spiritual leadership of the church did not come out of Jerusalem for long, it changed to Antioch very early where Paul was based, and then moved to Ephesus. It stayed in Ephesus until the Apostle John died who had moved there and after Ephesus it moved to Rome. Dr. J. McEwan writes, Between the days that the synoptic writers put down their pen and the days that John wrote, everything had changed; Israel was no more, the Temple was gone, the Roman Empire had ceased to be benevolent to the church and had started to persecute the believers, and there were Satanic heresies active that needed to be dealt with authoritatively. John was the only one positioned to meet these challenges. 71 80 ad 71 72 FLAVIUS SILVA made legate of Judea by Vespasian until 75ad. According to Josephus, When Silva saw that all the rest of the country was subdued in this war, and that there was only one stronghold still in rebellion, he got all his army together that lay in different places, and made an expedition against it. This fortress was called Masada. 73 FALL OF THE FORTRESS OF MASADA Situated on the western shore of the Dead Sea, the 1,424 feet high rock fortress had an 18 acre flat top, with sheer cliffs on all sides. Jewish Zealots had been under siege there for almost two years while the Roman soldiers and Jewish slaves built a rock and earth ramp in order to breach the wall with catapults and a battering ram. When successful, Silva and his soldiers found 960 men, women, and children, slain in mass suicide inside the palace which had been built originally by Herod the Great. Hiding themselves in a cavern, two women and 5 children survived to tell the Romans their story. 74 75 M.SALVIENUS made legate of Judea by Vespasian until 86ad. 76 CLETUS Bishop of Rome [7691ad]. Variously known in tradition as Anacletus or Anencletus. Eusebius, using a list drawn up at the end of the second century, records that the first bishop Linus transferred the office to Anencletus. Cletus is thought to have been martyred during the persecution of Domitian. He succeeded Linus [see 67] and was succeeded by Clement I [see 91] 77 78 79 TITUS Roman emperor [7981ad]; succeeded his father Vespasian. Titus was the Roman general who conquered Jerusalem in 70ad, and an arch was built in 81 at the entrance to the Forum in Rome to commemorate the victory. Titus completed the building of the Colosseum known then as the Flavian Amphitheatre which was begun by Vespasian. Both the Arch of Titus and the Colosseum are still standing. During the first year of the reign of Titus, the eruption of Vesuvius buried the city of Pompeii and ended the Herodian line with the death of Drusilla and her son Agrippa by Felix. Pliny the Elder also died in the eruption. Pliny was in command of the Roman fleet at the time, landing at the port of Castellammare on the Bay of Naples for a closer look. He is known for his 37-volume encyclopaedia of Natural History but it is his nephew, Pliny the Younger, who is of particular interest to early church history [see 110]. 80 81 90 ad 81 DOMITIAN Roman emperor [8196ad]; succeeded his older brother Titus, and instituted the first of ten great persecutions to come upon the church (see 93). The years 93-96 of his reign were regarded as a period of terror hitherto unsurpassed. After failures in military campaigns Domitian became insane, announcing his own deification and demanding his subjects treat him like a god. Initially his rule had been benevolent but it deteriorated into despotism with his claim of the title "dominus et deus" or lord and god, and his insistence on being addressed as such offended everyone. This eventually led to his assassination in a palace conspiracy, much to the relief of the Senate. 82 83 AVILIUS Patriarch of Alexandria [83-95] see 61 and 96. He is said to have been diligent in working for the spreading of the Gospel to native Egyptians. 84 85 86 87 88 89 PLUTARCH Bishop of Byzantium [89-105] who succeeded Polycarpus I [see 69]. The persecution of Christians by Marcus Traianus governor of Anatolia and father of Emperor Trajan took place during his bishopric. He is buried with his predecessors in the church of Argyroupolis. 90 EPICTETUS [50130] Stoic philosopher who was born a slave but was permitted to sit under Rufus, a teacher of stoicism, and later was given his freedom. As a young teacher in Rome, he met with some success until expelled by Domitian [see 81] about 90 A.D. He wrote nothing himself but some of his lectures were taken down by a disciple and later published. While his concept of God is more aligned to the position of Christian theology than in stoic pantheism his messages reveal only one reference to the Christians. There are however close similarities in statements relating to morality. GOSPEL OF JOHN written around 90ad by the Apostle John, the son of Zebedee. In John's Gospel, Jesus Christ is presented as the Son of God; the emphasis is on His Deity. The gospel and his three letters were penned in Ephesus where he spent the latter years of his life, from 70 to 96ad (except for his time on Patmos), and where the centre of Christianity was from half way through the first century. Dr. John McEwan writes that the oldest existing fragment of the New Testament we have is a papyrus fragment from 130 -140 ad, and is from John 14. 91 96 ad 91 CLEMENT I Bishop of Rome [91100ad]; the apostolic father to whom the church looked for spiritual leadership with the death of the last apostle in the year 98. The early church fathers said that he was the Clement of Philippians 4:3. Clement wrote a letter to the Corinthians (held in the British Museum today) about a schism that had erupted in the church when young members deposed older men from the ministry. The letter opposed this removal from office, and discussed the conferring of offices for the ministry, asserting that it was established by the apostles and therefore the will of God. Clement may have been exiled to the Crimea; he was martyred in the year 100 during the reign of Trajan. He succeeded Cletus [see 76] and was succeeded by Evaristus [see 100]. GLABRIO, MANUS ACILIUS A consul in 91 who was ordered by Emperor Domitian to fight with the lions in the amphitheatre at Albano and having emerged successfully from this conflict he was finally put to death. His exclusion may have been part of Domitians general persecution against people of senatorial rank who he suspected of conspiring against him but the presence of his family crypt in the cemetery of Priscilla, an early Christian burial place on the Via Salaria, suggested he may have been put to death as a Christian. 92 1, 2 and 3 JOHN written by the Apostle John, in Ephesus. 1JOHN was probably written for the churches of Asia Minor that have special mention in chapters two and three of Revelation; it was in response to a heresy threatening the church which denied the humanity of Jesus Christ. 2JOHN is addressed to The elect lady, who is believed by some to have been an individual lady, but most scholars believe John was referring to a local church; the letter emphasises the menace of false teaching. 3JOHN was written to his friend Gaius; beware of false brethren. 93 PERSECUTION UNDER DOMITIAN With extreme cruelty Domitian persecuted Christians (and Jews), slaying them and confiscating their property for refusing to give him divine honours. It was during this persecution that the Apostle John was banished to the island of Patmos. According to Eusebius, Domitian established himself as the successor of Nero in his hatred and hostility to God. Although Nero had persecuted the Christians in Rome, some scholars consider the persecution of Domitians to be the first of ten great persecutions to come upon the church as prophesied in Revelation 2:10. Indeed the list of 10 emperors who carried out the 10 persecutions varies with different scholars, and are from the following fourteen: Nero [54-68], Domitian [81-96], Trajan [98-117], Hadrian [117-138], Antoninus Pius [138-161], Marcus Aurelius [161-180], Commodus [180-192], Severus [193-211], Maximinus [235-238], Decius* [249-251], Gallus [251-253], Valerian [253-260], Aurelian [270-275], Diocletian* [284-305]. (*These persecutions were the only two to extend over the entire empire.) It is thought by some that the 10 persecutions were 10 periods of persecutions which at times overlapped and were continued in the reigns of succeeding emperors. Eusebius writes that Domitian issued orders (as did his father Vespasian), that the descendants of David should be slain, and he records the story from Hegesippus, telling of two grandchildren of our Lords half-brother Jude being brought before Domitian. They were questioned as to their connection to the lineage of David and what property and money they owned, but were dismissed when it was established that they were no threat and in fact poor farmers with no money as such, owning only 39 acres of land worth 9,000 denarii (about $1,350). 94 DONATELLA FLAVIA Roman noble and Christian. She was married to Titus Flavius Clemens, a first cousin of Emperor Domitian. Her grandmother and mother were the wife and daughter of Emperor Vespasian. According to some early historians her husband was also a Christian. Possibly for the confession of Christianity, Clemens was put to death and Donatella banished to the island of Pandateria. Property of Donatella Flavia was used from the first century onward as a Christian cemetery. 95 96 THE REVELATION written on the island of Patmos (Revelation 1:9) by the Apostle John. With the writing of this book we have the completion of The Bible. DATE OF WRITING It has been handed down by tradition that it was during the persecution raised by Domitian that the Apostle John was exiled for the faith to the island of Patmos. To prove that it was during Domitians reign, Eusebius uses a quote from Irenaeus which links the Apostle John with that period. If, however, it were necessary to proclaim his name (i.e. Antichrist) openly at the present time, it would have been declared by him who saw the revelation, for it is not long since it (the revelation) was seen, but almost in our own generation, at the close of Domitians reign. (Irenaeus was a second century church father, a student of Polycarp, and Polycarp was the friend of the Apostle John.) PATMOS A small island in the Aegean Sea which belongs to either Greece or Turkey (still in dispute) and is 55km off the coast of Turkey. The Romans used it as a place of banishment and exile. On Patmos, John was about 90 km south west of Ephesus. The island is 16km long and consists of rocky volcanic hills and has numerous springs. It had been depopulated by pirate raids, but in 1088 Patmos was granted to an abbot who founded a monastery there. Today there are about 2,500 people who live in the main town, Patmos, and in the village of Skala. NERVA Roman emperor [9698ad], elected by the Senate after the assassination of Domitian. A number of elder statesmen emerged from retirement to help him govern the empire. Nerva gave respite to the Christians, but his reign was short, lasting only 16 months; he was at least 66 years of age when he became emperor. Eusebius quotes Tertullian, saying "When Nerva succeeded to the government, the Roman senate decreed that the honours of Domitian should be revoked, and that those who had been unjustly expelled, should return to their homes, and have their goods restored, and It was then that John returned from his banishment in Patmos, and took up his abode at Ephesus. And according to Irenaeus, John continued to abide until the times of Trajan. CERINTHUS Heretical Gnostic teacher in Asia Minor who was educated in Egypt. Cerinthus was a contemporary of the Apostle John. Irenaeus writes of Polycarp telling a story about John, the Son of Thunder: the story goes that when he was about to enter the baths at Ephesus he quickly departed upon seeing the Gnostic, Cerinthus within. Lets flee! John said, Lest the bath should fall in on Cerinthus, that enemy of truth. Cerinthus taught that an inferior angel had created the world and was holding it in bondage; the Supreme God chose Jesus who was a normal man the son of Joseph and Mary to release the world from its captivity; to carry out that work the Christ descended on Jesus at his baptism in the form of a dove but departed before his crucifixion. RISE OF THE GNOSTICS Gnostics is the name given (by modern scholars) to the false teachers who claimed to be in possession of superior knowledge (Gk. gnosis) about the spiritual world, over and above that which had been revealed to the inspired writers of the Scriptures. These false teachers appeared in the church virtually from the beginning, their heresies being refuted in the later books of the New Testament canon (Colossians, Gospel of John, First and Second John). According to Irenaeus and Hippolytus, it was the Samaritan Simon Magus of Acts 8 who was the originator of this particular false teaching. Toward the end of the first century he was followed by Menander another Samaritan who taught at Antioch, and Cerinthus (mentioned above) who taught in Asia Minor. Various types of Gnosticism came into existence as the ideology developed, and each was fashionable for a time. Early Gnostics targeted the true humanity of our Lord Jesus Christ; there were those who said that He didnt have a real body, only the appearance of one, and there were others who separated the Christ from the man Jesus (as did Cerinthus); a little later the Gnostics targeted His deity. As new false teaching surfaced, the early church fathers took up the gauntlet, published their refutations, and the faithful were successfully armed against this Satanic attack. JOHN DIES IN EPHESUS John died of old age in the first few years of Trajans reign and was buried in Ephesus. The tombs John, Mary (Jesus' mother), and Timothy are in Ephesus. KEDRON Patriarch of Alexandria [96-106] see 83 and 106. He governed the Church of Alexandria during the reign of the Emperor Traianos. SPIRITUAL LEADERSHIP MOVES TO ROME After the death of the Apostle John in Ephesus, the centre of Christianity moved west as the church looked to Clement, bishop of Rome, for spiritual leadership. Dr. John McEwan says of Clement, He was clearly a godly and biblically sound man. THE CHURCH OF EPHESUS 40 years after their founding they received a letter from the Lord Jesus Christ in the book of Revelation, a letter that was apropos for the local church of Ephesus, as well as the church historically at this time. Fitting too for this period is the name of this church; Ephesus means desired one; it is a term of endearment equivalent to darling or dearest; the churches generally during the whole of this apostolic period had endeared themselves to the Lord for their vigilance in digging out heresy and adhering to sound doctrine. Consistent with this is the name Jesus Christ chose to reveal Himself to them: He that holds the seven stars in His right hand, who walks in the midst of the seven golden lampstands. His servants, the pastors in places of authority and responsibility are secure in His hand, as He walks in the midst of those congregations who shed light on the truth. They nevertheless were admonished for one thing when they received their letter, and no doubt they mourned they had forgotten the first love they had had for their Saviour. THE LETTER TO THE CHURCH OF EPHESUS Unto the angel of the church of Ephesus write; These things saith He that holdeth the seven stars in His right hand, who walketh in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks; I know thy works, and thy labour, and thy patience, and how thou canst not bear them which are evil: and thou hast tried them which say they are apostles, and are not, and hast found them liars: And has borne, and hast patience, and for my names sake hast laboured, and hast not fainted. Nevertheless I have somewhat against thee, because thou hast left thy first love. Remember therefore from whence thou art fallen, and repent, and do the first works; or else I will come unto thee quickly, and will remove thy candlestick out of his place, except thou repent. But this thou hast, that thou hatest the deeds of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate. He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches; To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God. Revelation 2:1-7 (Nicolaitans Lit., conquerors of the people. Hierarchy lording it over laity. According to the early church fathers, Nicolaitans refers to those who, while professing themselves to be Christians, lived licentiously.) CHAPTER 2. CHURCH:- SMYRNA THE PERSECUTED CHURCH 98-311 AD SMYRNA REVELATION 2: 8-11 8 And unto the angel of the church in Smyrna write; These things saith the first and the last, which was dead, and is alive; 9 I know thy works, and tribulation, and poverty, (but thou art rich) and I know the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan. 10 Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer: behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison, that ye may be tried; and ye shall have tribulation ten days: be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life. 11 He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches; He that overcometh shall not be hurt of the second death. ''Smyrna'' means ''myrrh'' which was a gum or resin that was crushed to give off a fragrance. Myrrh was also used in embalming the dead. [John 19:39-40] This church was persecuted and suffered greatly. Christ greets them as the one "who was dead, and has come to life." This poor church was rich in God's sight, for they were faithful in spite of suffering, slander and death. They are promised the "crown of life" (James. 1:12). At Smyrna Satan's had a two-fold attack. He attack by both external persecution and internal infiltration by legalistic Jews whom Christ calls the "synagogue of Satan." One of the great martyrs of Smyrna was the Pastor Polycarp who was a student of John. He was burned at the stake and won the crown of life. Historically, Smyrna represents church history from 100 to 300 A. D., a period of great persecution by Rome. At this time Christianity was despised by the world as a collection of ragged, poor, and deluded people, yet they were rich before God. When we come to Laodicea, we find a large, rich, respected church that is naked in God's sight. Is there any question as to where we are today? Jesus Christ tells the church at Smyrna that he is the first and the last and the He Himself died and lived again. Although He died violently, He nevertheless lived again because of the resurrection. Together with Philadelphia, the only other church of the seven mentioned not to be criticised at all, Smyrna held out longest against the Turks so that its lampstand shone far longer than its more important neighbours. One of the oldest and most prominent cities in the Roman province of Asia Smyrna sought to achieve honour equal to that of Ephesus in this period but failed. Many of the people who heard this message from John were also to die violent deaths. The description of the Lord who had been raised from the dead would therefore be a source of comfort to them. It is of course a great comfort to us as we know because He has been raised all believers will be raised. Faithfulness in witness, even if it is under persecution, will be more effective than the views of people with glamour and wealth. People were betrayed to officials by informers and by the second century history states that Christians in Asia Minor were only charged if accused by such informers. The main group fulfilling this role in Smryna were the Jews who betrayed Christian leaders such as Polycarp. By purely saying the Christian was not welcome in a synagogue it was enough to accuse him. The church at Smyrna is commended for its patience in sufferings and for enduring the blasphemy of those who claim to be Jews. In church history this may refer to the Romans who considered themselves to be the people of God with the emperor being a god himself. The Christians were therefore being persecuted by those claiming to be the people of God, but were not. Christians were often killed on the grounds that they refused to sacrifice to the emperor. In our case God knows our works and our motivation. He knows the pressure we come under and that it is for our spiritual benefit. Those who are in fellowship with the Lord in a suffering situation are rich spiritually as seen in the spiritual life of the many persecuted churches in recent years. Satan attacks in many ways. In order to discern many satanic concepts you need to have a very good knowledge of Gods Word. The exhortation in verse 10 comprises three things:- [a] They are urged not to fear the things that they are about to suffer. The pressure they are going to be under is one of almost permanent persecution. [b] They are warned that they are going to be persecuted ten days. Ten emperors persecuted them during the period 96-313 AD. They were Domitian [96], Trajan [98-117], Hadrian [117-138], Antonius Pius [138-161], Marcus Aurelius [161-180], Septimus Severus [193-211], Maximin [235-238], Decius [249-251], Valarian [251-260], Diocletian [284-305] These are the ten days of persecution [c] They are told not to fear death for if they die as martyrs they shall secure the crown of life. It should be noted that in the ancient world prison was a place of holding a person prior to trial so that being placed in prison could be a step along the way to execution. The Lord is all knowing and knows trials that we go through. We should therefore adopt the attitude of trusting in the Lord, in everything give thanks for this is the will of God concerning you. We should realise that fear is lack of faith. The Christian life is going to be a mixture of sunshine and shadow. We are in the devils world and are not necessarily going to be happy all the time although we can have true joy at all times. The overcomer was promised that although they might die violently they should not fear the second death. Those who are Christians who die physically will not be subject to the Second Death, the Last Judgement of Revelation 20:11-15 CHRONOLOGY 97-110 AD 97 98CIRCULATION OF THE SCRIPTURES The apostles themselves asked for their letters to be read to the recipient church and then sent on and read in other assemblies Paul told the churches of Colossae and Laodicea to exchange letters; both of Peters letters were to be circulated and read by the brethren in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia; John was instructed by the Lord to send the book of The Revelation to seven churches: Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea; Peter had studied all of Pauls letters; Paul included a quote from Lukes Gospel alongside an Old Testament quote and called them the Scripture. Very early on, in the writings of the apostolic fathers Clement, Polycarp, and Ignatius, there are quotations from nearly all of the books that would eventually enter the New Testament canon. This is significant since at this time there were quite a number of other books also in circulation about the sayings of our Lord and the things He did, but we find that those known to be inspired, i.e. those gospels and letters written by the apostles or their close associates which were in turn quoted by the apostolic fathers, are those we have in the holy canon. The authority of some of the smaller letters was questioned for a short time by churches who lived a long way from the place of writing, for they werent sure whether they had actually been written by the Apostles Paul, Peter, and John, or whether they had just been accredited to them. Its not known for sure, but it is unlikely at this time that any one church would have possessed a complete set of all the inspired books, but those they had in their possession were recognised as canonical, treasured and used through all the early years. Conservative scholars agree that it wasnt a church council that canonised Scripture. Canonisation occurred naturally, spontaneously, as the early believers had their spiritual needs met upon reading these inspired writings, which had been divinely appointed to form the canon of the New Testament. In regard to the eventual Council and official formation, Dr. John McEwan writes, It is important to remember that this process involved the church fathers trying to identify the books that were inspired; it was not them making the books inspired. This formal process was the official recognition of the reality that had existed since the beginning. HIERAPOLIS A town in Phrygia (in Asia Minor) that was situated between Colossae and Laodicea. Christianity took hold in Hierapolis during Pauls 3 years in Ephesus, and he mentions it in Colossians 4:13. Some of the early martyrdoms were in Hierapolis. The city was famous for its hot mineral springs and deep vaporous cave, around which grew the cultic worship of Phrygian gods; worshippers came to hear utterances issuing from the cave whenever the priest or priestess, whom they supposed to be seated deep within, was under the influence of its vapour. The vapours which issued forth from this cave were lethal enough to poison birds flying above, and in the fourth century Christians closed it with rocks. The modern resort town is called Pamukkale, but the ruins of ancient Hierapolis can still be seen. The area has been made a National Park of Turkey. IGNATIUS Bishop of Antioch [98-117ad]. Ignatius is called an apostolic father having been personally acquainted with the Apostle John. Eusebius records Ignatius as the bishop of Antioch following after Evodius whom he says was the first. He is known through the seven letters he wrote while on his way to Rome to be martyred after being arrested in Antioch. The letters were to the churches of Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Rome, Philadelphia, Smyrna, and a personal letter to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna. In the letters Ignatius strongly opposed Gnostic heresy by stressing the true humanity of the Lord Jesus Christ. He was the first to use the term katholikos (Gr.) catholic, meaning universal, in his letter to Smyrna. It was Ignatius who first wrote of a three-tiered hierarchy (one bishop, with several elders and deacons), which was gradually adopted everywhere, moving away from the New Testament church structure where elder, pastor and bishop were interchangeable terms used for the same office. The teaching of Ignatius that the Lords Supper was the medicine of immortality and the antidote of death led to the erroneous belief that withholding communion from a believer because of a grievous sin would put their salvation in peril. He was martyred about 117, and according to tradition Heros became bishop of Antioch after him. Ignatius was brought for interrogation before Emperor Trajan at Antioch. The emperor had been in the East since 114 defending frontiers and invading, and narrowly escaped death when the earthquake devastated Antioch in 115. Ignatius was condemned for his faith in Jesus Christ and sent to Rome to be thrown to wild beasts as part of the amphitheatre entertainment. In Eusebius we read, And being carried through Asia under a most rigid custody, he fortified the different churches in the cities where he tarried by his discourses and exhortations, particularly to caution them more against the heresies which even then were springing up and prevailing. He exhorted them to adhere firmly to the tradition of the apostles. The letter Ignatius wrote to the church at Rome contained a request that they not intervene with the Roman authorities in delivering him from martyrdom, saying, Pardon me; I know what advantage it will confer. Trajan, leaving Antioch for Rome soon after this, died while still in Asia Minor. PAPIAS [c.60-130] Bishop of Hierapolis, and apostolic father. Irenaeus states that Papias knew the Apostle John and was a companion of Polycarp. Around 110 Papias wrote a work in five books called Explanation of the Sayings of Our Lord, of which fragments only are preserved in the works of Irenaeus and Eusebius. According to Papias the Gospel of Mark reflects Peters view of Christ. In regard to the book of Revelation, Papias believed that the millennial reign of Christ would be a literal 1,000 year earthly kingdom at His second coming. That Christs millennial reign was a literal earthly kingdom was the dominant view in the early church until the fifth century. Dr. Charles L. Feinberg in his commentary on Revelation says this was so until Augustine rebelled against it and introduced his spiritualizing method of interpreting prophecy. POLYCARP [69155] Bishop of Smyrna in the Roman province of Asia, and apostolic father, who is described as a faithful pastor and orthodox teacher. Irenaeus who was a student of Polycarp wrote, Polycarp, a man who had been instructed by the apostles, and had familiar conversation with many that had seen Christ, and had also been appointed bishop by the apostles in Asia, in the church at Smyrna, whom we also have seen in our youth, for he lived a long time, and to a very advanced age. Irenaeus says that he heard Polycarp relate conversations he had had with the Apostle John and others who had seen the Lord. Ignatius bishop of Antioch visited Polycarp and his congregation in the year 110 and was warmly welcomed by them. Ignatius was under arrest at the time and on his way to Rome and martyrdom. Polycarp is distinguished as one who had observed the Christian passover with the Apostle John, and when he visited Rome about 155 he discussed the question of the correct date for this celebration [see 155] with Anicetus the bishop. While in Rome Polycarp clashed with Marcion the Gnostic [see 138]. Irenaeus wrote that many in the city were turned back from following the heretics Valentinus and Marcion by Polycarps proclamation of the truth while in Rome. It is believed that Revelation 2:8 refers to Polycarp. One document of his survives; it is a non-canonical letter to the church at Philippi. Upon his return to Smyrna from a visit to Rome, Polycarp was arrested and burned at the stake when he refused to renounce Christ. The story of his last days and death is described in a letter from the church at Smyrna to the church at Philomelium. Philomelium is in Pontus according to Eusebius, and in Phrygia according to Shelley. The letter is believed to be the earliest record which details martyrdom outside of the New Testament. The aged Polycarp who was at first persuaded by his congregation to leave the city was pursued and arrested a few days later in the country at the home of friends. He requested that a meal be prepared for his pursuers and then asked that he be allowed to pray for an hour. At the stadium the governor offered him release if he would deny Christ and upon refusal urged him with, I will cause you to be consumed by fire, should you not change your mind, to which Polycarp replied, You threaten fire that burns for a moment and is soon extinguished, because you know nothing of the judgement to come, and the fire of eternal punishment reserved for the wicked. In the letter, Polycarps death by burning at the stake is graphically described at length by eyewitnesses. TRAJAN Roman emperor [98117ad]. Trajan was adopted by Nerva as his son and successor. He was an able military commander who extended the empire considerably. It was during Trajans reign that Christianity was ruled an illegal religion, and he was the second emperor to systematically persecute the church. PERSECUTION UNDER TRAJAN Trajan ordered those who declared themselves Christians to be put to death without their having committed any crime other than being Christians, yet at the same time, he advised that no searches be made for them. It provoked this observation by Tertullian, O confused sentence; he would not have them sought for, as innocent men, and yet would have them punished as guilty. Persecutions were periodic and localised, the results of accusations from individuals or spur of the moment protests, and according to Eusebius, many of the faithful endured martyrdoms of various kinds. 99JERUSALEM PRIMATES [99-213] This period is very vague in the history of the Primates of Jerusalem as it not only involved the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD but also the Bar Kokhba Revolt 132-136. Matthew I of Jerusalem was the bishop of Jerusalem (Aelia Capitolina) during the period between the revolt in Palestine of 66 to 70 and that of 132-136, during which, according to HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea" \o "Eusebius of Caesarea" Eusebius, there were thirteen HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishops of Jerusalem, all Jewish Christians. Matthew was probably HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishop for a few years after Tobias until 120. While he was persecuted under Emperor Hadrian, Matthew was said to have died in peace. Judas of Jerusalem was the great grandson of Jude and the last Jewish Bishop of Jerusalem, according to Eusebius of Caesarea. Though the date he became HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishop of Jerusalem is not known, Judas is said to have lived beyond the Bar Kokhba revolt. However, Marcus was appointed bishop of Aelia Capitolina, 135, by the Metropolitan of Caesarea. Around 185 Narcissus who was of Greek origin was elected as Primate of Aelia Capitolina at the age of 80. He was known for his holiness, but there are hints that many people found him harsh and rigid in his efforts to keep church discipline. Ten years later he and Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, presided at a council of Palestinian bishops, held at Caesarea. Alexander of Jerusalem was brought in to assist him. Narcissus died in 212 while in prayer on his knees. He was succeeded by Alexander [see 213]. There were fourteen bishops referred to between Mark and Narcissus. 100DOCETISM gets its name from the Greek word meaning "to seem to be". In the history of Christian theology this is the view that Jesus Christ was not a real man but simply appeared so. This undermines not only the incarnation, but also the atonement and resurrection. Through Eusebius we know about Cerinthus the Docetist who was the opponent of the apostle John at Ephesus. The origin of Docetism is not biblical but Hellenistic and oriental, and has the concept that matter is essentially evil. Alexandria was a melting pot of Hellenistic and Oriental ideas, and the home of some of the greatest Gnostic teachers. EVARISTUS Bishop of Rome [100105]. His father was a Jew, originally from Bethlehem. Evaristus was also of Greek origin and born in Antioch. Eusebius records him fourth bishop of Rome following after Clement. He succeeded Clement [see 91] and was succeeded by Alexander I [see 105]. HEROS I Primate of Antioch [100-127] see also 68 and 127. THOMAS AND INDIA According to tradition, it was the Apostle Thomas who took the gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ to India. In Church History Made Plain, Bruce Shelley says, We can say with some certainty that the church in India has existed from very early times. A voyage by Thomas to south India in the first century was well within the realm of possibility. When the missionary Pantaenus of Alexandria arrived to evangelise India in the second century, he found many believers and the Gospel of Matthew already there. Marco Polo, who visited India in 1288 and 1292, was shown a tomb said to be that of Thomas. 101 102 103 104 105ALEXANDER I Bishop of Rome [105115]. He was beheaded in Rome during the persecution of Trajan, and two deacons were also martyred. His jailer, Quirinus, and his daughter are said to have been converted by Alexander and consequently martyred. Alexander is credited with the introduction of holy water, and initiating the custom of houses being blessed by water with salt added. Some say the custom of dipping the fingers in holy water before entering a church derives from the Jewish custom of ritual cleansing from the Mosaic Law. But according to noted commentator Alfred Barnes, It was derived from the pagan custom of placing a vessel with consecrated water at the entrance of their temples. In regard to the pagan use of holy water it is of interest that the first vending machine was for holy water, invented around 62 ad by Heron of Alexandria, inventor and master of geometry. When a coin was placed in the machine it struck a lever causing a valve to open, which allowed a certain amount of holy water to flow out. Alexander I succeeded Evaristus [see 100] and was succeeded by Sixtus I [see 115]. SEDECION Bishop of Byzantium [105-114] succeeded Bishop Plutarch [see 89] during the reign of Trajan when the emperor significantly persecuted Christians as seen below. 106PRIMUS Patriarch of Alexandria [106-118] see 96 and 118. He was elected bishop of Alexandria in the 12th year of the reign of the Emperor Trajan. 107 108 109 110PLINY THE YOUNGER Roman writer and administrator, nephew of Pliny the Elder. He is noted especially for his letters. One which is of particular interest to us he wrote to Emperor Trajan after being sent to govern Bithynia about the year 110. In the letter he revealed that believers were executed for simply being Christians even though no crime had been committed. He was dismayed over the rapid spread of the Christian faith, and said that it had penetrated, not only the cities, but even the villages and the country, and told Trajan, What I have done, in the case of those who admitted they were Christians, was to order them sent to Rome if citizens; if not, to have them killed. The letter also gives us a description of early church worship which is probably the earliest record we have from an unbeliever. He noted that they would rise before dawn and read their Scriptures and bind themselves with an oath not to commit any crime and to be law abiding then they would take food and have a community meal. Two years after this Pliny died in Bithynia. 111-120 AD 111 112 113 114DIOGENES Bishop of Byzantium [114-129] who succeeded Sedecion [see105]. He was in office during the reigns of Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. Very little is known of him. 115SIXTUS I Bishop of Rome [115125]. Tradition ascribes to Sixtus I the declaring of certain vessels as holy and ruling that only the clergy could handle them and that bishops who have been summoned to Rome shall, upon their return, not be received by their diocese except on presenting Apostolic letters indicating at that time the desire for domination by the bishop of Rome. He succeeded Alexander I [see 105] and was succeeded by Telesphorus [see 125]. 116 117BASILIDES Heretical Gnostic teacher who established schools in Egypt. Basilides taught in Alexandria at the time when Hadrian was emperor, and claimed that his secret knowledge came from the apostles; his teaching died out by the end of the second century. Later, in writing about this heresy, Irenaeus said that Basilides, under the pretext of matters too deep to be divulged, stretched his inventions to a boundless extent in his astonishing fictions of impious heresy. According to church historian Henry Sheldon, Basilides Gnosticism Goes beyond all bounds in emphasizing the transcendence of the primal Being, declaring Him not only above all name and conception, but above the category of existence itself, (which is rather like our idea of a non-entity). HADRIAN Roman Emperor [117138]. He was the adopted heir to Trajan, and the third emperor to persecute the church. Hadrian spent the majority of his reign away from Rome strengthening the frontiers of his empire as in the province of Britannia in 122 where he initiated the construction of the wall named in his honour. In 130 he began the reconstruction of Jerusalem as the colony of Aelia Capitolina and passed laws that resulted in catastrophe for the Jews [see Bar-Kokhba Revolt 132]. PERSECUTION UNDER HADRIAN The persecution of Christians in some of the provinces continued under Hadrian the same as it had been under Trajan in that any who were informed against as being Christians were to be executed if they refused to renounce Christ. In Foxes Book of Martyrs, ten thousand believers are said to have been martyred in the period that spanned the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. SATURNINUS Heretical Gnostic teacher from Antioch, Syria, in the first decades of the second century. Other heretics had taught a type of Gnosticism in Syria in the late first century but Saturninus was a leading exponent. He established schools in Syria where the heresy he taught included ideas such as the God of the Jews being the chief of seven angels responsible for creation, and, the supreme Deity sending down a redeeming being, who takes on the semblance of a body. 118JUSTUS Patriarch of Alexandria [118-129] (see 106 and 131). He governed the Diocese of Alexandria during the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. 119 120 121 130 AD 121 122 123ROMAN EXPANSION BEYOND THE EUPHRATES RENOUNCED Emperor Hadrian quickly realised the new frontiers of Trajans could not be defended, and he resigned the eastern conquests. Parthians could once again elect an independent sovereign, and Roman garrisons were withdrawn from the provinces beyond the Euphrates. SAMSON OF ARBIL [d.123] First known martyr of the Roman empire he was a deacon to Paqida, the first bishop of Arbil [104-114] in what is now Iraq. Samson became bishop there in 120 and successfully evangelised surrounding villages whose inhabitants followed a debased form of fire worship involving annual child sacrifices. Arrested in 123 by nobles and Magians he was tortured and decapitated. 124QUADRATUS First Christian apologist. He was Greek, and wrote the first apology in behalf of Christians and is said to have presented it to Hadrian in person when the emperor was in Athens in the year 124. All that survives is one sentence preserved in the works of Eusebius. Apologies began to be written in the wake of accusations against the Christian faith and the Christians conduct, and those qualified to do so, took pen in hand and wrote a formal written defence. Apologia is apo away + logos word, and these defence documents were written to emperors or governmental secretaries in the hope that the words would turn away persecution. Eusebius quoted the particular fragment from the apology of Quadratus as evidence of the age in which Quadratus lived The deeds of our Saviour were always before you for they were genuine: those that were healed, those that were raised from the dead; who were seen, not only when healed and when raised, but were always present; not only while our Lord was on earth, but likewise when he left the earth, they remained living a long time; so that some of them have also lived to our own times. The most famous Christian apologist was Justin Martyr (see 138). 125TELESPHORUS bishop of Rome [125138]. Telesphorus was Greek; he was martyred during the reign of Hadrian. Tradition ascribes to him some rituals in relation to festal seasons but they are unsubstantiated. He succeeded Sixtus I [see 115] and was succeeded by Hyginus [see 138]. 126 127CORNELIUS Primate of Antioch [127-151] see also 107 and 151. 128 129ELETHERIUS Bishop of Byzantium [129-136] succeeded Diogenes [see 114]. The persecution of Christians by Emperor Hadrian [see 117] was during his bishopric. 130ABRAHAM APOCALYPSE was a Jewish apocryphal work which survives only in a Slavonic translation. The original was completed around 130 AD. The first eight chapters deal with the conversion of Abraham from idolatry while the remaining twenty four deal with the apocalypse proper. 131-140 AD 131EUMENES Patriarch of Alexandria [131-141] see 118 and 142. Also called Emenaios. He governed the Alexandrian Church during the reign of the Emperor Entoninus the Pious. 132BAR-KOKHBA REVOLT [ad 132-135] Hadrians universal prohibition against circumcision, plus his edict forbidding the teaching of the Tora, as well as his announced intention to found a Roman colony at the site of Jerusalem and the beginning of its construction (all this in the early 130s), led to the Bar-Kokhba revolt of the Jews under Simeon ben Kosba. In 132, Kosba stormed Jerusalem and it was liberated as well as other towns and villages; coins were struck with the inscription Year 1 of the freedom of Jerusalem, and Akiva ben Yoseph, the leading rabbi of the day, hailed Kosba as the Messiah and gave him the title Bar-Kokhba Son of the Star (a messianic allusion). There were others who called him Koziba, a pun on the Hebrew word kazab for liar. Roman historian Dio Cassius wrote that the Christians refused to join the revolt. Other sources say they were sympathetic at first and then separated themselves when he was hailed as the Messiah. Justin Martyr (a contemporary) wrote that Bar-Kokhba gave orders that Christians should be led to cruel punishment unless they would deny Jesus Christ, and utter blasphemy. Emperor Hadrian came to Judea in 134 and also summoned the aid of Severus, the Roman governor of the province of Britannia, and his legion, and conquest followed in 135. 580,000 Jews were killed in battle, and thousands of women and children were sold into slavery. With the sickness and starvation that followed, Judea was almost depopulated. By order of the emperor the name of the province of Judea was changed to the province of Syria Palaestina (and later simply Palaestina). The rebuilding of Jerusalem as the colony Aelia Capitolina with a pagan temple to Jupiter on the Jewish Temple site was completed, and the death penalty decreed for any Jew who entered its gates. The new name of the city was in honour of Hadrian (his clan name being Aelia), and the gods of the Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva), and it was used until the time of Constantine, early in the fourth century.133 134 135CARPOCRATES A Gnostic who taught in Alexandria who considered Jesus as a mere man and revered him as well as philosophers. He taught that man should experience all things to avoid reincarnation. This led to licentiousness. 136CERDO Heretical teacher who came to Rome from Syria around 136 with his Gnostic teaching. One of his assertions was that the God of the Old Testament was different from the God of the New Testament; that the God who had been proclaimed by the law and the prophets was not the Father of Jesus Christ. Cerdo was the predecessor to Marcion [see 144]. Later writers make Cerdo a Docetic. FELIX Bishop of Byzantium [136-141] succeeded Eleutherius [see 129]. His time in office was during the period of the emperors Hadrian and Antonius Pius. VALENTINUS Heretical teacher from Egypt, who moved to Rome from Alexandria around 136 to expound his Gnostic teaching to the church in Rome. He had developed the idea of an eternity of being called the Pleroma which was above all and wherein divinity, a Supreme Father, has always existed. There were Aeons in between the Pleroma and the material evil world below, which material evil world was created by the Demiurge, Jehovah of the Old Testament, a lesser being who imagined himself supreme. The Saviour came from the in-between layer, the world of Aeons; the Christ was the most perfect Aeon and united himself with Jesus of Nazareth. The Gnostic schools of Valentinus in Alexandria and Rome were very influential. But it is not surprising that we find Tertullian telling us that Valentinus was passed over for bishop, after which he left Rome, and taught in Cyprus. 137 138ANTONINUS PIUS Roman emperor [138161], the fourth emperor to persecute the Christians. Martyrdoms occurred in the province of Asia during his reign, and in particular in Smyrna where Polycarp was bishop. It was to Antoninus Pius that Justin Martyrs First Apology was addressed in defence of Christianity, and his Second Apology advised the same emperor that the popular charges that Christians were atheists and immoral were unfounded. CHARGES AGAINST THE CHRISTIANS these charges were ludicrous, and arose from a lack of understanding plus hatred. Christians were accused of being atheists, cannibals, and incestuous. Atheists - because they refused to burn incense to the emperor and worship the Roman gods, therefore when disasters occurred Christians were to blame. Cannibals - because of the stories going around that somebody was being eaten at secret meetings, which was the Lords Supper and the symbolised partaking of the body and blood of the Lord. Incestuous - because Christian husbands and wives were heard calling each other brother and sister. Once the rumours started they spread rapidly. GNOSTICISM The terms Gnostic and Gnosticism (from the Greek word for knowledge gnosis) refer specifically to those false teachers and their heresies who appeared from the beginning of the Church Age. Over a period of about three centuries, from within and without the church, they tried to influence believers with their myths about origins and their secret knowledge about the Christ and about Jesus. These false teachers (who have been named Gnostics by modern scholars) created their various systems from the superior knowledge they claimed to have of the spiritual world, over and above that which had been revealed to the inspired writers of Scripture, and there were as many different systems as there were teachers. To create their myths and explain their own ideas about the how, what, where, when of the things of God they borrowed from the Hebrew Scriptures and Christianity, delved into Hellenistic philosophy, and Asiatic mysticism. Their erroneous views regarding our Lord Jesus Christ varied; to some, Jesus was just a man with a mother and father, upon whom the Christ descended and united, others speculated as to whether he was real or only an apparition, but they were generally agreed that he was not the Son of God. One may wonder how such nonsense as taught by the Gnostics can have been taken seriously, but Gnosticism did have serious influence and each false teacher gained quite a following from those deceived by the combination of speculation, imagination on the rampage creating elaborate myths, as well as some genuine thought. Plus, the Gnostics were quick to claim that Jesus had revealed to a select few that which he had never declared openly, and this secret teaching had been passed on through an unbroken line of disciples. That claim led Irenaeus to compile lists of the names of bishops belonging to various cities, going all the way back to the apostles, and he pointed out that not one was a Gnostic. The church fathers who had equipped themselves from the inspired writings did not hesitate to come forward and refute these false teachers. Undeterred by the fact that mankind has always had the divinely inspired revelation of their origins, the futile search for gnosis/knowledge regarding it has always existed. For in defiance of their creator and the truth He has revealed, there have always been those of His creatures who think they know better; all the way through from Lamech, and Nimrod and the tower of Babel, to our own day. Plato, in the fifth century bc in his work on the origin and nature of the universe, adapted and used the word Demiurge, which was originally the ancient Greek word for craftsman. In Platos use of it the Demiurge takes the pre-existing materials of chaos and produces all the physical things of the world according to eternal specifications. The word demiurge was in turn adopted by some of the Gnostics, as was the word aeon. Aeon is the Greek word for age; some of the Gnostics used it for a particular order of spirits, or a sphere of existence emanating from divinity, with each successive emanation having less divine energy due to being more remote, plus the possibility of error in these lower levels. In most of the Gnostic systems the creation of the material universe came from such error, which brought about the conflict between matter and spirit. Encyclopaedia Britannica In reconstructing Gnostic doctrines, modern scholars relied to a great extent on the writings of Irenaeus, who summarized the Gnostic views before attacking them. After the discovery of the Gnostic library near Naj Hammadi (in Egypt) in the 1940s, respect for Irenaeus increased: he was proved to have been extremely precise in his report of the doctrines he rejected. The Gnostic library is called the Nag Hammadi papyri. It is a collection of 12 Coptic books that contain 52 documents that were written by Gnostics in the second or third centuries; the papyri themselves are fourth century copies. Found in 1945 they are held in the Coptic Museum in Cairo. HYGINUS Bishop of Rome [138140] during whose reign the Gnostics who denied that Jesus was the Son of God came into prominence. Cerdo, Valentinus, and Marcion came to Rome with their false teaching, and it was branded heresy, but there were many led astray by these Gnostics who claimed to have inside information about all things spiritual apart from the inspired writings. He succeeded Telesphorus [see 125] and was succeeded by Pius I [see 140]. JUSTIN MARTYR Christian apologist, born around 100, in Flavia Neapolis, a Roman city built on the site of ancient Shechem, Samaria. Justin was converted from paganism, possibly at Ephesus where he was studying philosophy, by a humble old Christian. Justin as an unbeliever had tried various philosophies in an effort to satisfy his enquiring mind, and observed The perception of immaterial things quite overpowered me; and the contemplation of ideas furnished my mind with wings, so that in a little while I supposed I had become wise. But then he met the old man on the sea shore who unfolded to him the wisdom and message of God that was so superior all his previous acquired knowledge seemed emptiness by comparison. Straightway a flame was kindled in my soul, and a love of the prophets and of those men who are the friends of Christ possessed me. Soon after 135 he moved to Rome. Justin became the most notable of the writers of the second century defending the Christian faith. Three of his works survive: the First and Second Apologies, and Dialogue with Trypho (a learned Jew). Justins FIRST APOLOGY in defence of Christianity expressed the core elements of The Faith. And through this apology in which he upheld the historicity of Jesus, he opposed the heresies of Gnosticism, in particular Docetic and Marcionism. Docetic: from Greek dokein to seem; they claimed that Christ did not have a real body, only an apparent one; and Marcionism, which tried to separate Christianity from its Old Testament heritage in saying that the God of the Jews, who was the creator of matter, was evil and different from the God of the New Testament. Justin personally opposed Marcion in Rome about this. The SECOND APOLOGY dealt with pagan suspicion regarding Christian life and worship, and Justin defended the celebrations of Baptism and the Lords Supper. In DIALOGUE WITH TRYPHO he converses with a Jewish rabbi, and by using prophecy, Justin gives a full account of Israels positive role in religious history, emphasising the continuity of the Old Testament in the New through their integrated typology, and the summing up of the old covenant in the new. Justin was martyred in Rome in 165 during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, having vigorously presented his faith as both scriptural and reasonable in the face of criticism by both Jews and pagans. MARCION Heretical Gnostic teacher from Pontus. He was a wealthy ship-owner who came to Rome around 138 and uttered blasphemies without a blush (Irenaeus). Although at first Marcion was influenced by Cerdo he quickly outshone his teacher and became far more influential, his brand of Gnostic heresy circulated rapidly, and was organised and widespread. Among other things, he taught that the God of the Jews, who was the creator of matter, was evil and different from the God of the New Testament, who was good; and since matter is evil, the bodily appearance of Christ was pure delusion. There naturally followed in Marcions teaching a rejection also of the resurrection. Polycarp called him the firstborn of the devil to his face. Marcion assembled together his own set of scripture made up of 10 books of Paul, and a heavily edited version of Lukes Gospel. He said all of the other apostles were falsifiers of the truth, and he rejected the Old Testament completely. He excluded Pauls pastoral books altogether and cut bits from the 10 he had included. According to Irenaeus, he removed from Pauls writings, all passages that referred to the creator being the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, and those prophetical passages Paul quoted from the Old Testament that announced beforehand the coming of the Lord. He removed from Lukes Gospel the genealogy of the Lord and other passages where the Lord clearly speaks of the creator as His Father. Eusebius notes that there were many ecclesiastical writers in these times that contended for the truth and by publishing their writings, furnished preventives against these heresies. It was from this time, in response to Marcions corrupted canon that orthodox believers began making decisions about which of the circulating scriptures belonged in the Holy Canon; a process that would not be completed until 397. 139 140ARISTO OF PELLA The earliest recorded Christian apologist against Judaism. His work was known by Tertullian [see 200]. Eusebius [see 309] found in Aristos work information about the defeat of Bar Kochba and the exclusion of the Jews from Jerusalem by Hadrian [see 117]. PIUS I Bishop of Rome [140154]. He continued to battle the influence of the Gnostics. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heretic" \o "Heretic" heretics Valentinus, Cerdon, and Marcion all visited Rome at this time. In 144 Marcion was excommunicated by Pius I. He succeeded Hyginus [see 138] and was succeeded by Anicetus [see 155]. 141 150 AD 141POLYCARPUS II Bishop of Byzantium [141-144], succeeded Felix [see 136] and was in office during the reign of Emperor Antonius Pius. His relics were kept in a coffin of marble. 142MARK II Patriarch of Alexandria [142-152] see 131 and 152. Mark was of Egyptian origin and was also called Marcian 143 144ATHENODORUS Bishop of Byzantium [144-148] succeeded Polycarpus II [see 141]. During his bishopric there was a significant increase in the Christian population. He commissioned the construction of a cathedral in Elaea which was later renovated by Constantine I who wanted to be buried there. He in fact was not interred there as it was considered not suitable being outside Byzantium. The cathedral was dedicated to the martyrdoms of Eleazar and his seven children in 2 Maccabees. 145 146 147 148EUZOIS Bishop of Byzantium [148-154]. His Greek name means good life. He succeeded Athenodorus [see 144]. Euzois was in office during the persecutions of Emperor Antonius Pius. 149 150BIBLE Greek bible translated into old Latin for use in North Africa. The translator is not known. Scholars are certain that the styles of Tertullians Latin works [196-212] and even more so of Cyprians [248-258], testify to the existence of a North African Old Latin version of Scripture being in circulation for some time. 151-160 AD 151 152CELADION Patriarch of Alexandria [152-166] see 142 and 167. 153 154HEROS II Primate of Antioch [154-169] see also 127 and 169. LAURENCE Bishop of Byzantium [154-166] succeeded Euzios [see 148] during the reigns of Antonius Pius and Marcus Aurelius [see 161] in whose time there was persecution of Christians. 155ANICETUS Bishop of Rome [155166]. Anicetus continued to work in combating the influence that the Gnostics Valentinus and Marcion had had, and also to prevent such heresies creeping into the church. During his rule argument between the Eastern and Western churches arose as to the correct date for the one-day celebration of the Christian Passover, which (sadly) we call Easter. He succeeded Pius I [see 140] and was succeeded by Soter [see 167]. PASCHAL CONTROVERSY This concerned the date for the celebration of Passover or Easter. The controversy occurred from the second to the eighth centuries. Passover is the name the early Church used for the celebration, and Passover is still the name used in many countries of the world. Pascha is both Greek and Latin from the Hebrew word pesah for Passover. The word pascha in Acts 12:4 was mistranslated Easter in the KJV; it is everywhere else in Scripture translated Passover. The controversy was over which day was correct for the one-day celebration. In the East it was 14 Nisan (whichever day of the week it fell on), whilst the West celebrated it on the Sunday after 14 Nisan. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, travelled to Rome in 155 to discuss the question of the correct day with Bishop Anicetus. According to Irenaeus, Polycarp said he had always observed it with the Apostle John on 14 Nisan, and Anicetus said that he was obliged to keep the custom that went back to Sixtus, who was bishop of Rome from 115-125. Neither could persuade the other to change so they agreed amicably to differ, deciding to allow the churches to continue to have their own day. However, with the East and West using different days for this celebration the issue became more and more controversial, and later when Victor was bishop of Rome there was a very stormy dispute [see 189]. 156 157 158 159 160 161-170 AD 161MARCUS AURELIUS Roman emperor [161180]. He was the adopted son of Antoninus Pius, and became the fifth emperor to persecute the church. While consul under Antoninus, he discharged his public duties with great conscientiousness and at the same time was devoted to the study of law and philosophy. Marcus was someone who would be considered a fine unbeliever. During his reign he wrote a work deemed a classic of stoic philosophy called Meditations, which sets out his stoic view of life. There were many apologies addressed to Marcus in behalf of the persecuted Christians, of which he took no note. He disliked Christians, and referred to Christianity once in Meditations and in particular to martyrdom, as sheer obstinacy and a love for theatrical display. PERSECUTION UNDER MARCUS AURELIUS Marcus Aurelius saw Christians as a threat to the well-being of the state, which encouraged anti-Christian informers to come forward. Christians were also blamed for a plague; in 161 when the Parthians attacked the empires eastern frontier, they were driven back, but the soldiers who had fought them brought home the Asiatic plague and millions across the empire died. The Christians were blamed; all calamities were the fault of the atheistic Christians. There were martyrdoms in Rome, Gaul, Asia Minor, and Carthage; the most severe persecutions were in 177 in Lyons and Vienne in Gaul (France). 162 163 164 165 166ALYPIUS Bishop of Byzantium [166-169] who succeeded Laurence [see 154] held office during the persecutions of Marcus Aurelius. 167AGRIPPINUS Patriarch of Alexandria [167-178] see 152 and 178. HEGESIPPUS Second century church historian. His ministry properly terminated about 190. Jerome corroborates these dates when he says that Hegesippus lived near the time of the Apostles. Eusebius draws the conclusion that Hegesippus was a Jew and says his work comprised of five books of memoirs. His main work appeared to be directed against the Gnostics and ranged over the whole of Church history to his day. SOTER Bishop of Rome [167175]. During his rule the Montanists appeared on the scene, and Soter attacked their teaching, which was later pronounced heresy. It was stated that he declared that marriage was valid only as a sacrament blessed by a priest and that he formally inaugurated Passover [Easter] as an annual festival in Rome. He succeeded Anicetus [see 155] and succeeded Eleutherius [see 175]. 168 169PERTINAX Bishop of Byzantium [169-187] who succeeded Alypius [see 166]. He was originally a senior officer in the Roman army based in Thrace, European Turkey. When he contracted a disease he heard of miracles occurring in a group called Christians. He sought help from Bishop Alypius. When his disease was cured he assumed it was a result of Alypius prayers and converted to Christianity. Shortly after he was ordained a priest and succeeded Alypius as bishop of Byzantium at the time of the latters death. His reign of nearly 20 years shows that he was probably younger than others gaining this office. THEOPHILUS Primate of Antioch [169-182] see also 151 and 182. 170ALEXANDER OF ABONUTICHUS Founder of a popular cult in Pontus who was aggressively anti Christian. His oracles relied on tongues, extra sensory perception and trickery with elaborate ritual. 171-180 AD 171ATHENAGORAS Christian apologist from Athens who sent apologies to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius [see 161] and Commodus [see 180] on behalf of Christians refuting allegations against them of atheism, eating human flesh and practicing incest. He drew attention to the peaceful and blameless living of Christians and claimed equal rights for them with other citizens. He also stressed the divinity of the Logos and the Trinity thus the description of him as the Christian Philosopher of Athens is seen as appropriate. 172MONTANUS A former pagan priest of the ecstatic cult of Cybele (great mother of the gods). After his conversion he believed himself to be the appointed prophet of God and founded the MONTANISTS in Phrygia, Asia Minor; a separatist group of the enlightened. He demanded asceticism, chastity, fasting and a vegetarian diet eaten dry. Montanists were believers who placed particular emphasis upon the Holy Spirit, and especially the gift of prophesying. Two prophetesses, Maximilla and Priscilla, joined Montanus, and these three formed the leadership. There were visions, speaking in tongues and ecstatics, with divine inspiration being claimed for his and their visions and utterances. The prophecies failed. His followers were often seized with mass hysteria brought on by intensely fervent hopes of the imminent return of Christ and His millennial reign. They believed the New Jerusalem would descend in Asia Minor, on the plain between the two villages of Pepuza and Tymion, and this would be the site of Christs second coming which would usher in a new outpouring of the Holy Spirit. They left their villages and gathered there in anticipation. The sect soon gathered momentum and had adherents in Rome, and North Africa, Tertullian becoming their most famous around 207. Henry Sheldon in his History of the Church says that one finds Tertullian stigmatizing as psychics the great body of Christians who refused to accept Montanism, and reserving the name of spirituals for the adherents of that system. Because of their belief that they were privy to additional and supplementary disclosures of divine truth it was the Montanists later who wanted to have no closure on the canon of Scripture, no limits so that new revelation could be included in an expanded canon. In the year 230 a synod was held in Iconium which refused to recognise the validity of the Montanists baptism. Although they were extremely legalistic and carried away to excesses, the accusation of heresy seems harsh. Groups of Montanists survived in North Africa until the fifth century. 173 174First Christians reported in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" \o "Austria" Austria 175APOLLINARIUS, CLAUDIUS Bishop of Hierapolis who defended the church against heresy, and also fiercely opposed the Montanists [see 172]. He wrote four apologies: three addressed to Marcus Aurelius, the other for general circulation, and a treatise on the Christian Passover (Easter); all his writings are lost and known only through the writing of others. CAINITES [175-225] which was a dissolute sect who believed the Creator to be so evil that his laws should be inverted and his recorded enemies such as Cain, Esau and Korah commended. Judas Iscariot was commended by some for opposing Christ and by others for causing saviour-hood to come into being with their writings including a Gospel of Judas and an account of the revelations to Paul in the third heaven. ELEUTHERIUS Bishop of Rome [175189]. A Greek who had been a deacon under the two previous bishops. Eleutherius was confronted by the Montanists [see 172] because of his ruling that food fit for human consumption was not to be despised by Christians. He succeeded Soter [see 167] and was succeeded by Victor I [see 189]. MELITO Bishop of Sardis, Lydia (ruins in Turkey). He was a prolific author whose works are catalogued in Eusebius, and known from fragments, and quotation in the works of others, and the recovery of papyrus copies found in the twentieth century. Included is an Apology written to Marcus Aurelius in 175, a treatise On the Passover, and another On Baptism, which show a rhetorical style of writing and the use of Typology (he shows the slain Pascal Lamb as the type of the sacrificial death of Christ). Melito is said to have embarked on the first known pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and is credited with first using the term Old Testament to distinguish the Hebrew Scriptures from the New. His list of Old Testament books did not include the Apocryphal writings. The theology of Melito falls within the category of the Logos Christology of the other apologists. 176ALOGI An obscure group from Asia Minor which in reaction to the Montanists [see 172] questioned the authority of those books on which they based their claims. They rejected the gospel of John and the Revelation which according to them were written by Cerinthus, and objected to the Logos theory of the Apologists hence their name Alogi. 177BLANDINA French martyr during the persecution in Lyons and Vienne; the slave of a Christian mistress (also facing martyrdom and fearful that she herself might deny Christ under torture). After being forced to witness the deaths of Christian brethren in the arena in order to dissuade her, it is said that Blandina, in the arena herself, encouraged a 15 year old Christian boy throughout his ordeal and then gave a great witness of courage and Christ-like-ness as she was tortured and killed. CELSUS Greek writer against Christianity whose literary activity occurred between 175 and 180 writing The True Word against Christianity which was almost perfectly reproduced by Origen in his work Contra Celsum of 248. IRENAEUS Bishop of Lyons, France, or as it was then, Lugdunum, Gaul [177-195]; one of the church fathers. He was born in Asia Minor (probably in Smyrna), and was a student of Polycarp. Prior to becoming bishop, Irenaeus was a missionary to Gaul. He succeeded Bishop Pothinus of Lyons who had died during the persecutions of 177. He was a peacemaker between the churches of Asia Minor and the church of Rome during their differences over the correct day for the one-day celebration of the Christian Passover (Easter). Irenaeus stated that differences in external factors, such as dates of festivals, need not be so serious as to destroy church unity. He corresponded widely, had an uncompromising attitude toward the Gnostics, and vigorously promoted orthodox teaching. Countermeasures against the Gnostics who claimed they possessed secret oral tradition from Jesus Himself, resulted in Irenaeus listing the names of bishops (none of whom were Gnostics) in different cities, going back to the apostles. To handle some of the Gnostic problems, Irenaeus continued the use of creeds, as Paul had used in several of his books. For this Irenaeus used the doctrines of the apostles, referred to as the Rule of Truth, which were to be learned and recited, to reinforce what you believed in order to combat heresy. All of his writings combat the false teaching of Gnosticism; his principle work, entitled Against Heresies, consists of five books. Irenaeus emphasised the unity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in both creation and redemption. He used typology when interpreting Scripture, which is the literal approach, and taught a literal earthly millennial kingdom at the second coming of Christ. TYPOLOGY The typological interpretation of Scripture. As a method of interpretation, typology is literal, and historical. It was the method of interpretation used by the writers of the New Testament to interpret the Old Testament Scriptures. In the OT they found prophecies which Jesus fulfilled, types which He completed, shadows of which He is the substance. Without questioning the factual character of the earlier events, they saw in them pointers to the fullness of time David A. Hubbard (president of Fuller Theological Seminary, California). The English word type is derived from the Greek tupos, which has the basic meaning of a visible impression or mark made by a blow or by pressure. The type can be a person, an event, or object found in the Old Testament, which pre-figures or foreshadows the anti-type which is in the New Testament. A type is not the same as a symbol, a symbol can refer to something in the past, present, or future; a type always foreshadows that which is to come, and is frequently Messianic. Irenaeus used typology in refuting heresy and attacks on the OT, and according to David Hubbard, Had the church-at-large adopted Irenaeus scheme of progressive revelation, of continuity yet contrast between the two Testaments, the whole history of her understanding of the faith would have been altered for the better. Sadly, from the fifth century on, the church-at-large followed Augustine who spiritualised away the literal sense of Scripture and developed a complete eschatology based on allegorising Scripture. MARTYRDOMS IN LYONS AND VIENNE IN GAUL This is where the persecution under Marcus Aurelius was most severe. It began with Christians being banned from social and public life, banned from public baths and the market place, being open to attack if they appeared on the streets, and their homes vandalised. When steadfast believers continued their refusal to burn incense to the gods and renounce Christ they suffered horrific tortures, their corpses in the streets were shamefully mutilated. They were scourged until their sinews and veins lay bare, or forced onto red-hot iron chairs until their flesh broiled, then thrown into dungeons and left to die, or bashed to death with a club, or dragged to the arena after scourging to be either burned at the stake, or torn apart by wild animals as a spectacle for the mob; most of the spectators screamed abuse but some were astonished at their resolute courage and moved to tears. Believers who were Roman citizens were beheaded. POTHINUS (87-177) Bishop of Lyons. A student of Polycarp, he was probably born in Asia Minor, and it is believed he introduced Christianity into southern Gaul. Pothinus was ninety years old, sick and near death when the persecution began in Lyons. He was first dragged and then carried by soldiers to the tribunal and was glad to give testimony so that Christ might triumph in his life. He was interrogated by the governor and when asked, who was the God of the Christians, Pothinus said, you will find out if you are worthy. After enduring many stripes he died in prison two days later. 178JULIAN Patriarch of Alexandria [178-189] see 167 and 189. A scholar, wise and virtuous Bishop of Alexandria during the years of the reign of Commodus. 179MAXIMILLA [d. c.179] Ecstatic prophetess who with Montanus and Priscilla another prophetess formed the leadership of the rigorous Montanist sect [see 172] in Asia Minor. The three proclaimed the imminent return of Christ and establishment of a new Jerusalem in Phrygia where they made their headquarters. She claimed that after her there will be no more prophecy but the end of the world. The wars and revolution she predicted failed to transpire in the period immediately following her death. 180 COMMODUS Roman emperor [180192]. In 177 his father Marcus Aurelius proclaimed him joint emperor, then, in 180 he succeeded his father at the age of 19, and instituted a reign of terror only equalled by the degeneracy of Nero. His behaviour was vicious and unrestrained. After the plot between his sister and a group of senators to assassinate him failed, the senate floor ran with blood as he slaughtered those whom he suspected. He was the only emperor to change the name of Rome, putting out a decree and calling it Colonia Commodiana. He was enamoured of his own physical strength and would appear in the arena dressed as a gladiator and always killed his unarmed opponent. He paraded in womens clothes, practised homosexuality and heterosexuality. He became totally insane and appeared on the streets of Rome wearing a lions skin calling himself Hercules, and clubbed to death citizens at random. Christians, as well as Apollonius, a senator, were put to death for not worshipping Commodus as the god Hercules. Some Christians were released at the request of his mistress, Marcia. The Scillitan martyrs were believers from Scilli, Numidia, and were martyred in Carthage at the beginning of his reign. When Commodus discovered that Marcia, the mistress he had chosen was a believer, he planned to have her and the palace attendants killed, but they in turn conspired and hired a famous wrestler by the name of Narcissus to strangle him, and this transpired in the Arena. The Senate was grateful and proclaimed the city prefect, Pertinax, emperor, but the empire was sliding toward civil war. DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH Bishop of Corinth who was a man of considerable influence and was credited by Eusebius with seven epistles to various churches. They are for encouragement and admonition and include an attack on Marcion, and also include evidence that the epistle of Clement was read in the Corinthian church and that Dionysius the Areopagite was the first bishop of Athens. MADAURAN MARTYRS First reputed martyrs in Africa. They are said to have suffered at Madaura in Numidia in 180. The record of them comes from the writing of Maximus of Madaura a pagan grammarian of the late fourth century who vigorously protested against the popular practice of visiting the tombs of such uncultured barbarians, deserting pagan cults for the new religion. PANTAENUS [d.190] In 180, Pantaenus founded the school which became the famous Catechetical School of Alexandria, the home of the allegorical interpretation of Scripture. He left no writings himself, but it would seem from the works of his pupils that his interests other than the Scriptures were classical literature and Stoic philosophy. Pantaenus had also travelled to India as a missionary evangelist and found many believers and the Gospel of Matthew already there. Clement of Alexandria became the head of the school in 190 when Pantaenus died. 181-190 AD 181 182ABERCIUS, INSCRIPTION OF Discovered in 1893 by Sir William Ramsey [see 1895] as an incomplete epitaph of Aviricius of Hieropolis in which without speaking of Christ or the Church talks of the all seeing Shepherd who taught faithful Scriptures and of Paul, of faith, of the Virgin, the wine and loaf which guided him through the plains of Syria, across the Euphrates to Rome at each place meeting the brethren. MAXIMUS I Primate of Antioch [182-191] see also 169 and 191. 183 184 185SCILLITAN MARTYRS A group from Scilli in Numida who were beheaded at Carthage on 17 July 185 by proconsul Saturninus the first persecuting governor in Roman Africa. Their names suggest that they belonged to the non citizen classes. When asked to recognise the authority of Rome they stated they did not recognise the empire of this world. 186 187OLYMPIANUS Bishop of Byzantium [187-198] succeeded Pertinax [see 169]. In 196 Byzantium was conquered by Emperor Septimus Severus [see 193] a great persecutor of Christians. Septimus Severus defeated Pescennius Niger who had been proclaimed emperor by some eastern legions and made Byzantium subject to Heracleia in Thrace a situation which was maintained for almost a century. 188BARDESANES [154222] He was a gifted poet, and wrote many of the first Syriac hymns, their literary value earning him a prominent place in the history of Syriac poetry and music. A man of outstanding ability, he was an early representative of the Christian community in Edessa, Syria (now Urfa, Turkey). He wrote a work called The Dialogue of Destiny or The Book of the Laws of the Countries (the oldest known original composition in Syriac literature), in which he argued against the astrologers regarding the influence of the stars on human destiny, and attacked the fatalism of the Greek philosophers by promoting the view of free will in the universe. He refuted the Gnostics Marcion and Valentinus, yet did himself mix Christian, and Gnostic dualism views, by saying on the one hand the supreme God did not create evil but on the other nor did He create the world or Satan; Bardesanes attributed that creation to a hierarchy of deities. The authorities of the day considered Bardesanes a Christian, and he came very close to martyrdom. 189DEMETRIUS Bishop of Alexandria [189-232] see 178 and 232. Demetrius had a lively interest in the catechetical school and about 203 appointed Origen at its head. The breach between the two was partially caused when Origen was ordained by others as a presbyter. It is thought that Demetrius was jealous. Demetrius ordained the three first Bishops in cities of Egypt and changed the system of appointing them. He also wrote letters on the keeping of Easter in accordance with the view adopted at Nicaea. He. During his reign the persecution of Christians by the Roman Emperor Severus broke out. VICTOR I Bishop of Rome [189199]. He was born in Africa of Latin origin. Some scholars believe that the official language of the church at Rome changed from Greek to Latin at this time. A heresy regarding the deity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit arose during Victors time as bishop, and according to Eusebius, Victor excommunicated a tanner called Theodotus over this issue. When Tertullian wrote against this false teaching he coined the name Monarchians for those who taught the heresy and the word Trinity for the true doctrine [see 200]. The continuing debate over the timing of the Paschal celebration (Easter) became heated while Victor was bishop. He ordered all Christians to celebrate it on the Sunday after 14 Nisan. The East chose not to comply. Victor threatened excommunication, and Polycrates bishop of Ephesus held a council in the East about the question but when the bishops assembled they reaffirmed their independent view. Victor carried out his threat and excommunicated the Eastern bishops, but this had little effect since other churches chose to continue communing with those from whom Victor had withdrawn. Irenaeus of Lyons, although disagreeing with the East, wrote negotiating letters to Victor and he relented. The East used 14 Nisan when Christ our Passover was sacrificed for us. The West used the Sunday after 14 Nisan, the day of the resurrection. Victor succeeded Eleutherius [see 175] and was succeeded by Zephyrinus [see 199]. 190CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [c.155-c.220] It is thought that Clement was born in Athens of pagan parents. As a student he visited various Greek-speaking centres of learning in the East, and became a Christian through his teacher Pantaenus while studying at his school in Alexandria. He succeeded Pantaenus as head of the school in 190, and under Clement and his pupil Origen it became the famous Catechetical School of Alexandria, from whence came the allegorical method of interpreting Scripture. At the school, Jews, Christians, and pagans could receive an education in literature, philosophy, and theology. Clement became the leader of intellectual Christians in Alexandria, and wrote many books in which he followed the style of Philo (an Alexandrian Jew who lived from around bc20-50ad), who had used Greek philosophy and allegory to interpret the Old Testament Scriptures. Clements famous works are known as a trilogy, Exhortation (addressed to the heathen), The Instructor (about Christian morals), and Miscellanies (for the mature believer). He was involved in continuous debate with the Gnostics who disparaged faith as the prop of the ignorant, and countered that faith was the means by which mankind arrived at true gnosis. Clement believed that philosophy defended the truth of Christianity, yet the truth was so clouded by philosophy in his writing that the gospel could not be seen. According to G.L. Carey (writing for Douglas Dictionary of the Christian Church), the prominent theme throughout Clements writing is that Christ is the true teacher who gives men the true gnosis which leads to freedom from sin, to immortality, to righteousness; that by contemplation of the Logos man is deified. Carey observes, Thus Clements soteriology is a Christ-mysticism in which the Lords passion and death have little or no redemptive part to play. When the anti-Christian edict of Septimius Severus was published in the year 202 an extremely vicious persecution broke out in Alexandria (and Carthage), and Clement left the city; he died in Asia Minor around 220. Origen became head of the school after Clement. 191-200 AD 191SERAPION Primate of Antioch [191-211] see also 182 and 211. 192 193DIDIUS JULIANUS Roman Emperor [March-June 193]. Escorted to the Senate as emperor by the praetorian guard after offering them the highest bid in the famous auction of the empire, Julianus was soon after murdered in his palace by soldiers from the legions of Septimius Severus, the commander who had the support of the Senate as next emperor. PERTINAX Roman emperor [January - March 193]. He was the son of a freed slave, and had risen to prefect of the city of Rome. When Commodus was murdered, the Senate made Pertinax emperor. He was then assassinated within several weeks by a small group of soldiers of the praetorian guard. SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS Roman emperor [193211], the sixth to persecute the church. Severus was born in Africa, his native language was Punic. He had been declared emperor by his army, and spent the next few years securing his position against rivals who were also commanders in other parts of the empire. He went to England to restore order and subdue parts of the island not under Roman rule and died there in 211. The early part of his reign wasnt unfavourable to Christians but after 202 Severus became the sixth emperor to persecute the church. PERSECUTION UNDER SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS At the close of the second century localised persecutions were continuing, but in 202 when Severus adopted an anti-Christian policy and forbad anybody becoming a Christian, promising death to any who witnessed to others about the Lord Jesus Christ, extremely violent persecutions broke out; first in Alexandria, Egypt, and then in Carthage, North Africa. In Alexandria, Egyptian mobs robbed, raped, and killed believers in the name of destroying Christianity. Many believers were martyred at this time, faithful to their Saviour to the end, refusing to say Caesar is Lord and offer incense to Roman gods, and many ways were used to try to dissuade them. A mother and two sisters were slowly burned to death with boiling pitch; the officer assigned to their execution did his best to shield them from the abuse of spectators as they died, and was himself converted by the witness of one of the girls, and later beheaded for his faith. And there are many other such accounts. In Carthage, a group of believers were harassed by wild beasts and died together in the arena; among them were two young women, Perpetua and Felicity, both very famous martyrs for their stand for the Lord before they were horribly killed. 194 195ARTEMAS Monarchian heretic who taught that the Saviour was a mere man. He was associated with Theodotus at Rome about 195 and lived on to influence Paul of Samosata [see 268]. 196AFRICA ROMAN Around this time writings by Christians show that there were thriving churches in and around Carthage and other Romanised towns in North Africa. The Latin Bible was now complete with close ties binding this region to Rome. Some 70 bishops attended the Council of Carthage which discussed the re-baptism of heretics. African Christianity owed its distinct features mainly to Tertullian [see 200] who created a Latin African Christian culture. It became a Bible based culture interpreted literally to the exclusion of other literature. It was enthusiastic and majored on apocalyptic areas. The church suffered greatly in the persecutions of Decius [see 249] and Valerian [see 253]. In Cyprian, bishop of Carthage [see 251], this faith was wedded to Church organisation with their frequent councils being ahead of other branches of Christianity. Diocletians Great Persecution [see 303] was foreshadowed by military martyrdoms in North Africa where alone in the West it really hit hard. Two important writers emerged Arnobius the Elder [see 304] and Lactantius [see 303]. [Africa Roman continued see 396] 197 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian" \o "Tertullian" Tertullian writes that Christianity had penetrated all ranks of society in North Africa.198MARK I [198-211] Bishop of Byzantium succeeded Olympianus [see 187]. His bishopric was in the time of Emperor Septimus Severus who severely persecuted Christians. Because of the severity of the persecution it is said that he may have been absent from the bishopric for up to 8 years. 199ZEPHYRINUS Bishop of Rome [199217]. He was involved in a great deal of conflict in the church to do with Monarchianism [see 200]. A breakaway group which taught this heresy was led by two disciples of the excommunicated Theodotus the tanner. One of the disciples, a money changer whose name was Theodotus also, was excommunicated by Zephyrinus for the part he played, in that he paid a substantial salary to Natalius to be bishop of the breakaway group. (Later, Natalius very repentant was readmitted into the church.) Hippolytus [see 217], a presbyter and teacher in the church of Rome, vigorously opposed the spread of Monarchianism, and severely criticised Zephyrinus for not taking a strong enough stand against the heresy. Zephyrinus is honoured as a martyr by tradition but there is no mention of this in Foxes Book of Martyrs or by Eusebius who simply remarks that Zephyrinus, the bishop of Rome, departed this life after having charge of the church eighteen years. He succeeded Victor I [see 189] and was succeeded by Calixtus I [see 217]. 200ADOPTIANISM This view came out of the Monarchian Heresy (see below) and is also called the Dynamic view, where the Father, the one divine person, adopted or called the Saviour, the man Jesus, to be the Son of God and divinely energised him with the Holy Spirit (some said at his birth, most said at his baptism). This was the view of Artemas and Theodotus [see 195], Paul of Samosata [see 268], and others in Spain in the eighth century. MODALISM This view also came out of the Monarchian Heresy where there is only one divine person, but he reveals himself under different modes; previous to the incarnation God was revealed under the mode of Father, but now the Father manifests himself in the flesh under the mode of Son. This view was taught in Rome around 200 by Praxeas, Noetus, and others (all who were believed to have come from Asia Minor), and was hotly refuted by Hippolytus [see 217], and by Tertullian [see below] writing from North Africa. Because their doctrine led one to conclude that it was the Father who suffered, Tertullian coined the name Patripassians for them, and remarked in his work Against Praxeas that such a view put the Paraclete to flight and crucified the Father. This view was also known as Sabellianism, Sabellius being an able exponent in Rome who developed the heresy a little more in that God, the one divine person, expressed himself in three modes: as Father in creation; as Son in redemption; and as Holy Spirit in sanctification. MONARCHIANISM This heresy declared that there is only one divine person, the Father. It came about from the unwillingness to accept the divinely revealed truth that God is one in three persons; one identical essence belonging to each member of the Godhead. In his refutation Tertullian coined the name Monarchians for those who taught the heresy, and the word Trinity to encompass this complex doctrine. There were two forms of the Monarchian heresy: Adoptianism or Dynamic, and Modalism. TERTULLIAN [c.150-220] One of the church fathers. Sometimes called the father of Latin Theology. He was born in Carthage North Africa around 150, and received an exceptional education in grammar, rhetoric, literature, philosophy, and law. Tertullian was probably a lawyer; Eusebius says he was A man who made himself accurately acquainted with the laws of the Romans, and Henry Sheldon agrees that the style of his writings is also strongly suggestive of training in such a vocation. He was converted at about 40 years of age and became a teacher in the church at Carthage. Soon after his conversion Tertullian began writing books promoting the Christian faith. Thirty-one of his works in Latin survive but all his Greek work has been lost. In general, his writings cover three categories: defence of the faith; doctrinal; and moral issues. In Tertullians writings we have the ground work for many of Christianities central doctrines: he wrote of the Trinity as being three persons in one substance; the divine and human natures of Christ; the subjection of man to original sin; and Christs virgin birth and bodily resurrection. His influence is seen later in the writings of Athanasius and then Augustine in the development of the theology of the West. Of crucial benefit was his emphasis on the practical side of Christianity. Tertullian coined many words and phrases. He was the first person to apply the word Trinity to the deity of the Godhead (in his work against Monarchianism), and the memorable phrase The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church comes from Tertullians work The Apology, written to Rulers of the Roman Empire in which he told them in the last chapter the oftener we are mown down by you, the more in number we grow, the blood of Christians is seed; the phrases God bless, and God grant first appeared in his works. His writing is full of puns, wit, sarcasm, and vehement denunciation of opponents. One writer said that his whole character could be summed up in one word passion, that with Tertullian moderation was impossible; he went to extremes both in hatred and love, but every act and word was the result of deep conviction, a sincere and earnest passion for truth. Another writer says that the image of the man we see is strong, even to hardness; it is strained, incorrect, African, but irresistible. Tertullian himself said of patience, I possess it not, and that it was something he sighed after and pleaded to God for since the lack of it made him miserable. Tertullian had a Christian wife, and when she died he remained a widower. Extremely ascetic regarding ethics and discipline, and becoming dissatisfied with what he considered laxity, Tertullian left the church in Carthage around 207 and joined the separatist sect called Montanists [see 172]. His last writings date from around 220 and are coloured by Montanist views. 201 210 AD 201 202Severus adopted an anti-Christian policy and forbad anybody becoming a Christian, promising death to any who witnessed to others about the Lord Jesus Christ 203PERPETUA [d.203] Young Carthaginian noble and martyr. Mother of a baby son she was arrested with four fellow Christians including Felicitas who bore a daughter prematurely while in prison. They were baptised and joined by another Christian Saturus with whom Perpetua died in the amphitheatre. The Passion of Perpetua incorporates accounts of their prison experiences especially visions by Perpetua and Saturus. 204 205 206 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abgar" \o "Abgar" ABGAR, King of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osroene" \o "Osroene" Edessa, embraces the Christian faith.207 208 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian" \o "Tertullian" Tertullian writes that Christ has followers on the far side of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" \o "Hadrian's Wall" Roman wall in Britain where Roman legions have not yet penetrated. 209 210 211 220 AD 211ASLIPIADES Primate of Antioch [211-217] see also 191 and 220. Aslipiades is said to have been martyred hence the gap between him and his successor possibly due to the see being vacant. CATACOMBS Situated in Rome, the catacombs were built to provide resting places for the bodies of departed Christians. The catacomb of St Calixtus is the first Christian cemetery. Zephyrinus, bishop of Rome, placed a senior deacon, Calixtus (who would become next bishop), in charge of the burial grounds, and the oldest catacomb was later named after him. There are about 40 catacombs in Rome (named after various saints), most of them by the side of main roads leading into the city. They are situated (roughly) in a circle that has a radius of about 5 kilometres from the centre of the city. Catacombs are subterranean chambers and galleries (connected by passages), that have recesses hewn out of the rock sidewalls where the bodies were placed and then sealed with marble slabs or tiles. Some of the catacombs have more than one level. During times of persecution they were used for holding worship services. The name catacomb was first used of the Christian cemeteries in Rome, but this type of burial had existed before in other countries. In the last decades of the nineteenth century a leading investigator found evidence that three or four of the catacombs were commenced within the first century. CATACOMB PAINTING The earliest Christian artwork is to be found in the Catacombs. Walls were decorated with Christian paintings and symbols, such as the fish, the lamb, the anchor, the palm, the crown, the dove, the olive branch, the shepherd, and the cross (the crucifixion of Christ is nowhere to be seen in the pictures of the first three centuries). The inscriptions in the Catacombs testify to the early churches recognition of the Saviours divinity: God, the Lord Christ; God Christ Almighty; God, holy Christ, only light; To Christ, the one holy God. Everywhere the resurrection is attested to in numerous inscriptions and in the painting of biblical scenes (dated to this time) such as Jonah and the great fish, and the raising of Lazarus. Other than paintings there are objects of interest such as gilt glasses, different styles of lamps, terra-cotta vases, and childrens toys. CARACALLA Roman emperor [211217]. His famous edict in the year 212 and the colossal Caracalla baths in Rome are considered the only achievements of a man said to be one of the most bloodthirsty tyrants in Roman history. Caracalla was the son of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna (the older sister of Julia Maesa, both famous and influential in Rome, and were from the Syrian family of hereditary high priests of the sun-god Baal at Emesa). Caracalla was for the most part tolerant of both the Christian and Jewish faiths, but deeply superstitious himself, and followed magical practises. However, in 215 persecution erupted in Alexandria, and Caracalla is said to have perpetrated a massacre in the city. Caracalla was murdered by an officer of the Roman army at the beginning of a second campaign against the Parthians. PHILADELPHUS Bishop of Byzantium [211-217] succeeded Marcus I [see 198]. There is no additional information readily available. 212ROMAN CITIZENSHIP given to all freeborn subjects of the empire by the edict of Caracalla. 213ALEXANDER Primate of Jerusalem [213-251] see 99 and 251. Alexander permitted HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Origen" \o "Origen" Origen, although only a HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Laity" \o "Laity" layman, to speak in the churches. For this concession he was taken to task, but he defended himself by examples of other permissions of the same kind given elsewhere even to Origen himself, although he was then quite young. Alexander and Origen were said to have studied together in the great HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Catechetical_School_of_Alexandria" \o "Catechetical School of Alexandria" Catechetical School of Alexandria. Alexander HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Ordination" \o "Ordination" ordained him a HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Priest" \o "Priest" priest in 230. In spite of his advancing years, Alexander, with several other bishops, was arrested during the 249-251 persecutions of the Church under emperor Decius and was carried off to Cappadocia. Of his imprisonment, it has been said, "The glory of his white hairs and great sanctity formed a double crown for him in captivity". He suffered many tortures, but survived them all. When, in the arena, the wild beasts were brought to devour him, some licked his feet, and others lay on the sand of the arena. Worn out by his sufferings, he died in prison in the year 251. 214 215 216 217CALIXTUS I Bishop of Rome [217222]. As senior deacon, Calixtus had been in charge of the clergy and the catacombs, and was preferred over Hippolytus by the church in Rome to succeed Zephyrinus. According to Hippolytus, Calixtus was a slave who had been deported to Sardinia for fraud, but released at the request of Marcia, a Christian and chosen mistress of Commodus. He succeeded Zephyrinus [see 199] and was succeeded by Urban I [see 222]. Controversy and criticism filled the five years that Calixtus was bishop; most of the criticism coming from Hippolytus and Tertullian. Both were astounded at the policy of Calixtus, which they considered lax toward erring clergy and laity, and allowed grievous sinners who were repentant to return to the fellowship. Repentant adulterers and fornicators, repentant excommunicants, repentant apostates, all were allowed to return. Widowed clergy and bishops were allowed to remarry (considered a no-no) and remain in office. Second baptism was also permitted, and since most Christians in this day believed that baptism cancelled previous sins but serious lapses after could not be forgiven by the church, this too was unacceptable to his antagonists. Calixtus believed that no sin was unforgivable and he quoted Romans 14:4, and Matthew 13:29-30. Marriage between social classes was permitted, and the bridge of class distinction that was most offensive during this day was noblewomen marrying freed slaves, but according to Calixtus these were barriers that could not be defended by the church. Another earlier accusation was that he favoured the Modalistic heresy, but Calixtus was the bishop who condemned the teaching of Sabellius and excommunicated him (Sabellianism was the developed form of this Monarchian heresy [see the year 200). CYRIACUS I Bishop of Byzantium [217-230] succeeded Philadelphus [see 211] Little is known of Cyriacus I other than he held the position of bishop of Byzantium for a number of years. HIPPOLYTUS [170235] The most important third-century theologian in the Western church and regarded in church history as the first antipope. The creed Hippolytus wrote in his work Apostolic Tradition, which was for baptismal candidates, is very similar to the creeds still in use in the West (whilst the Eastern church prefers to use the Nicene creed). Hippolytus wrote in Greek, and his most important works were Refutation of All Heresies and Apostolic Tradition. In his refutation he maintained that all Christian heresies could be traced to pagan philosophies. In Apostolic Tradition we have preserves for us a conservative picture of church order and worship in Rome at the end of the second century. He also wrote a Commentary on Daniel which is the oldest Christian Bible commentary to survive in its entirety. Hippolytus was a presbyter and teacher in the church of Rome when Zephyrinus was bishop, and he accused the bishop of being lax in regard to enforcing the churchs position against heresy. Hippolytus fought vigorously against the Monarchian heresy (see 200) being a champion himself of the Logos doctrine which distinguished the persons of the Trinity. Even though he was recognised in Rome as a scholar with considerable talent he was overlooked to succeed Zephyrinus and the senior deacon Calixtus was made bishop. The charitable policy of Calixtus in the acceptance back into the church of repentant sinners was unacceptable to Hippolytus who was a rigorist. He departed, and his followers made him their bishop (hence he is known as an antipope). He continued his attack on laxity, severely criticising Calixtus, and the following two bishops, Urban and Pontian. Later, in 235 during the persecution of Emperor Maximinus, Hippolytus was sent to the mines of Sardinia, as was Pontian, and reconciliation was made there. Theologically he taught a Logos doctrine inherited from Justin Martyr. He distinguished two states to the Lagos, the one internal and imminent, the other exterior and temporal. He seems to have been the first scholar to construct a Paschal table that was independent of contemporary Judaism. MACRINUS Roman emperor [217218]. He was the first to rule the empire without having achieved senatorial status. He was praetorian prefect when proclaimed emperor by the guards three days after Caracalla was murdered by an army officer. Caracalla at the time, had been engaged against the Parthians, and Macrinus continued the campaign, but after an inconclusive battle, he agreed to a peace deal that was unfavourable to Rome. He lost the support of most of his troops to the cousin of Caracalla, Elagabalus, and fled with the rest toward Italy. He was overtaken, defeated in battle, and executed near Antioch, Syria. 218ELAGABALUS Roman Emperor [218222]. He was fourteen years of age when the legions in Syria proclaimed him emperor. The family of Elagabalus on his mothers side were hereditary high priests of the sun-god Baal at Emesa, Syria, and worshipped under the name of Elah-Gabal (hence his name). When he succeeded to the empire he imposed the worship of Baal on the Roman world. He was noted not only for his eccentric behaviour but also for the homosexual orgies he openly held which outraged Roman society. The real power in his government was his grandmother Julia Maesa, and he was persuaded by her to adopt his cousin Alexander as his heir. When he changed his mind and attempted to oust him from the position, the Praetorian Guards killed Elagabalus and his mother Julia Soemias (daughter of Maesa), and made Alexander emperor. 219 220PHILETUS Primate of Antioch [220-231] see also 211 and 231. 221-230 AD 221 222ALEXANDER SEVERUS Roman emperor [222235]. Alexander, who was of a docile nature, was fourteen years old when he succeeded to power, the same age his cousin had been before him. And likewise, as it had been before, the authority during his reign was held by his grandmother Julia Maesa, as well as his mother Julia Mamaea (another daughter of Maesas). There were frequent disorders in Rome at this time and some historians say it was due to large sections of the civilian and military populace losing faith in the government. In 232 Alexander went to battle against an invading force of Persians in the province of Mesopotamia, and although the advance was halted, his ineptitude as a commander alienated the army. When he was called to the Rhine to fight the invading Germanic tribe of the Alemanni, he ended operations by buying peace with them (said to be the counsel of Mamaea who accompanied her son on both campaigns). The soldiers killed Alexander, and his mother. A soldier, Maximinus the Thracian became emperor. URBAN I Bishop of Rome [222230]. Urban was bishop during a period of relative calm both within and without the church. For the short duration of the reigns of Emperors Macrinus, Elagabalus, and Alexander, the Christians were left in peace for a period of eighteen years. According to tradition it was while Urban was bishop of Rome that silver became the material for sacred vessels rather than glass which had been favoured by the early church. He succeeded Calixtus I [see 217] and was succeeded by Pontian [see 230]. 223 224CECELIA Martyr who died during the reign of Bishop Urban. She was killed after her husband and brother in law had been martyred for burying the bodies of martys. It is said that as she met her death she was singing a hymn thus she became associated with music. Both Purcell and Handel composed Odes to St Cecilia. 225ORIGEN [185254] Alexandrian theologian who used the allegorical method of interpreting Scripture, and is considered a church father. Origen wrote an incredible number of books, most of which are lost, with only fragments surviving in the original Greek and some works preserved in Latin copies. He was said to be of a tolerant and gentle nature, a man in whom passion was subject to reason, who took pleasure in calm discussion. He did not lack enthusiasm, but self-control characterised him more than intensity. One writer, in contrasting the natures of Origen and Tertullian [see 200], said, the former met opponents upon the open field of honest discussion, and in conferences peacefully conducted, while the latter, if he ever deigned to argue with a heretic, opened the argument with vehement accusation or abusive sarcasm. Origen spoke and wrote in Greek, and learned Hebrew for his exegetical work. He was one of the first to attempt a systematic theology, called On First Principles in five books. He also compiled a huge study edition of the Bible called the "Hexapla" which put in six parallel columns, the Hebrew text of the Old Testament; a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew; a Greek translation by Aquila; a Greek translation by Simmachus; the Septuagint (in the columns of which Origen wrote corrections based on the Hebrew); and a Greek translation by Theodotion. He wrote commentaries on nearly all the books of the Bible, treatises on various subjects, and homilies from various books. He wrote a huge commentary on Johns Gospel to refute the teaching of Heracleon, who had written a Gnostic commentary on Johns Gospel (Heracleon was a follower of Valentinus, see 138). Origen wrote a vindication of Christianity called Against Celsus when this unbeliever wrote a work called The True Word in which he thought he had exposed Christianity through ridiculing every foundational doctrine of the Scriptures. Origen was born in Egypt into a Christian family. His father Leonides was martyred during the persecution under Septimius Severus which began in 202, and his seventeen year old son was prevented from joining him by his mother who hid his clothes. Origen became provider for his mother and six younger brothers. He had been educated by his father, and as a likely prodigy was able to continue his study through the generosity of a wealthy widow. He earned an income by teaching grammar, his lessons becoming so popular that he had to have an assistant for beginners and took advanced classes himself. He studied at the Catechetical School of Clement in Alexandria, and became head of the school himself for twenty eight years. His fame began to spread, and upon the request of the governor of Arabia he visited that province. In 215, during the persecution of Emperor Caracalla in Alexandria, Origen went to Palestine for a time, where the bishops of Caesarea and Jerusalem invited him to preach. Upon hearing of it, his own bishop in Alexandria, Demetrius, who was unhappy with this breach of protocol since Origen was a layman, summoned him home. Origen returned and resumed his charge of the school in Alexandria, becoming so famous that pagans and Christians alike came from near and far to hear him, eager for instruction, including the emperors mother, Julia Mamaea, who sent for him that she might also see and hear for herself. Origens writing and teaching didnt hinder him from going abroad, he travelled to Rome where he heard Hippolytus teach, and went to Greece in 230 to dispute with a Gnostic, Candidus (a follower of Valentinus). On the way, while in Palestine, he was again asked to preach by the bishops of Caesarea and Jerusalem, and this time he was ordained by them. Bishop Demetrius condemned his ordination and being appalled by Origens doctrinal views which had been aired in the dispute with Candidus, deprived him of his teaching post. (It was the opinion of the Gnostic Candidus that salvation and damnation are predestinate, independent of volition, which opinion he defended on the ground that Satan is beyond repentance. Origen replied that if Satan fell by freewill, even he can repent.) Origen never returned to Egypt, he established a school in Caesarea, and continued to teach and write. In 238, during the persecution of Emperor Maximinus the Thracian, Origen took refuge for a time in Cappadocia. In 250 however, he was arrested during the persecution of Decius, imprisoned and horribly tortured; it failed in its purpose for he did not renounce Christ. Released in 251, but weakened by injuries, he died in 254. Historians of the period of the Crusades attested to his tomb at Tyre. ORIGENS ALLEGORICAL SPECULATIONS Because of his doctrinal speculations Origen was both admired and hated in his own day and later. His adulteration of the Gospel with pagan philosophy was viewed with suspicion: he made the Son inferior to the Father; the resurrection of the body was spiritualised away; he denied the existence of Hell; believed in the pre-existence of souls; dissolved redemption into a timeless myth by using allegory. Origen speculated that souls fell varying distances from the Father, some to be angels, some descending into human bodies, and the more wicked becoming devils. One soul had not fallen, this is the pre-existent Son. His speculations concluded that Redemption, which was a grand education by providence, will eventually restore all souls to their original blessedness, for none, not even Satan, is so depraved and lost to rationality as to be beyond redemption. When all souls have been restored the whole drama may very well begin again (he thought this continuing cycle quite possible). His view was that hell cannot be an absolute since God cannot abandon any creature, but because of His respect for freedom it may take time, but Gods love will ultimately triumph. The bishop in Rome at this time called a synod which condemned his teaching, then after Origens death opposition mounted; it was denounced in an edict issued in 543, and in 553 at the fifth ecumenical council at Constantinople his teaching was condemned. ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE It is the method of interpretation which seeks to find a deeper moral, theological, and spiritual meaning behind the literal text. It is an unrestrained and individual method of interpretation, which naturally lends itself to widely differing results from interpreters. In allegorical interpretation, the literal and objective meaning of a text is either irrelevant or of only secondary importance, since the true meaning is more than likely unconnected to the obvious statement or the historical setting. The intention therefore of the original author may not count at all in determining the true meaning of a biblical passage, since external and obvious features of the writing are but clues pointing beyond themselves to spiritual meanings. Therefore allegory, in separating a text from its original, grammatical, and historical setting, is unable to provide a basis for contradictory interpretations of the same passage since one may interpret as one wishes. The allegorical method began in the Alexandrian School of Clement and Origen. They were heavily influenced by Philo (bc20-50ad), an Alexandrian Jew who used allegory to interpret the Old Testament. The Alexandrians employed allegory as their principle method of interpreting both the Old and New Testaments; they sought to understand Scripture by imagining what God would want to communicate. According to David A Hubbard, Origen devoted his monumental talent to allegorising the OT, and where the literal sense seemed absurd, unworthy, or immoral, he virtually disowned it in favour of the spiritual. Origen thought the book of Revelation one big allegory, i.e. a veiled presentation where the meaning is implied but not expressly stated, and the job of the allegorist is to dig out the full reality of the truth. The truth is that allegorical interpretation places on Scripture a meaning that it never intended to convey. Generally, the apostolic and early church fathers favoured the literal approach to interpretation until the fifth century, when Augustine developed a complete eschatology based on allegorising Scripture. This unfortunately led to the Satanic doctrine of replacement theology, whereby the Church replaces Israel, the Church is spiritual Israel. It is Satanic because it leads to Anti-Semitism; it is Satanic because it makes worthless the promises of God. The allegorical approach then spread through the Western church in the Middle Ages, and for almost a thousand years much of the literal and historical meaning of Bible passages was obscured with mystical interpretations. Allegorists always had their critics, and there were those who were openly opposed, but it wasnt until the reformation (sixteenth century) that this method of interpretation was seriously challenged. 226 227 228 229 230ALEXANDRIAN THEOLOGY came to its peak of influence under Origen [see 225]. The coming of Christianity to Alexandria is generally attributed to the gospel writer Mark. However it was not until the start of the third century that it became important as a seat of Christian theology with Pantaenus [see 180] being the first head of the school. The three main features of the school was evangelism, instruction in Christian morals and training in Divine Wisdom. During the fourth century the school increasingly passed into obscurity though Alexandria has bishops such as Alexander and Athanasius who led the attack on Arianism and were foremost in the establishment of Christian orthodoxy. The main opponent to the Alexandrian school was that of Antioch. CASTINUS Bishop of Byzantium [230-237] succeeded Cyriacus I [see 217]. Upon conversion he is said to have given up all of his possessions to the poor and devoted himself solely to the Church. He built a temple in Byzantium in memory of St Euphernia. Until then the Cathedral temple had been situated at the sea at a place now called Galatas. FIRMILIAN [d.268] Bishop of Caesarea from about 230. Great admirer of Origen, they exchanged visits and Firmilian was able to study under him. He was clearly a man of great influence in the East, but his only surviving work is a letter to Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. In this he supports Cyprian's contention that baptism belongs to the Church alone and is therefore invalid outside its confines. He presided over at least one synod in 264 to deal with the heretical Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, and died at Tarsus on his way to Antioch to a further synod to decide this issue. PONTIAN Bishop of Rome [230235]. When Emperor Alexander was assassinated in 235, his successor Maximinus decreed that all church leaders be sent to the mines of Sardinia. Both Pontian and his rival Hippolytus were condemned to the mines. They were reconciled, and Hippolytus exhorted his followers back in Rome to be reconciled with their brethren, and so the schism ended. Both had resigned when exiled to make way for a successor (Anterus became next bishop of Rome). Both died martyrs in Sardinia; Pontian was beaten to death, and Hippolytus was tied to a horse and dragged over the countryside to his death. Both their bodies were brought home by the church for burial. The date of Pontians resignation, September 28, 235 (found in 1909 on his inscription in the catacomb of St. Calixtus) is the first specific date in the history of bishops and popes of Rome. It was Pontian who summoned the synod in Rome which condemned the teachings of Origen. He succeeded Urban [see 222] and was succeeded by Anterus [see 235]. 231-240 AD 231ZENOBIUS Primate of Antioch [231-237] see also 220 and 237. 232HERACLAS Patriarch of Alexandria [232-248] see 189 and 248. Alexandrian scholar and bishop who had a pagan background and with his brother Plutarch met Origen at the lectures of the philosopher Ammonius Saccas and became one of Origens disciples. He succeeded Origen [see 230] as head of renowned Catechetical School of Alexandria when it went to Caesarea. He became bishop of Alexandria in succession to Demetrius in 232. During his episcopate the numbers of bishops increased from 4 to 24. He was succeeded as bishop by Dionysius who was another of Origens pupils. He was the first to receive the title Archbishop and Patriarch of Alexandria. 233 234 235ANTERUS Bishop of Rome [235236]. When Pontian resigned upon being exiled to the mines of Sardinia, Anterus was elected as his successor, but died forty days later; whether as a martyr is not known. During his short time as bishop however, he ordered that the acts of the martyrs be compiled and stored in church archives. He succeeded Pontian [see 230] and was succeeded by Fabian [see 236]. MAXIMINUS THRAX (The Thracian) Roman emperor [235238] He was the seventh emperor to persecute the Christian church, and his reign marked the beginning of half a century of civil war. Maximinus was the first soldier to rise through the ranks and become emperor, and he spent most of his reign fighting invading tribes along the Danube and the Rhine. In 238 a group of landowners in Africa who were discontented with imperial taxation, rebelled, and proclaimed Gordian, the elderly proconsul of Africa, emperor, and he was recognised by the Roman senate. Maximinus and his troops descended into Italy but were halted by the city of Aquileia, which they then put under siege. Maximinus was a cruel person who not only persecuted Christians but practically everyone else as well; an eight foot giant of a man with immense strength. When the siege dragged on with the heavy resistance of Aquileia, his soldiers lost confidence in him and one day when he stepped down from his specially made chariot to relieve himself, about 50 of them jumped him, and after about an hour they finally killed him. PERSECUTION UNDER MAXIMINUS THRAX Maximinus decreed that all church leaders be sent to the mines in Sardinia, which was a sentence of death. Other Christian leaders were also put to death; at this time in Rome there were many believers who had positions in the civil service because of their honesty and integrity; martyrdoms in Rome included two senators and their families. Many in Caesarea were tortured, and in Cappadocia the governor did all he could to exterminate the Christians from that province. During this persecution, numberless Christians were slain without trial, cast into pits and buried indiscriminately in heaps. They suffered the rack, were beheaded, crucified, burnt, or put to sea in rotten vessels. 236FABIAN Bishop of Rome [236250]. According to Eusebius, Fabians appointment was a remarkable one since he had previously not been considered as a candidate. He had arrived from the country for the ordination of the successor to Anterus for which there were many eminent candidates, but when a dove alighted on Fabians head during the convocation it was considered a sign from God, and he was elected unanimously. As bishop, Fabian appointed clerks to register the deeds of the martyrs. He divided Rome into seven ecclesiastical districts and assigned seven deacons to their administration over which he ruled as bishop. (This was a further move toward a structured hierarchy within the church. Ignatius first wrote of a three-tiered hierarchy i.e. one bishop, with several elders and deacons when he was bishop of Antioch [98-117]. In the New Testament church structure, elder, pastor and bishop are interchangeable terms used for the same office.) Fabian had a few years of relative peace during his time as bishop until Decius became emperor. He was the first to be martyred in the Decius persecution, and there was no bishop in Rome for sixteen months. He succeeded Anterus [see 235] and was succeeded by Cornelius [see 251]. 237BABYLAS Primate of Antioch [237-253] see also 231 and 253, succeeded Zebinus as bishop of Antioch. Babylas was known for his courage, from having been the bishop who forestalled Emperor Philip the Arabian when he attempted to join the church in celebrating the Christian Passover. Philip would be allowed to attend only after he carried out all the requirements showing that he had numbered himself with the transgressors to which he is said to have cheerfully agreed. During the Decian persecution Babylas was imprisoned and martyred in 250 causing a cult following to emerge in Antioch. His body was buried in the Temple to Apollo in Daphne but in 362 Emperor Julian the Apostate [see 361], frustrated by not being able to acquire oracles from a spring at the temple ordered the coffin of Babylas to be removed and it was reburied in a Christian cemetery. Within a year the temple was destroyed by fire. EUGENIUS I Bishop of Byzantium [237-242] succeeded Castinus [see 230] during the reign of Gordian [see 238]. There is no additional information readily available. 238GORDIAN I, GORDIAN II Joint Roman Emperors in 238. A group of landowners in Africa rebelled against the taxation of Emperor Maximinus by killing his tax collectors, and they proclaimed Gordian who was the proconsul of Africa, emperor. The senate acknowledged the aged Gordian, and made his son joint-ruler as Gordian II, but they ruled for only three weeks. The father killed himself when he heard the news that his son had been killed in a battle with the governor of Numidia. GORDIAN III Roman Emperor [238244]. His mother was the authority in government in the beginning, and later his father-in-law, who was Praetorian prefect. Gordian (accompanied by his father-in-law) led a large army into Mesopotamia to battle against the Persians in 242, but while there in 243 his father-in-law died of an illness and Philip the Arabian became Praetorian prefect. It had been a disastrous campaign for the Romans. In 244, Gordian was murdered by the troops and succeeded by Philip, who made peace with the Persians. PUPIENUS & BULBINUS Joint Roman Emperors [238]. The Senate proclaimed two elderly senators, Pupienus, and Balbinus, joint emperors. However, the people and the Praetorian Guard in Rome distrusted this move, and insisted on making 13-year-old Gordian caesar and heir to the throne (he was the grandson and nephew of the deceased Gordians). However both Pupienus and Balbinus were killed by the Praetorian Guard and the young 14 year old caesar was proclaimed sole emperor as Gordian III. 239 240JULIUS AFRICANUS, SEXTUS [d. c.240] Christian scholar who travelled widely during his military service. He later impressed Emperor Severus [see 222] so much that he was commissioned to organise his public library in Rome. In his five volume work Julius attempted to synchronise sacred and profane history and predicted that the world would last 6000 years and that Christ had been born in the year 5500. His two surviving letters show that he corresponded with Origen arguing that the story of Susannah cannot be regarded as canonical because the evidence is against it having a Hebrew original. The other was to an unknown Aristides on the differences in the genealogies of Christ in Matthew and Luke. MANICHAEISM Mani was from an aristocratic Parthian family and grew up in South Babylon. Revelations at the ages of 12 and 24 lead him to leave the community of his youth and after study and meditation to embark in 240 upon his mission to proclaim the revealed truth. After conversion of members of his family he spent time in India before returning to the centre of the Persian Empire where he had royal princes among his followers. Under the patronage of King Shapur I he was able to write six books which made up the Manichaean Canon and was able to travel widely throughout the empire spreading his message. Eventually however a new ruler arrived and he was summoned to court and imprisoned. The doctrines of Mani are highly mythological. Two principles light and dark, God and matter, are eternal. The religious practice of many followers was ascetic being vegetarian and abstinence from sexual activity. At length, Mani taught that after the second coming of Jesus and the millennial reign the elect are reunited with light and the creation will be destroyed. 241-250 AD 241 242TITUS Bishop of Byzantium [242-272] succeeded Eugenius I [see 237]. During his term in Office the persecution of Christians under emperors Decius, Gallus, and Valerian took place. 243 244BERYLLUS OF BOSTRA Bishop who was accused of trying to introduce the Monarchian heresy into his church. A synod was convened in Bostra, where Beryllus is said to have been questioned. According to Eusebius he was brought around to a sound opinion again by Origen. (Origen himself however was considered heretical at this time). PHILIP THE ARABIAN Roman emperor [244249]. Philip was born in Bostra, in the Roman province of Arabia. He was a member of a distinguished equestrian family of Arab descent. The city of Bostra (108km south of Damascus) achieved the title of metropolis while Philip was emperor. Bostra had been a Nabataean city and was made the capital of the province of Arabia when Trajan annexed the kingdom in 105-106. Philip rose through the ranks of the equestrian order to become emperor when Gordian III was murdered by his troops while engaged against the Persians in Mesopotamia, and some believe the mutiny was instigated by Philip, who was Praetorian prefect at the time. After concluding peace with Shapur I, by giving up Roman conquests in northern Mesopotamia, Philip undertook a series of campaigns against the Goths and other tribes on the Danube. Decius, one of Philips commanders on the Danube was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 249, and Philip led an army against him but was killed in a battle near Verona. On record, there is a famous account between Babylas, bishop of Antioch, and Emperor Philip. The bishop is said to have refused the emperor access into the church without first showing repentance. Eusebius maintained that Philip was a Christian, but church historian Henry Sheldon says this is unlikely, given Gibbons account of the heathen pomp in which Philip celebrated in 248 the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome, and the fact that Origen says nothing about it even though he was in communication with the emperor. 245 246 247 248DIONYSIUS THE GREAT Patriarch of Alexandria [248-264] see 232 and 265. Dionysius studied at the famous Catechetical School of Alexandria under Origen, and became head of the school around 232. He was made bishop of Alexandria in 247. He was arrested in the persecution of Decius in 250 but escaped and fled to the Libyan desert until the death of Decius in 251. Upon his return Dionysius was faced with the controversies that had arisen from the great persecution. He had to make decisions about how to treat church members who had apostatised, and Dionysius took a lenient position, readmitting them if they were repentant. Another issue was whether a persons baptism was valid if they had been baptised by a separatist or a heretic, or did they need to be rebaptised before admittance into the congregation. Dionysius accepted as valid all baptisms done in the name of the Trinity, and in regard to this controversy he sought to make peace between Stephen and Cyprian, bishops of Rome and Carthage, who were locked in battle. During the persecution of Valerian, Dionysius was exiled in 257, but returned to his church in 260. In his last years he was suspected of teaching Sabellianism (a heresy regarding the Trinity), and correspondence passed between himself and the bishop of Rome, but was settled with his writing of the doctrine of the Godhead. And later on, Athanasius will verify (if any doubt still existed), that the doctrine of Dionysius on the Godhead was orthodox. Dionysius, like his predecessors in the School of Alexandria, denounced those who believed in the 1,000 year earthly reign of Christ; he did not believe the book of Revelation could be interpreted literally. Out of the School of Alexandria came the allegorical interpretation of Scripture. 249DECIUS Roman Emperor [249251] who attempted to exterminate all Christians in the empire. He was the eighth emperor to systematically persecute the church. Born in the province of Pannonia (Serbia, Yugoslavia), Decius was a senator and proconsul before he succeeded to the empire. He was accepted by the senate after his troops on the Danube proclaimed him emperor and Philip the Arabian was killed in the ensuing battle between the rival armies. This was that time in history when the Goths were flooding across the Danube; they overran the provinces of Moesia and Thrace, besieging the towns. The Roman armies surrounded them but they refused to surrender, and in the final engagement of the campaign Decius and his elder son were killed in battle near the Black Sea. 250ABELONIANS who were an obscure North African sect known only from the writings of Augustine had been active around Hippo but by 428 had ceased to exist. Both marriage and total sexual abstinence were mandated with a boy and girl being obtained by adoption who after the death of both parents themselves married and adopted a boy and girl. PERSECUTION UNDER DECIUS In January of 250 Decius issued an edict designed to reinstate by force throughout the empire the old pagan religions of Rome. All subjects of the empire were ordered to offer a sacrifice of incense to idols in the presence of commissioners, and they would receive a certificate called libelli (meaning little book) that verified their obedience and willingness to worship Roman gods. For Christians this was an order to deny that Jesus Christ alone is Lord. Huge numbers of believers were martyred across the expanse of the empire because they refused. Violent persecutions raged in Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, Smyrna, Troas, in Phrygia, and Bithynia, on the islands of Crete and Sicily, and in Nice, to name some. Fabian, the bishop of Rome was the first to be martyred in this persecution. Some Christians were beheaded or stoned to death; others were crucified or set on fire in the stadiums, or put in a bag with serpents and scorpions. The pupils of a Christian schoolmaster were allowed to stab him to death with their iron writing styles (pens). Many believers having been tortured, passed away in prisons, the stories that are preserved are horrific. Some were stretched upon a wheel until all their bones were broken. They had their feet pierced with nails and were dragged through the streets, scourged, torn with hooks, and scorched with lighted torches. One Christian lady was scourged with red-hot irons and torn with sharp hooks and laid naked on live coals intermingled with glass before being carried back to prison where she died. Christian women were often sent to public brothels, abused until they died. Preserved for us also are the reasons given by the martyrs for enduring such unimaginable suffering: I choose to die rather than to break his word. So I refuse to worship and bow down before your golden gods and, No, I shall offer the true God the acceptable sacrifice of praises and prayers, and Bodily pains will not move me away from the faith of the true God, my saviour. It is of interest that Encyclopaedia Britannica in an article on Decius comments that The suppression strengthened rather than weakened the Christian movement, for public opinion condemned the governments violence and applauded the passive resistance of the martyrs. DIONYSIUS OF PARIS [d.250] Martyr who is said to have been one of seven bishops sent to convert Gaul and that later he became bishop of Paris before becoming a martyr at Montmatre or Martyrs Hill. In 626 his remains were translated to St Denis the famous Benedictine abbey near Paris. FRANCE [see also 496] The Christian faith made its appearance in Gaul at an early date, probably in the first century. Missionaries and merchants from the East brought the Gospel to Marseille, from which town it spread up the Rhone River valley to Vienne and Lyons. Under the vigorous leadership of Irenaeus [see 177] and others, the faith spread northward reaching Paris in 250. By the time religious toleration was granted throughout the Roman Empire in the early fourth century, Christianity was well established in the cities of Gaul but had only started to penetrate the countryside. INDIA [see also 1320] The tradition of the apostle Thomas coming to India is held particularly strong by the Syrian Christians of Kerala. Thomas came to Cranganore in 52 and founded seven churches in different places in Kerala, later proceeded to the east coast and indeed beyond India, and was finally martyred at Mylapore which is in the modern city of Chennai in 72. There are early references to Thomas being in India one example being the Syriac Doctrine of the Apostles of c.250 which states that India and all its countries and those bordering on it even to the farthest sea received the Apostles hand of priesthood from Judas Thomas, who was guide and ruler in the church which he built there and ministered there. There is also mention of Dudi a bishop of Basra, leaving his see and evangelising in India [c.295 to 300]. The link, whenever it began, determined certain things of importance about the Church of Kerala as there was a distinct foreignness about having worshipping Syriacs and depending on a supply of foreign bishops. There was also an indirect link with the patriarch of Antioch via the Church of the Sassanid empire. However, what existed further north in India would hardly have survived the Muslim invasions. PIONIUS [d.250] Martyr. An elder of the Church of Smyrna who was killed in the Decian persecution. The recording of his trial and burning are available in the Greek and in two diverging Latin versions. The narrative bears impressive testimony to the martyrs character and culture and gives a valuable insight into the treatment of Christians at this time. 251-260 AD 251CORNELIUS Bishop of Rome [251253]. Due to the intense persecution of Decius it was over a year before Cornelius was elected as the successor to Fabian. Under Emperor Gallus, Cornelius was exiled to the town called Trajans Port on a stretch of coastline called Centumcellae and was eventually martyred there. The port was the main ferry link with the island of Sardinia where many church leaders were exiled to die in the mines. (Trajans Port is preserved in modern Civitavecchia, Italy.) During the time Cornelius was bishop many of those who under pressure had denied being Christians (apostatised) were now seeking to return to the fellowship and this caused much division in the church across the empire. Cornelius restored repentant apostates to the church in Rome, something which was totally unacceptable to Novation, who had departed from the church with his followers over this issue and had been made rival bishop by the separatist group. Correspondence was exchanged between Cornelius and Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, over this schism, and Cyprian wrote his famous "De Unitate Catholicae Ecclsiae", The Unity of the Catholic/Universal Church. He succeeded Fabian [see 236] and was succeeded by Lucius [see 253]. CYPRIAN [200-258] Church father, and bishop of Carthage [248258], author of "De Unitate Catholicae Ecclsiae". Born of wealthy pagan parents, Cyprian became a prominent member of Carthaginian society. His education included rhetoric, and he may have practised law in Carthage. Around 246, Cyprian was converted to Christianity and within two years, because of his complete dedication to celibacy, austerity, and the Scriptures, was elected bishop of Carthage (the largest church in Africa), a position he held until his martyrdom in 258. Cyprian wrote that from the time he became bishop he made up his mind to take no important step without asking the consent of the people as well as the advice of his clergy. His appointment however was opposed by some of the senior clergy of that church, and in particular Novatus, a presbyter whose opposition was later shown to be instigated by petty jealousy. Within months of his election Cyprian faced the persecution instituted in 250 by Decius, emperor of Rome, and went into hiding, an action for which he received a great deal of censure. He was criticised by his enemies as well as others who were ignorant of his motives; in his defence Cyprian claimed the teaching and actions of Christ: he wrote, Our Lord commanded us to yield, and to fly. He taught this, and practised it himself, and the martyrs crown comes by the grace of God, and cannot be gained before the appointed hour, he who retires for a time and remains true to Christ, does not deny his faith but only abides his time. His subsequent actions also did much in vindicating him, for it is said that, although he fled the city he remained in close proximity so as to continue vital oversight of the church, and in handing over much personal property to one of the trusted clergy, he was able to help in sustaining many during this time (this was necessary because the anti-Cyprian Novatus had appointed a wealthy layman as deacon and thus gained control of relief funds). Cyprians own martyrdom a decade later under Valerian went a long way in acquitting him of any guilt in his earlier action. The persecution under Decius resulted in a great controversy called The Lapsed about which Cyprian had a great deal to say. The Lapsed controversy involved Sacrificati, Libellatici, Lapsi, and Confessors. The edict of Decius that led to the great persecution of the church required subjects of the entire empire to offer a sacrifice of incense to idols in the presence of commissioners, for which they would receive a certificate, called libelli (liber means book, libelli means little book). Many Christians for fear of their lives apostatised by offering the sacrifice, and were thereby designated as sacrificati. Others, through sympathetic officials or by bribing the corrupt, obtained the necessary certificate as proof of compliance without having actually sacrificed, and were called libellatici. Those who used either of these means to escape the persecution were called lapsi, the lapsed brethren. Another classification of believer during the persecution was confessors. Confessors were those who had confessed their allegiance to Christ before Roman officials and although suffering torture had not actually been martyred. As the persecution lessened, the 'lapsi' wanted to return to the church, and the confessors claimed that a special dispensation from God, on account of their steadfastness, gave them the right of granting pardon for sins, and they readily allowed them back into the fellowship. For this they had the backing of some of the clergy, including Novatus, but not Cyprian who was still in hiding and his views were carried to the church; he viewed this as misappropriation of authority, doctrinally incorrect, and the easy re-admittance as wrong. The claim of the confessors may have come from a precedent mentioned by Tertullian back in the year 197: it was the custom of those who were not at peace with the Church to beg this peace from the martyrs. Confessors may have considered themselves almost but not quite martyrs. In any case they considered they could cover with their merits the demerits of the lapsed. It was from this time that the bishop in Rome began to say that only the bishop could forgive sins, and Bishop Cyprian would have something to say about that too in the synod he convened. SYNOD OF AFRICAN BISHOPS Upon his return in 251, Cyprian convened a synod of African bishops and delivered an address called The Lapsed which settled the controversy in his favour. In regard to the issue of granting pardon for sins, Cyprian in his address stated that no man can usurp the divine prerogative in the forgiveness of sins: The Lord alone can have mercy. He alone can bestow pardon for sins which have been committed against Himself. The decision of the synod regarding the lapsed was to the effect that although no one would be totally excluded from the church, extremely severe church discipline would apply. In regard to those who had sacrificed to the pagan gods (the sacrificati), readmittance into the fellowship and partaking of the Lords Supper would depend on how easily they had succumbed; there were varying periods of delay and for some it would only be allowed on their deathbeds. For those who had merely accepted certificates (the libellatici), readmittance into the fellowship was permitted at once but partaking of the Lords Supper would follow in due course. Lapsed clergy lost their positions but were permitted to return as laity, or at best, clergy in name only. THE LORD'S SUPPER The severity of the discipline can only be seen in light of the attitude of the day toward the Lords Supper. It was no longer a memorial supper: This do in remembrance of me, for by now it was believed to be a special means of dispensing divine grace, and you would run out of that grace if you didnt keep it topped up. The bishops believed that by withholding the elements of The Supper, the eternal life of the erring was in jeopardy (this is how distorted the simple remembrance ritual had become). In regard to whether clergy who had apostatised could administer the Lord's Supper, it was Cyprian's view that they were of the same lot as the "haters of God" of Romans 1, and he likened them to Old Testament sacrilegious priests whose sacrifices at the altar were unacceptable to God. He wrote (in Letter 67) that any priestly function performed by unholy priests, such as administering the Lord's Supper or offering prayers for the church, was not only invalid but their pollution and its penalty would be passed to any who communed with them. (Note that whereas Scripture calls all church age believers "priests", Cyprian only applied the term to those who had been ordained.) RIVAL BISHOPS SET UP IN CARTHAGE Novation (the bishop of the schism in Rome) sent a delegation to Carthage in opposition to Cyprians policy of allowing apostates back into the church, for in his view they had committed the sin unto death; therefore no readmittance to the church was possible. When the delegation arrived, presbyter Novatus sided with their hardline attitude, and since he had previously supported the confessors soft approach, showed his hatred of Cyprian in supporting any who were against him. There was quite a farce as a result of this, for not one but two rival bishops were set up in opposition to Bishop Cyprian. MAZABANIS Primate of Jerusalem [251-260] see 213 and 260. NOVATION Rival bishop of Rome in opposition to Cornelius. Novation was a presbyter with the reputation of being a learned theologian, and had at the time of the election of Cornelius, been preferred by a minority in the church at Rome, and they became a separatist group with Novation as their bishop. He had a very hardline view regarding apostates; he considered they had committed the sin unto death and could not therefore, by the church, be restored to its fellowship. As bishop of the separatist group, he sent a delegation to Carthage over this controversy and his man was set up as rival bishop to Cyprian. Novation died a martyr in the persecution under Valerian. Novationism was the name given to the schism and Novationist churches were established in other regions with converts rebaptised (rebaptism became another controversy very shortly). In regard to Novations doctrine, his writings on the person and work of Christ prove his orthodoxy; he wrote at length on the Trinity and maintained the full deity of Christ. A Novationist bishop was at the forefront in repudiating the heresy of Arianism, and in 325 at the Council of Nicaea, which dealt with Arianism as well as schisms, Novationists were accepted back into the mainstream church with the stipulation that there be no change to their doctrinal stance. TREBONIANUS GALLUS Roman emperor [251253] under whose reign the persecution of the Christians continued. Gallus came from an ancient family whose ancestry could be traced to the pre-Roman Etruscan aristocracy. He was legate of Moesia under Decius, and became emperor when Decius was killed in battle against the Goths; the armies of the Danube had been engaged in continuous campaigns against invading Goths. He adopted the younger son of Decius as co-ruler, but Hostilian died of the plague shortly after receiving the title. Gallus concluded a treaty with the Goths by agreeing to let them retain the plunder and captives they had acquired, and by pledging to pay them an annual tribute. In 253, the Goths invaded again and when they were defeated by Aemilian, the new legate of Moesia, his troops proclaimed him emperor and proceeded to advance toward Italy (which allowed the Goths to regroup and invade Greece.). Gallus summoned the aid of Valerian who commanded the armies of the Upper Rhine, but before Valerian could arrive, Gallus was killed by his own troops who had accepted Aemilian. The Upper Rhine armies then proclaimed Valerian emperor, but before the two sides met in battle, Aemilian was killed by his troops. 252 253FABIUS Primate of Antioch [253-256] see also 237 and 256. LUCIUS I Bishop of Rome [253254] who continued to receive repentant apostates into the church during his short reign. Lucius was sent to Centumcellae during the persecution which continued under Trebonianus Gallus, but was allowed to return under Valerian (before he too turned against the Christians), however the bishop died shortly after his return. He succeeded Cornelius [see 251] and was succeeded by Stephen I [see 254]. VALERIAN Roman Emperor [253260]. Valerian systematically persecuted the Christians, the ninth emperor to do so. Valerian had been finance officer for Emperor Decius and had assisted in the introduction of certificates to be handed out by the commissioners to all who obeyed the edict of 250. The edict resulted in the great persecution of the church, which persecution Valerian vigorously renewed four years after he became emperor. Upon his succession he and the senators appointed his son Gallienus, co-ruler, recognising that it was impossible for one man to control the empire. Gallienus was to rule the West and handle the Goths while Valerian would look after the East and engage the Persians, for under Shapur I, they had invaded Syria, Anatolia, Armenia, and in 256 they sacked the city of Antioch, carrying off captives as well as a great deal of treasure. Valerian crossed the Euphrates where he was defeated and captured in 260, Shapur using him as a footstool to mount his horse. The Persians used their skill of skinning people alive, and when envoys arrived to sue for peace they were presented with the skin of Valerian, who had died just before they finished. After this there were 43 years of comparative peace for the Christians. PERSECUTION UNDER VALERIAN At first Valerians attitude was mild toward the Christians, but in 257 he is said to have had a change of heart from being influenced by a magician from Egypt who suggested that the calamities across the empire were due to the Christians refusal to worship the gods. In his first edict against them in 257 there was to be no bloodshed: the church would be deprived of its leaders, bishops were banished and their property confiscated, and church assembly was prohibited. When this had no effect, he published a second edict the following year, in which believers were to be executed unless they denied Christ, and in various parts of the empire Christians were tortured, the martyrdoms said to be innumerable. In Rome, the bishop and the deacons were put to death; in Utica, North Africa, three hundred together were suffocated in a burning limekiln; in Palestine they were devoured by tigers; believers in Spain and Caesarea Cappadocia were burnt to death. When the deaths of other believers by burning could not persuade a young boy to renounce Christ, pagan onlookers were reduced to tears as he was led to the fire, but he told them, they would have rejoiced had they known where he was going. The martyrdoms that have been recorded were representative only of all those who lost their lives in the persecutions. 254RE-BAPTISM CONTROVERSY The issue in this controversy was to do with believers who had been baptised by the separatist churches of Novation as well as others considered heretic, and whether or not their baptisms were valid when some of them wished to join the mainstream church. Stephen the bishop of Rome said, Let there be no innovation beyond what has been handed down, and accepted their baptism where the ritual had been performed in the name of the Trinity. Cyprian bishop of Carthage did not. He convened three councils to decide the issue (the last in 256 had eighty-seven African bishops in attendance), and the decision: there could be no baptism outside the universal church; re-baptism would have to be performed (this was the view of the churches of Asia Minor also.) Stephen threatened to ex-communicate Cyprian. Cyprian, who considered the bishop of Rome a colleague of high honour, but no more, responded in his address to his council of fellow bishops: Neither does any of us set himself up as a bishop of bishops, nor by tyrannical terror does any compel his colleague to the necessity of obedience A complete breach with the church in Rome was averted by the martyrdom of Stephen in 257 and his successor Sixtus II being more conciliatory. Later in the same year Cyprian was arrested and banished to the city of Curubis (modern Kubra, 115km from Carthage). Recalled a year later and found guilty of sacrilege against the Roman gods, Cyprian was beheaded outside Carthage. STEPHEN I bishop of Rome [254257]. He was bishop during a time of great turbulence within the church to do with the return of apostates to the fellowship, and a re-baptism controversy. Stephen had several confrontations with Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, and was the first bishop of Rome to use his reputation as successor to the Apostle Peter in order to claim authority over other bishops. In 254 when two Spanish congregations dismissed and replaced their two bishops who had apostatised during the persecution, the dismissed bishops appealed to Stephen and he reinstated them. Then the Spanish church appealed to Cyprian for help. Cyprian, who had taken a much firmer stance against clergy who apostatised, convened a synod of African bishops to decide the case, which ruled that congregations not only had the right but the duty to separate themselves from bishops who apostatised. In another case, bishops in Gaul appealed to Stephen for support when they denounced a colleague, the bishop of Arles, for his hardline stance against his congregation (he would not readmit repentant apostates under any conditions). Stephen refused to give support in this case even though he had reinstated the two apostate bishops of Spain. Cyprian however wrote letters in support of the bishops of Gaul. His view was that while severe church discipline would apply for apostatising, no one would be totally excluded from the church. Not long after this the re-baptism issue became contentious between the two. Stephen succeeded Lucius [see 253] and succeeded by Sixtus II [see 257]. 255 256DEMETRIUS Primate of Antioch [256-262] see also 253 and 262. 257SIXTUS II bishop of Rome [257258] who inherited the problem over re-baptism. Although agreeing with Stephen his predecessor, Sixtus was tolerant of the differing policy regarding re-baptism of the churches of Africa and Asia Minor, and sent an envoy to Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, and thus restored relations. In the year Sixtus became bishop, Emperor Valerian posted his first decree against the Christians and then his second and more severe in 258. Sixtus and his deacons were beheaded in the catacomb where Sixtus had gathered his congregation for services for protection. He succeeded Stephen I [see 254] and was succeeded by Dionysius [see 259] 258LAURENCE [d.258] Martyr. He was one of seven deacons at Rome during the pontificate of Sixtus II. He suffered martyrdom in Valerians persecution. When he was required by the Roman ruler to deliver up the churches treasure, Laurence assembled the poor who were his special charge saying These are the treasures of the church. For this action it is said that he was roasted to death on the gridiron. Others disagree regarding the means of his martyrdom saying that he was simply beheaded. 259DIONYSIUS Bishop of Rome [259268]. Dionysius had to wait until Valerian was away fighting the Persians before he could be elected. With the capture of Valerian there was peace for the church under his son, Emperor Gallienus. At this time, another Dionysius (called the great, see 247) who was bishop of Alexandria was suspected of teaching Sabellianism (a heresy regarding the Trinity). Dionysius, bishop of Rome wrote two letters: one to the church in Alexandria refuting Sabellianism, and one to his counterpart inviting him to explain his position on the matter, and the letter he received back on the doctrine of the Godhead was to the satisfaction of all. Both bishops gave their support to councils held in Antioch which condemned Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, who preached that Jesus was a mere man and not God. Dionysius succeeded Sixtus II [see 257] and was succeeded by Felix I [see 269]. FRUCTUOSUS [d.259] Bishop of Tarragona in Spain. He and two deacons were hauled before the Roman court for refusing to offer sacrifices to Roman state gods. They had contravened the edicts of Valerian and Gallienus [257-58] requiring non-pagans to join in Roman religious ceremonies. Found guilty he was burned to death. 260GALLIENUS Roman emperor [260268]. He co-ruled with his father Valerian from 253, and became sole ruler in 260 when Valerian was captured by the Persian ruler Shapur I (Valerian died in captivity). Gallienus had a Christian wife and the severe persecution that had occurred during the reign of Valerian ceased. He issued a decree that those who had been exiled could return to their homes, and that their freedom had long been his desire. Another decree permitted the church to take possession again of the so-called cemeteries (the catacombs). Gallienus ruled an empire that was disintegrating under the pressure of foreign invaders and civil war. His general on the Rhine, Postumus, was proclaimed emperor of Gaul; the Persians in the East and Germanic tribes along the Danube were plundering the provinces, and successive revolts by other generals and their armies had to be put down. During his reign Gallienus transferred the command of the armies from the senators to professional equestrian officers, and also expanded the cavalry by creating a mobile cavalry reserve. While in battle against Aureolus, yet another rebellious general who had summoned the aid of the Alemanni tribe, Gallienus was murdered, and Claudius, one of his cavalry commanders, succeeded him as Claudius II. IMENAIOS Primate of Jerusalem [260-298] see 251 and 298. 261-270 AD 261 262AMPHILOKHOS Primate of Antioch [262-267] see also 256 and 267. 263 264 265MAXIMUS Patriarch of Alexandria [265-282] see 248 and 282. Maximus participated in the Synod of Antioch against the teachings of Paul Samosata. 266 267PAUL OF SAMOSATA Primate of Antioch [267-270] see 268. 268CLAUDIUS II Roman emperor [268270]. Claudius and Aurelian were commanders of the newly formed cavalry when Gallienus was murdered, and it was Claudius who succeeded to the empire. He quickly put down the revolt of General Aureolus and drove off the Alemanni tribe the usurper had summoned, however his rule was only recognised in the central territories of the empire, career army officers were everywhere proclaiming themselves emperor. Claudius died of the plague in 270, and was succeeded by his brother who died or was killed three months later. Aurelian was then made emperor. PAUL OF SAMOSATA Bishop of Antioch whose condemnation occurred in 268. Three councils of bishops between 264 and 268 were convened in Antioch to investigate the teaching of Paul of Samosata and his doctrine was condemned. He taught a form of Adoptianist Monarchianism [see 200], a heresy which denied the deity of the Lord Jesus Christ, and he did not allow the singing of hymns of worship to Christ. Paul was born in Samosata on the Euphrates. He became governor of tax collection for the king and later Zenobia the queen of the Syrian city-state of Palmyra (a temporary kingdom), and had his headquarters in Antioch. He was also judge in Antioch and became wealthy and influential. Around 260 he succeeded Demetrianus as bishop of Antioch and at the same time retained his secular positions. When Paul was accused of doctrinal error, as well as gross improprieties, the church enlisted the help of bishops from surrounding regions, and Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, presided over two of the three councils that were held. (Firmilian died in Tarsus while on his way to the third.) Bishops came from Pontus, Tarsus, Iconium, Jerusalem, Caesarea Maritima, and Bostra; Dionysius of Rome sent his support by letter, as did Dionysius of Alexandria who pleaded that his age excuse him from attending, and he died before the matter was resolved. Paul was questioned on various subjects, and with discussions and arguments every effort was made to discover his true doctrinal position. Malchion, when a deacon at the church in Antioch, was the first to be alarmed at his teaching and sound the alert, then later, on becoming presbyter was at the forefront of questioning and refuting Paul. At the third council in 268 Paul was condemned and deposed. A letter on the subject was drafted and sent to the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, and it also acknowledged all bishops, presbyters, deacons, and the whole universal church throughout the world; copies were sent to all the provinces. Paul of Samosata was condemned and deposed, but he refused to be removed. He had some support in the church, and with the heavy weight of patronage from Zenobia, he stayed put. Domnus, the son of Demetrianus, Pauls predecessor, was elected to take his place and for four years Antioch had two bishops. In 272 Emperor Aurelian ordered Paul to hand over the church property. Eusebius writes, But Paul being unwilling to leave the building of the church, an appeal was made to the emperor Aurelian, who decided most equitably on the business, ordering the building to be given up to those whom the Christian bishops of Italy and Rome should write. Thus, then, this man was driven out of the church with extreme disgrace by the temporal power itself. 269FELIX I Bishop of Rome [269274]. Prior to Felix becoming bishop of Rome, Paul of Samosata (bishop of Antioch) had been deposed (268) but refused to hand over church property. In 272, Emperor Aurelian ordered Paul to relinquish it, and Felix plus the other bishops of Italy were charged with the oversight of its return to the rightful owners the church in Antioch. He succeeded Dionysius [see 259] and was succeeded by Eutychian [see 275]. MALCHION OF ANTIOCH He was a teacher of rhetoric in Antioch who opposed his own bishop Paul of Samosata [see 268] at the synod of an Antioch in 269. The latters view that Christ was by nature merely an ordinary man was condemned. Paul, bishop since 260 was deposed and excommunicated. Malchion also drafted the report announcing the synod's decision. 270 AURELIAN Roman emperor [270-275]. He became the second emperor to impose the worship of the Syrian sun-god Baal on the empire, the first being Elagabalus [218222]. Aurelian was a soldier who had worked his way from the bottom all of the way to the top, and was a commander of the highly mobile cavalry when he was made emperor. He had the nick-name of hand on the hilt; he would rather fight than eat. He turned back Germanic tribes who had invaded central provinces and northern Italy, and began the wall which was given his name to enclose the city of Rome against invasion. In 272 he marched East and recovered territories from Zenobia, queen of the Syrian city-state of Palmyra, who had extended her rule over the whole of Syria, Egypt, and most of Asia Minor. After returning to battle along the Danube, Aurelian was called again to another revolt of Palmyra, and this time he destroyed the city. He also stormed the city of Alexandria at this time, as an uprising had broken out in Egypt where for the most part people were supportive of Zenobia, and it was then that the famous classical Library of Alexandria was lost. Aurelian then turned attention to the Rhine and recovered Gaul off a rival emperor, as well as Spain, and Britannia. In 274, he made the historic decision to withdraw his soldiers and the settlers to a defensible frontier south of the Danube. While centralised power had been restored under Aurelian, the empire remained unstable. Aurelian came very close to interrupting the relative peace the Christians had enjoyed since the end of the Valerian persecution for he was on the verge of signing the decree to raise yet another; the rumour and terror of it was being noised abroad, but while he was marching to open a campaign against the Persians, he was assassinated at a general staff meeting. DOMNUS I Primate of Antioch [270-273] see also 267 and 273. GREGORY THAUMATURGUS [c.213-c.270] Bishop of Neo Caesarea. He was one of Origens pupils and had been a pagan lawyer from Neo Caesarea when he came under Origens influence. He was converted and became an enthusiastic supporter of Origins emphasis that the church should attempt to use all wisdom and literature for its own use, that the good heathen learning should be used, and the evil castaway. As a bishop, Gregory made attempts to draw the Christian believers away from their pagan festivals by instituting martyrs festivals which could substitute as times of celebration. His ministry appears to have been successful as on a numerical scale there was a marked increase in the number of Christians on the completion of his ministry in Neo Caesarea. 271-280 AD 271ANTONY OF EGYPT [251356] Born into a Coptic Christian family in Coma, Egypt (near al-Minya on the Nile). He was the first recorded Christian hermit, who withdrew into isolation in Egypt and his example encouraged monasticism in the church. Church historian Henry Sheldon says, The example of Anthony acted like contagion. Before his death, the deserts of Egypt, the headquarters of monasticism, had begun to be peopled with hermits. Neighbouring countries followed the Egyptian precedent. Syria and Palestine early shared in the zeal for the new method of conquering the world and the devil. At 20 years of age Antony began to live an ascetic life and moved into a tomb near his village. At 35 he crossed the Nile to a mountain called Pispir (now Dayr al-Maymun) where he lived in absolute solitude for 20 years in a disused fort. A number of ascetics gradually established themselves nearby in caves and huts on the mountain, seeking his spiritual guidance, and eventually when he was 55 he emerged to instruct and organise them into a community of monks (Greek monachos solitary). They retreated further to an inner desert between the Nile and the Red Sea. Antony came out of this desert several times, once to offer himself as a martyr during the persecution of Maximin Daia [305-313], but was denied and instead helped those who had been imprisoned. Another time he preached in Alexandria to lend weight to Athanasius against the Arians (see 328). The earliest original writings in Coptic (the last stage of ancient Egyptian) were letters by Antony. Shortly after his death, Antonys biography was written by Athanasius, whose writings are in Coptic and Greek. ANTONIANS The name that was adopted by several communities claiming descent from Anthony of Egypt. The first was a group of followers during his lifetime mentioned above. There followed the Hospital Brothers of St Antony founded in 1095 by Gaston de Dauphine which survived in France, Italy and Spain until the French Revolution. The Armenian Church also had an Antonian order in the 17th century to keep in touch with the Roman Catholic Church, as well as a community founded in Flanders in 1615, and a sect in Switzerland founded by Anton Uterhaher [1759-1824] who claimed to be the ruler of the world.272DOMETIUS Bishop of Byzantium [272-284]. He succeeded Titus [see 242] had two sons Probus [see 293] and Metrophanes [see 306] who both became bishops of Byzantium. He saw the deceit of the religion of idols and accepted the Christian faith and was baptised. Arriving in Byzantium he found Bishop Titus [see 244] an holy and God fearing man. Titus accepted Dometius into the clergy of the Church and after the death of Titus in 272 became the bishop of Byzantine. 273TIMAEUS Primate of Antioch [273-277] see also 270 and 277. 274 275ALEXANDER OF LYCOPOLIS Egyptian writer from the third century who wrote a tract against Manichaeism [see 240]. One interpretation is that he turned from paganism to Christ. The tract favours Christian orthodoxy for its practical concern to make mankind virtuous and for its plausible interpretation of the Crucifixion. EUTYCHIAN Bishop of Rome [275283] who succeeded Felix, and ruled over a peaceful church. He was buried in the Catacomb of Calixtus where fragments of his original Greek epitaph were discovered. He succeeded Felix I [see 269] and was succeeded by Caius [see 283]. FLORIAN Roman emperor for three months [276]. Florian seized power upon the death of his half-brother Tacitus and although it was tolerated by the Senate and the armies of the West, the legions in Syria proclaimed their general, Probus, emperor. Civil war broke out but was ended with the sudden death of Florian. TACITUS Roman emperor [275276]. After the murder of Aurelian, the army asked the Senate to select a nobleman to rule the empire, but it was six months before they chose the elderly senator Tacitus who had twice served as consul. His reign lasted eleven months during which time he was engaged in continual warfare with tribes in the Eastern empire, and it is not known whether he was murdered by his soldiers or died of disease. He was succeeded by his half-brother Florian. 276PROBUS Roman emperor [276282]. The son of a Balkan military officer, Probus was the Eastern praetorian prefect when his troops proclaimed him emperor and he succeeded to the throne upon the sudden death of Florian. Although his reign saw continual frontier warfare against hostile Germanic tribes, insurrections in Britannia, Gaul, and the East, nevertheless Probus had time for other activities. He completed the wall begun by Aurelian, the greater part of which is still in good condition; it was 19km long and enclosed the city of Rome against invading tribes. Probus also had great interest in agriculture and attempted to return abandoned farmland to cultivation but it caused resentment in the military when they were detailed to this work. He also permitted a great number of defeated Goths, Alemanni, and Franks to settle on plots of land in Gaul and in the provinces of the Danube. Probus was murdered by soldiers, and succeeded by Carus, prefect of the praetorian guard. 277CYRIL Primate of Antioch [277-299] see also 273 and 299. 278 279 280First rural churches emerge in northern Italy; Christianity is no longer exclusively in urban areas. 281-290 AD 281 282CARUS Roman emperor [282283]. Upon succession, Carus immediately associated his sons, Carinus and Numerian, with his reign, giving them the title of caesar (indicating they were imperial heirs). In 283, Emperor Carus and Numerian led a campaign against the Persians, invading Mesopotamia and penetrating beyond the Tigris. The victory was aided by Bahram II being unable to meet the Roman challenge due to a rebellion led by his brother. When Carus died suddenly, in circumstances unknown, the Roman army was forced to withdraw, and Numerian succeeded his father as emperor of the East, while Carinus, who had been left to look after the armies of Rhine, became emperor of the West. THEONAS Patriarch of Alexandria [282-300] see 265 and 300. Eusebius the historian calls him a pillar of the Church. 283CAIUS Bishop of Rome [283296] who decreed that before a person could become a bishop they should have worked their way up through the system. His epitaph, found in the Catacomb of Calixtus, stated that Caius had for the last eight years carried out his duties as bishop in the catacomb. He succeeded Eutychian [see 275] and was succeeded by Marcellinus [see 296]. CARINUS Joint Roman Emperor with Numerian. Carinus was emperor in the West [283285], and Numerian was emperor in the East [283-284], upon the death of their father, Carus. In 284 in the East, Numerian was found dead in his litter and Diocletian was proclaimed emperor by his troops. In 285 in the West, Carinus put down a revolt by the governor of Venetia, but shortly after this he was killed by a group of soldiers during a battle against Diocletian. NUMERIAN Joint Roman Emperor with Carinus. Upon the death of their father Carus, Numerian became emperor in the East [283-284] and Carinus emperor in the West [283285]. In 284 Numerian was found dead in his litter and Aper his father-in-law who was praetorian prefect was accused of having killed him in order to seize power and he was executed by Diocletian who had been proclaimed emperor by his troops. In 285 in the West, Carinus put down a revolt by the governor of Venetia, but shortly after this he was killed by a group of soldiers during a battle against Diocletian. 284DIOCLETIAN Roman emperor [284305] who began the tenth and most terrible persecution of the church; one of his edicts attempted to destroy the Holy Scriptures and it left the church with very few copies. Diocletian was born in Dalmatia (now a region in Croatia), the son of a freed slave, and was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Asia Minor in 284, with the rest of the empire obedient to Carinus until his death in 285. At first he left the Christians alone while he consolidated his rule, which was a remarkable one for he was a great soldier, administrator, and innovator. With the continuous revolts and invasions Diocletian quickly realised his vast empire was more than one man could command, and early after coming to power he began to create a very effective tetrarchy, i.e. four rulers constituting one sovereignty, to rule the empire. At first, he chose as co-ruler and responsible for the West, his close friend General Maximian, under the title of augustus (the title he held himself), and then several years later, added two subordinate rulers with the title of caesar, Galerius in the East, and Constantius Chlorus (the father of Constantine the Great) in the West. Diocletians reforms included freezing wages and prices to put an end to inflation and cost of living index; he introduced a fixed relationship between the worth of a coin and its metal content; reduced taxes; re-organised the army and abolished the Roman Secret Police. Diocletian was superstitious, a worshipper of the sky god Jupiter, and believed that he had come to power through the divine will of the gods, regarding himself and Maximian as sons of gods and creators of gods. He called himself Jove, and Maximian was named Hercules, which signified their participation in the divine nature and that they were charged with distributing the benefits of Providence - Diocletian through divine wisdom, and Maximian through heroic energy. Later, on coins and inscriptions, Diocletian was designated dominus et deus (lord and god). In 295 he began to build one of the most famous palaces in history at Spalato, Dalmatia (now Split, Croatia) on the edge of the Adriatic; of vast proportions, it covered an area of seven acres, and in the year it was completed (305) he retired there and grew vegetables. RUFINUS Bishop of Byzantium [284-293] succeeded Dometius [see 272]. There is no additional information readily available. 285 286MAURICE The leader of the Theban Legion. Emperor Maximian [286-305], who was joint emperor with Diocletian, had occupying forces in Gaul among which was a legion of Egyptians from Thebeid consisting of Christians led by Maurice. The emperor outlawed Christianity, demanded the destruction of churches and the sacrifice to the old pagan gods. The Theban Legion led by Maurice mutinied in Switzerland where they were massacred. There exists a 6th century monastery at the place of their martyrdom. 287 288 289 290 291-300 AD 291 292 293PROBUS Bishop of Byzantium [293-306] succeeded Rufinus I [see 284]. There is no additional information readily available. 294 295 296MARCELLINUS Bishop of Rome [296304]. He initially presided over a peaceful church. He introduced the practices of making prayers for the dead, and making the sign of the cross. According to tradition he was martyred during the Diocletian persecution, his decapitated head remaining in public view on the streets of Rome for 26 days to frighten the Christian community. He succeeded Caius [see 283] and was succeeded by Marcellus I [see 308]. 297 298ZAMBIDAS Primate of Jerusalem [298-300] see 260 and 300. 299TYRANNION Primate of Antioch [299-308] see also 277 and 308. 300GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR He introduced Christianity into Armenia. Gregory, who was originally from Armenia, had been educated and become a Christian in neighbouring Caesarea, Cappadocia (Kayseri, Turkey). About the year 300 he returned to Armenia and converted the king, who then made Christianity the state religion. The Cappadocian bishops ordained Gregory bishop of Armenia, with his residence in Ejmiadzin. Gregory evangelised regions around the Caucasus mountains, and then spent his last years in solitude, dying in a mountain cave in 332. The Armenian church developed close ties with the Syrian church which had provided them with Scriptures, but around the year 410, an Armenian monk, Mesrop Mashtots, invented the Armenian alphabet, and translated numerous Scriptures into their own language. In the year 506, the Armenian church rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon which had been held in 451 (that council had determined the orthodox position of the fully developed doctrine of the hypostatic union of Christ), and they maintained that Christ had only one nature. They called themselves the Armenian Apostolic Church, claiming their origin directly from the Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddaeus (there are traditional stories about this), and they generally adhered to the doctrinal beliefs of Eastern Orthodoxy. HERMON Primate of Jerusalem [300-314] see 298 and 314. PETER I Patriarch of Alexandria [300-311] see 282 and 312. Three years after his elevation to the Archbishopric Throne of Alexandria the Emperor Galerius cruel persecution broke out, during which he died as a martyr. He is honoured as a Saint of the Church. SPAIN [see also 1479] According to tradition Spain first received Christianity from Paul and James. Certainly by the third century Tertullian stated that there was a flourishing national church in existence when the Council of Elvira was held in 300. The country was adversely affected by various heresies and in the fifth century the Arian Visigoths overran the land. Their successors at the Third Council of Toledo in 589 accepted the Catholic Faith. 301-311 AD 301 302 303ALBAN [d.303] An early English martyr in Verulamium (now St Albans, Hertfordshire). Alban was a pagan who served in the Roman army of the province of Britannia, and was converted to Christianity and baptised by a fugitive priest whom he had sheltered. Alban disguised himself as the priest, and when Roman soldiers searched his house he was arrested in his stead and beheaded. The story of Albans martyrdom is from Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People, and some scholars have queried the date, since at that time in Britain, the Caesar Constantius Chlorus was favourable to Christians, and they believe Albans martyrdom may have occurred during an earlier persecution. GREAT PERSECUTION OF DIOCLETIAN In 303-304, four edicts were published, which unleashed on the church the last and most violent of the persecutions. Galerius, caesar in the East, was a fanatical follower of the Roman gods and his hatred of Christians was evident in the constant urging of his father-in-law Diocletian to take measures against them. The rapid growth of the church angered the pagans, for by this time Christians predominated in some of the smaller Eastern towns or districts, and they were well represented in all regions of the empire, attested to by there being scarcely a place not mentioned where believers were martyred. Diocletian first turned his anger on the Christians when it was said that they were preventing his soothsayers working by making the sign of the cross, which had just been introduced by Marcellinus, bishop of Rome. In 303 he issued three edicts, by which he sought to completely erase Christianity from the empire (the fourth edict was issued by joint emperor Maximian in 304). Jean Cousin writing of Diocletians persecution for Encyclopaedia Britannica says, The persecutions spread through the empire with an extreme violence that did not succeed in annihilating Christianity but caused the faith of the martyrs to blaze forth instead. The edicts ordered the destruction of churches; seizure and burning of the sacred Scriptures; all Christians were to be deprived of public office and civil rights (they were reduced to the status of slave), and the clergy imprisoned; and Maximians edict of 304 was a sentence of death for all those who refused to sacrifice to the Roman gods. Every source of torture was sanctioned to force believers to renounce Christ. A new torture was added, that of drowning, with chances of renouncing Christ until the end. Some believers were burned at the stake, some were slowly roasted, others were hacked to pieces and thrown to wild animals, or forced to drink molten lead. Many were crucified, hot irons were used, the rack, bludgeons, flails, tongues and eyes torn out, tendons severed. Mutilated men were sent to the mines; Christian ladies to brothels. Eusebius, who witnessed for himself this persecution, says, the executioners themselves, wearied with slaughter, were obliged to relieve one another. He also stated that believers endured torments that are too horrible to relate and others such as decency forbids to describe. In this time of great pressure many believers renounced Christ, although many more remained faithful until death (and the Lord our God remains faithful to all, He cannot deny Himself). The persecution extended across the empire except in the regions where Constantius Chlorus was caesar (Gaul and Britannia) who was favourable to Christians, and did little other than enforce the destruction of some of the church buildings. Diocletians persecution was continued by Galerius until 311 and in the far East by Maximinus Daia until 313. This was the tenth and last period of persecution by the empire with the prisons being so full of Christians that there was no room for the common criminal. VICTORINUS [d.303] Bishop of Pettau, near Vienne in Gaul, Latin exegete, and martyr under Diocletian. From the writings of Jerome we learn that Victorinus wrote exegetical commentary on various passages from the Bible. In his extant work on passages from Revelation and a treatise on the week of creation, he expressed his belief in the 1,000 year earthly reign of Christ, which he said would begin with the resurrection of the just in the seventh millennium. Because of this belief his writings were repudiated by Jerome. VITUS [d.303] Martyr, who was said to have been born of pagan parents in southern Italy but brought up as a Christian by his nurse and her husband. All three were martyred in Diocletians persecution. Vitus was invoked against sudden death, hydrophobia, and the compulsive disorder chorea known as St Vitus Dance. His cult spread in the Middle Ages especially among Germans and Slavs. He is sometimes regarded as the patron saint of comedians and actors. 304AGNES Roman Christian Martyr who was renowned for her defence of her chastity probably in the persecution in the West under Maximian. She is depicted on several cups with eyes uplifted and hands raised in prayer to God. Constatina the daughter of Emperor Constantine built a basilica over her reputed grave in 350. ARNOBIUS the Elder was a convert to Christianity who concentrated on exposing the errors of pagan worship and mythology. The divinity of Christ he based primarily on the miracles and advocated hope in Christ as the only real basis for immortality. 305CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS Roman emperor of the West [305-306] who was favourable to Christians. As Augustus of the West he was joint-ruler of the empire with Galerius. Severus was appointed caesar to Constantius. Constantius Chlorus and Helena were the parents of Constantine the Great. However, Constantius had separated from Helena to marry the step-daughter of Maximian, who was emperor of the West at the time [289], and Constantine was brought up in Nicomedia at the court of Emperor Diocletian in the East. Constantine was kept in the East as a semi-hostage and had on occasions attempted to reach his father. In 293 Constantius was made caesar to Emperor Maximian and had rule over Britannia and Gaul. In 303, when Diocletian's edicts were published, ordering the persecution of Christians, Constantius only gave them cursory attention. Lactantius, Christian apologist and historian wrote regarding the enforcing of these edicts, "Maximian Hercules, a person of no merciful temper, yielded ready obedience, and enforced the edicts throughout his dominions of Italy. Constantius, on the other hand, lest he should have seemed to dissent from the injunctions of his superiors, permitted the demolition of churches mere walls, and capable of being built up again but he preserved entire that true temple of God, which is the human body." In 305, when Diocletian and Maximian retired, Constantius requested his son's presence from Galerius, and Constantine joined his father in Gaul. They crossed over to Britannia to fight a campaign in the north, and with the death of Constantius in a battle against the Picts in 306, the armies of Britannia and Gaul proclaimed Constantine his successor. The first Tetrarchy which Diocletian established lasted 20 years, ending in 305, but the second did not last long and ended in confusion, for by 308 there were no less than seven emperors either having or claiming to have the title of Augustus. COUNCIL OF ELVIRA Held in Spain in 305 after a period of persecution. It was attended by 19 bishops and a number of presbyters. The council reveals a community facing the problem created by a rapid conversion followed by something of a decline from the original fervour. The problem basically resolved around the degree of compromise acceptable in a mixed pagan Christian society. The 81 Canons of the council deal with matters such as continued nominal attachment to the pagan priesthood, remarriage, adultery, and celibacy among the clergy. GALERIUS Roman emperor of the East [305311]. He notorious for his hatred and persecution of Christians. Galerius as Augustus of the East was joint emperor with Constantius Chlorus in the second tetrarchy. Maximinus Daia his nephew was appointed caesar, and together they continued the persecution of Diocletian, Galerius abandoning it only in the last year of his reign when he became incapacitated with a painful disease and grudgingly granted an edict of toleration to the Christians. PANTALEON [d. c.305] He is said to have been physician to Emperor Galerius of Nicodemia. Converted in early life through his mother he went astray but was restored to faith through Hermolas. He suffered martyrdom under Diocletian's purge of Christians from the court. He is now considered one of the patron saints of physicians. 306 ANASTASIA was the daughter of Constantius Chlorus [293-306] father of Constantine. Her name based on the Greek word for Resurrection is paralleled elsewhere in the late third century only among Jews and Christians and therefore is generally regarded as evidence of Christian influence in this family. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT rival emperor of the West [306-312], joint ruler of the empire [312-324], sole ruler of the empire [324-337]. In 306 Constantine ruled only in Gaul and Britannia, and had to fight against rivals to become ruler of the West, and later the empire. He divorced his first wife Minerva in 307, and like his father, married into Maximian's family by marrying his daughter Fausta who was the sister of Maxentius, one of his rivals for the West. MAXENTIUS Rival emperor of the West [306-312]. He was the son of Maximian the former joint emperor with Diocletian. When Maxentius proclaimed himself emperor in Rome in 306 he recalled his father into service to help remove Severus. In 308 a revolt broke out in Africa, and Domitius Alexander, the Vicar of Africa, had himself proclaimed emperor the title Vicar of Africa was a Roman government office that had been created under the tetrarchy of Diocletian; it comes from vicarious, which is Latin for substitute. In 310, Constantine, who ruled in Gaul and Britannia and is considered the best general at this time, annexed Spain, and then in a pre-emptive strike, crossed into Italy in 312 and defeated his brother-in-law Maxentius near the Milvian Bridge, not far from Rome. While attempting to escape Maxentius drowned. MAXIMIAN Rival emperor of the West [306-308]. He had reluctantly retired in 305 with Diocletian but was restored in 306 to assist his son Maxentius. In 307 when Severus marched on Rome to regain his position he was defeated after his troops deserted him, and Maximian executed him. In 308 there was a quarrel between father and son, and old Maximian sought refuge with his son-in-law Constantine after Diocletian once again persuaded his friend to retire. However in 310 Maximian conspired to seize control of government, and Constantine forced him to commit suicide. METROPHANES I Bishop of Byzantium [306-314] succeeded Probus his brother [see 293]. Constantine the Great was much impressed by Metrophanes and it is said that Constantines choice of Byzantium to be the eastern capital of the Roman Empire was influenced by the quality of its bishop. He was unable to attend the Council of Nicea due to age and infirmity sending his successor Alexander in his stead. PHILEAS OF THMUIS [d.306] Martyr and first known bishop of Thmuis, Lower Egypt. Phileas was of noble birth and great wealth and he held important civil offices before his conversion. Imprisoned during Diocletian's persecution with three other Egyptian bishops he was tried before the prefect Culcianos and executed at Alexandria in the company of a Roman official Philoromus. A letter to his people written in prison still survives. SEVERUS Rival emperor of the West [306-307]. Severus had the title of Caesar under Constantius Chlorus, and was made the Augustus of the West by Galerius upon the death of Constantius in opposition to Constantine. When the policies of Severus proved unpopular with the people and a riot broke out in Rome, another rival Maxentius had himself proclaimed emperor. 307DOROTHY [d.313] She was a Christian from Cappadocia who was arrested during the Diocletian persecution of the church. On the eve of her arrest she restored to faith in Christianity two apostate women who were sent to pervert her. As she was being led to execution she was mocked by a lawyer named Theophilus who asked her for a basket of flowers and fruit. Soon afterwards a child came to Dorothy with a basket of roses and apples. She sent this to Theophilus who was converted to the faith and later died as a martyr. 308LICINIUS Joint-emperor as Augustus of the West [308-313], and Augustus of the East [313-324]. Licinius advanced through the ranks in the army and was suddenly given the title of Augustus in 308 by the emperor of the East, Galerius. Galerius hoped Licinius would rule the West and had elevated him against Constantine, but he ruled only the province of Pannonia until 311. When Galerius died in 311, Licinius took over his regions in Europe. In 313 Licinius married Constantine's half-sister Constantia. The two emperors, meeting in Milan, jointly issued the edict in January 313 that established religious toleration for Christianity. In the same year Licinius became sole ruler of the East after defeating Maximinus Daia in battle. After a short period of accord with Constantine, Licinius was then forced to give up his territory in the West (Pannonia and Moesia) and there followed ten years of uneasiness during which a clash took place in 316 with Licinius losing territory in the Balkans to Constantine. In 324 Licinius was defeated by Constantine, first in Hadrianopolis (in present day European Turkey), and then surrendered in another battle at Chrysopolis (north-western Turkey) and was exiled to Thessalonica, but executed in 325 on a charge of attempted rebellion. MARCELLUS I Bishop of Rome [308-309]. Because of the horrors under Diocletians rule, the church in Rome was without an elected bishop for almost four years. Marcellus found the church in disarray, with divisions continuing over apostates wishing to rejoin the church. When he attempted to enforce church discipline before readmittance would be allowed it caused a furore, and led to rioting. Maxentius, who was one of the rival emperors of the West, stepped in and sent Marcellus into exile, where he died. He succeeded Marcellinus [see 296] and was succeeded by Eusebuis [see 309]. MAXIMINUS DAIA Joint emperor as Augustus of the East [308-313]. He was the nephew of Emperor Galerius of the East, and as his Caesar was assigned to rule Syria and Egypt in 305. According to Lactantius he was a herdsman who had a meteoric rise to the top - "Daia, lately taken from the tending of cattle in forests to serve as a common soldier, immediately made one of the lifeguard, presently a tribune, and next day Caesar." In 308 when Galerius bestowed the title of Augustus on Licinius, Maximinus claimed and received the same title. He relentlessly persecuted the Christians, as did his uncle, ordering that those who refused to sacrifice to the pagan gods be mutilated and sent to the mines and quarries. In 311 when Galerius was dying of a painful disease and grudgingly granted his edict of toleration, Maximinus grudgingly accepted it, but his cities and provinces were encouraged to petition for the expulsion of Christians from his domains. The 'Acts of Pilate', an anti-Christian forgery, was taught at schools during this time. After the death of Galerius, Maximinus occupied Asia Minor, and then in 313 he invaded the dominions of Licinius in Thrace but was forced to retreat back to Asia Minor where he died of disease. VITALIUS I Primate of Antioch [308-314] see also 299 and 314. 309EUSEBIUS Bishop of Rome [309310] for only four months. Inheriting the problem Marcellus had had, Eusebius readmitted repentant apostates into the church but only after compliance with church discipline. Those opposed to him appointed an alternative bishop, and there was another violent dispute. Emperor Maxentius again stepped in and sent both into exile. Eusebius was sent to Sicily where he died almost immediately. He succeeded Marcellus I [see 308] who was succeeded by Miltiades [see 311]. 310 CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA Martyr who is said to have defended the faith of Alexandria before the philosophers and courtiers and was tortured to death by being broken on a wheel before being beheaded. In 1063 the Order of the Knights of Mt Sinai was formed to protect her relics. Their emblem was a broken spiked wheel. PAMPHILUS (c.250-310) Christian martyr. Born in Beirut, Pamphilus was educated privately in Alexandria then moved to Caesarea Palaestina after his conversion. Pamphilus re-opened the School of Caesarea founded by Origen, and restored the library of Origin. He re-copied biblical manuscripts, in particular the Hexapla edition of the Septuagint. Eusebius of Caesarea (writer of Ecclesiastical History) was a devoted pupil. Pamphilus was arrested during the persecution of Maximinus Daia and spent fifteen months in prison where he wrote an apology in five books in defence of Origen (whose teaching had been branded heresy). In the year 310 Pamphilus was beheaded. 311CAECILIAN Bishop of Carthage [311340]. As senior deacon, Caecilian had joined his bishop in preaching against undue devotion to confessors and martyrs during the Great Persecution, and when the clergy and people of Carthage subsequently elected him bishop, opposition was fierce and led by two disappointed clergy and a woman who had been rebuked for venerating relics. The disaffected group appealed to the bishops of Numidia who themselves were affronted at being left out of the election process. Apparently, for about the previous 40 years, the senior bishop of Numidia had had the right to ordain the bishop of Carthage. Senior bishop of Numidia, Secundus of Tigisi, and 70 other bishops declared Caecilians appointment invalid on the grounds that his election had been carried out in undue haste, that he had slighted the confessors and martyrs, and that the bishop who had ordained him was a Traditor - a traitor, i.e. one who had surrendered Scriptures in compliance with Diocletians edict. Evidently, not all the Numidian bishops were guiltless themselves of this. The disaffected group who had separated themselves made Majorinus a rival bishop, and this became a serious schism in the North African church (see Donatists 314). Both Caecilian and Felix (the alleged Traditor bishop) were vindicated at synods in Rome (313) and Arles (314) and at an imperial enquiry in Milan (316); the separatist group was condemned at all three. Caecilian was the only African bishop at the Council of Nicea (325). MILTIADES Bishop of Rome [311314]. Because of persecution there was more than twelve months delay before Miltiades succeeded as bishop. He was appointed upon the edict of toleration signed by Emperor Galerius on his deathbed in 311. Miltiades had church property restored to him by Maxentius, a rival emperor of the West. When Constantine became sole emperor of the West he asked Miltiades to hold an enquiry into the schism in the church at Carthage, North Africa, and the synod took place in Rome in 313. He succeeded Eusebius [see 309] and was succeeded by Sylvester I [see 314]. PELAGIA [d. c.311] She was martyred in Antioch when only aged fifteen when she threw herself into the sea from a window to preserve her chastity when her home was surrounded by soldiers during the persecution of Diocletian. PETER OF ALEXANDRIA [d.311] Martyr. Peter succeeded Theonas as bishop of Alexandria about 300 and administered the church from prison during the Diocletian persecution. The takeover of his duties by Melitius of Lycopolis led to the Melitian Schism. Peter was beheaded in 311. THE MARTYRS The martyrs of this period (two centuries of Roman persecutions) are the basis for one of the greatest counters to the administration of Satan as the ruler of the world that history has ever known, for the huge growth and expansion of the church was sown in the blood of the martyrs. Persecution prepared the church to evangelise the barbarians knocking at the gates of the empire waiting to be converted. Having passed the test of crushing adversity "ten times", born again believers were now ready for the influx of barbarians into the empire. Huns, Vandals, Goths, and Franks, flowed into the empire as the Rhine and Danube barriers were breached; Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, went to England; Celts, and Slavs, millions of peoples entered the empire to find Christ as their Saviour. From these barbarians would come the future Gentile nations to continue the principle of the "Times of the Gentiles" (which began with Nebuchadnezzar) through to our day. The Roman Empire and its legions in advancing its frontiers could never accomplish what born again believers did in crossing the Danube and the Rhine, the Sahara Desert, the Euphrates and the Tigris, going to the uttermost parts of the earth with the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ. CHAPTER 3. CHURCH: PERGAMOS THE CHURCH AND STATE 312-589 AD PERGAMOS REVELATION 2: 12-17 12 And to the angel of the church in Pergamos write; These things saith he which hath the sharp sword with two edges; 13 I know thy works, and where thou dwellest, even where Satan's seat is: and thou holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith, even in those days wherein Antipas was my faithful martyr, who was slain among you, where Satan dwelleth. 14 But I have a few things against thee, because thou hast there them that hold the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balac to cast a stumblingblock before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit fornication. 15 So hast thou also them that hold the doctrine of the Nicolaitanes, which thing I hate. 16 Repent; or else I will come unto thee quickly, and will fight against them with the sword of my mouth. 17 He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches; To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the hidden manna, and will give him a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no man knoweth saving he that receiveth it. INTRODUCTION Pergamos was a rich, influential city of Asia Minor yet the church was worldly. She is greeted by Him "who has the sharp two-edged sword," the Word of God (Hebrews 4:12). She was attacked by three heresies and permitted the infiltration of latter two while making a stand against the first. [a] Satan had set up his throne here. We find that the teachings of the Babylonian mysteries were actually carried to Pergamos about 133 BC These teachings began in ancient Babylon and would in time become so assimilated by apostate Christianity as to become "Mystery Babylon." Pergamos was the centre of Caesar worship. [b] The doctrine of Balaam had gained a foothold (Numbers. 22-25). This was basically a teaching of compromise with the world. Balaam taught Israel to intermarry with the heathen; thus a "marriage" of the church and the world. [c] The Nicolaitans, who were repulsed by Ephesus, are accepted in Pergamos. What begins in apostasy as "deeds" develops into "doctrines" which in time become "denominations." In contrast, the overcomers will receive the "hidden manna" or deep things of Christ (John 6:31-33; Colossians 1:26) and the "white stone" representing the vote of approval from God. Historically, Pergamos represents church history from 300 to 590 A.D. Constantine made Christianity a legal religion and Theodosius made it the state religion, which intermingled it with the heathenistic practices of Rome. During the period of this apostate union, Damasus I, the Bishop of Rome (366-384), was given the title of Supreme Pontiff so that the Roman church was placed above all other churches with Alexandria placed second and Antioch third. Therefore, Satan's program to assimilate the church through infiltration took a great step forward. This was the age of heresy, yet even here there were overcomers who stood against the tide and died a martyrs death. Pergamos meaning thoroughly married represents the third predominant type of Church, the merger of State and Church began after the victory of Constantine when in 313 he made Christianity a legal religion and in 380 Theodosius I made Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire. The church became married to the state and people from throughout the Roman Empire were baptised into the church without any regard to personal faith. The picture of the Lord Jesus Christ is taken from Revelation 1:16 and is one of judgement based on the Word of God. [Hebrews 4:12] Church and state should remain separate and independent of each other as a marriage of this type ends with the church being infiltrated by political intrigue. The Word of God is not only of value for doctrine but for reproof and exhortation. The Scriptures are the yardstick for our actions and is totally accurate in the defining of Gods plans and standards for our Christian life. We should be spiritual and not walk as the unsaved [1 Corinthians 3:1-3]. We can do this by being controlled by the Holy Spirit [Galatians 5:16-18]. Pergamos was a major city of idolatry with many temples one of which was that to Esculapius the serpent-son god. This may be why Satans throne is referred to in the letter to this church. It is noted that the word for seat is the Greek word thronos which can be translated throne. This was a centre for satanic worship. The name Antipas means against all which may mean that he stood against all satanic worship. The war against their faith was being waged by satanic opposition. God is all knowing and knows our works and what our motivation is [1 Corinthians 3:11-15]. He knew that Antipas the faithful martyr would be killed unfairly yet allowed that to happen. Are we mature enough to suffer for the Lord? Would we deny the Lord if members of our church were being martyred? What happens to believers is for the glory of God and according to his plan. It is possible for Christians to function even though they are surrounded with evil. In verse 14 Balaam is mentioned. His story is told in Numbers 22-24. He was a seer of Mesopotamia who was hired by Balak, the king of Moab to pronounce a curse on the Israelites. He was unable to curse the Israelites but told Balak a means of getting many of the men of Israel out of fellowship. The method was to use their young women to entice them into sexual immorality. Balak was successful in this ploy and Balaam was rewarded with huge riches. Events caught up with Balaam and he was killed by Israel and Balak defeated. The teaching of Balaam was to encourage corruption by means of inter marriage or fornication resulting in idolatry. This attitude therefore brought judgement on the church. In Pergamum intermarriage between the believers and pagans was a real problem. In addition because social life was so intertwined acceptance of some social engagements meant some involvement in paganism. Many believers therefore became compromised. Has the Lord Jesus Christ a few things against us as individuals or as a church? Do we hold heretical concepts or have perverted the Scriptures to satisfy our own lusts or to compromise with the world we live in? The more we know of the Scriptures as working knowledge epignosis the more we will be able to judge ourselves and correct ourselves to conform with His plan. Serious betrayal of the Lords plan or His people is likely to result in the sin unto death. Even though evil people look as if they have won, God will judge the ungodly in His time and that judgement is sure. Have we become compromised by our social interaction with pagans? Be not unequally yoked together in marriage or business. It is all right to say No [2 Corinthians 6:14]. The Nicolaitains in verse 15 were the group which the church at Ephesus was commended for not accepting but they were accepted at Pergamos. As stated before there are two views on who this group was, one where it was a pagan group which was accepted for combining with the church at ecumenical worship services, the other derived from the name which promoted the development of the clergy and the laity which also corrupted the church. During this period of 312 to 590 AD both errors came into being. It is very important with whom we socialise or have relationships with so that we do not end up with a compromised situation. It should be borne in mind that apart from the grace gift given to us to function in the body of Christ there is no difference or distinction to all in the body of Christ - [Galatians 3:26-29]. The Lord hates false doctrines and perversion of the Word of God. The word repent in verse 16 is metanoeo which means to change your mind. If we have heresies or sin in our life we need to repent and confess homologeo our sins so that He will not need to judge us. Homologeo is a compound verb made up of homo meaning the same and logeo meaning to speak. We are told to speak the same as God does about our sin [1 John 1:9]. This is of vital importance in relation to the Lords Table where strict instructions are given in 1 Corinthians 11:23-31. If we judge ourselves we will not be judged. The sword of the mouth is probably the Word of God which is classified as the Sword of the Spirit. The promise to the believer is threefold - the overcomer will eat of the hidden manna, will be given a white stone and be given a new name. The word used for stone psephos means a small stone which was used in the voting system of the ancient world rather than lithos which is the normal word for stone. This is the only time that psephos is used in the Scriptures. In the ancient world the voting system was to select a white stone for approval and a black stone for rejection. Here God givers the believer the vote of approval. The voting by God using a white stone here shows the overcomer will be acquitted of the guilt of that church and it will be a mark of his acceptance with Christ. Manna - The person leaving the State church might be deprived of his job and welfare. In spite of what he is deprived of, God will provide his sustenance. New Name - shows spiritual blessing will be given to him - cf. Abram to Abraham - Genesis 17:1-8, Jacob to Israel - Genesis 32:22-32. CHRONOLOGY 312-321 AD 312ACHILLAS Patriarch of Alexandria [312-313] see 300 and 313 He directed the Catechetical School of Alexandria, defending the teachings of Orthodoxy. CONSTANTINE AND THE MILVIAN BRIDGE Constantine became ruler of the West in 312 when he defeated his brother-in-law Maxentius near Rome at the Battle of Milvian Bridge (over the Tiber river), and the Senate hailed him as saviour of the Roman people. Later, in 324 he will twice defeat another brother-in-law Licinius (emperor of the East), and become sole ruler of the empire. On the eve of the Milvian Bridge battle Constantine is said to have prayed to the God of the Christians (because his father had done so and prospered), and after his defeat of Maxentius, Constantine looked upon their God as the bringer of victory. There are two accounts of a miraculous event occurring at this time about which there has been much speculation. According to Lactantius [see 317] it was in a dream that Constantine was directed to delineate on the shields of his soldiers "the heavenly sign", and proceed to battle. The sign was the initial letters of the Greek name of Christ X and P superimposed on one another. In the account related to Eusebius by Constantine late in life, he and his whole army had seen about mid-day, a vision of the cross in the sky with the inscription en hoc signo e vincus - In this sign you shall conquer. In Gaul two years earlier when Constantine was on the march, he also claimed to have seen a vision of the sun god while worshipping in the grove of Apollo. This was the sun god whom the family had long held in reverence. The insignia of this pagan god on Constantine's coinage was eliminated about a decade after his victory over Maxentius. A triumphal arch was erected in Rome in honour of his victory over Maxentius, and a statue set up at the same time of Constantine holding aloft a cross and the inscription read "By this saving sign I have delivered your city from the tyrant and restored liberty to the Senate and people of Rome". It was from this time that Constantine dated his conversion. He surrounded himself with Christians at court, and in later years went on campaigns with a mobile chapel in a tent. It is of interest that in Encyclopaedia Britannica the comment is made that his pronouncements and letters "demonstrate that Constantine's commitment to Christianity was firmer and less ambiguous than some have suggested. Eusebius confirmed what Constantine himself believed: that he had a special and personal relationship with the Christian God." 313DONATUS Described as fiery and energetic, Donatus was elected bishop in 313 upon the death of Majorinus who had been made a rival bishop by the disaffected group in Carthage. His name was later given to this serious schism in the North African church. DONATISTS African separatist church, which began in Carthage in 311 [see Caecilian 311] and grew rapidly under the able leadership of Donatus (by 330 the Donatists held a synod of two hundred and seventy bishops). The Donatists arose from a large disaffected group, who had a peculiar zeal for martyrdom and venerated the relics of martyrs; they wanted no fellowship with those who did not embrace their views or with those who had used ways and means to escape the great persecution of Diocletian. Donatists believed they alone were the true church since any who had apostatised or any who welcomed the repentant apostates back into the fellowship without re-baptism could not be part of a pure, holy church. They also held the view of Cyprian, that clergy who had apostatised (denied Christ under persecution) could not administer the Lord's Supper because it would pollute the recipient; for they not only believed that benefits of divine grace were somehow channelled through the elements of the Lord's Supper, but furthermore, this divine grace was dependent on the virtuous character of the administrator. If the administrator was not pure and holy then his guilt and its penalty was transferred to the recipient. In 317 Constantine issued laws in an attempt to coerce the Donatists to reunify; laws which marked the Donatists as criminals, and persecution followed with the confiscation of Donatist churches which led to some of their deaths. This only made them all the more zealous, and in 321 Constantine issued an edict of toleration. In 347, Emperor Constans will exile Donatus and Donatist bishops to Gaul where Donatus died in 355. Repressive measures were also taken against a particular group of Donatists who were seasonal farm workers. They were called the Circumcellions, a fringe group of Donatists who were undisciplined wanderers with fanatical zeal for martyrdom. Crazy with enthusiasm, some of them cast themselves down from rocks, in the hope that death obtained in this way might merit the crown of martyrdom. They were unrestrained and violent, intimidating their own against rejoining the mainstream church, and plundering and murdering their opponents. In 362 Emperor Julian allowed the exiled Donatists to return home. The movement gained strength, and by the end of the century Donatists made up nearly half of the Christians in North Africa. MILAN, EDICT OF The famous edict that established toleration of Christianity in the Roman Empire, jointly signed by Emperors Constantine and Licinius at Milan in January 313; part of which reads, "Having long since perceived that religious liberty should not be denied, but that it should be granted to the judgement and the desire of each one to perform divine duties according to his own preference, we had given orders that each one, and the Christians among the rest, have the liberty to observe the religion of his choice, and his peculiar mode of worship. In order that whatsoever divinity or celestial power may exist may be propitious to us and to all that live under our government." The only extant copies of the edict are those of Licinius. Constantine did not make Christianity the state religion (that big, big mistake would come later with Emperor Theodosius), he simply made it legal, so that now, believers could literally come out of caves and worship in freedom. ROME, SYNOD OF In 313, Constantine, who disliked disunity in the church, asked Miltiades the bishop of Rome to hold an enquiry into the schism in the church at Carthage, North Africa, and Miltiades presided over a synod of bishops from Italy and Gaul which declared in favour of Bishops Caecilian (see 311) and Felix, vindicating them and condemning the separatist group. Both Caecilian's appointment as bishop of Carthage and his ordination by Felix had been declared invalid by Numidian bishops who had supported the Carthaginian separatist group. The separatists, who became known as the Donatists, refused to accept the decision, and Constantine ordered a new synod in Arles. 314ALEXANDER I Patriarch of Alexandria [313-328] see 312 and 328. He confronted the Arian heresy, convening a local Synod of 100 Bishops in Egypt, which condemned the leader of the heresy. However, the very quick spreading of the heresy resulted in the convening of the first Ecumenical Synod. Alexander held that the Son was eternally the Son of the Father and accused a presbyter in his see, Arius, of following the doctrine that the Son had a beginning. He deposed Arius in 321 a decision that was upheld at the synods of Antioch and Nicea in 325. He constantly opposed the Arians until his death. He is honoured as a Saint of the Church. ALEXANDER Bishop of Byzantium [314-337] succeeded Metrophanes [see 306] as he had been named in his predecessors will. It was during his time that Byzantium was renamed Constantinople in 337. When the Arian controversy began the Patriarch of Alexandria requested his co-operation in combating what he perceived as heresy. Arianism was rejected at the Council of Nicea in 325 but Constantine put pressure on Alexander to accept Arius back into the Church. Alexander considered that the repentance of Arius was insincere and secluded himself and prayed that he not do anything wrong. As it was Arius died on the way to the meeting in 337 and Alexander soon followed him having nominated Paul I the Confessor [see 337] his vicar, to succeed him and warning about another candidate Macedonius [see 342]. ANCYRA [modern Ankara] First Synod was held here in 314 after the Great Persecution where 12 to 18 bishops widely representative of Syria and Asia Minor met to discuss penalties for different categories of the lapsed and regulating clerical duties. In 358 Basil of Ancyra presided over a synod of 12 bishops acknowledged as voicing conservative eastern opinions known as Homoiousions [see 268]. An Arian synod in 375 deposed several bishops including Gregory of Nyssa who had earlier convened synods at Ancyra to support the endeavours of his brother Basil. SYNODS OF ARLES The first important synod held in Arles, Gaul, was convened primarily to deal with the North African schism. Forty two bishops attended, including three from Britain. The decision was that Caecilian had been rightfully elected, and the separatists (Donatists) were again condemned. Still refusing to accept the decision, they appealed to Constantine to review their case, but at the imperial enquiry held in 316 at Milan they were again condemned. Issued also at the Synod of Arles were twenty-two canons (rules) to do with church life, including the fixing of the one-day Passover celebration or Easter (see 155ad for this controversy). The Second synod was in 353 which was an Arian synod and condemned Athanasius. EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA [265339] The father of Church history. Born of humble parentage, in early youth he became associated with Pamphilus [see 310] founder of the theological School of Caesarea, assisting him in preparing an apology to Origens teaching. After Pamphilus martyrdom in 310 he withdrew to Tyre. Later he went to Egypt where he was apparently imprisoned for a short time. He was elected unanimously bishop of Caesarea about 314 and in 331 declined the offer of becoming patriarch of Antioch. At the Council of Nicea in 325 he led the large moderate party, submitting the first draft of the creed which was eventually accepted after important modifications. Although Eusebius signed the Nicene Creed document he never really sympathised with the homoousios clause. He was the chief prosecutor of Marcellus of Ancyra [see 374] at a synod in Constantinople 336. He authored many books but his histories are the most notable. He began writing the history of the church during the great persecution that lasted from 303 to 313, revising and finishing it in 324. The edition in ten books appeared in 325, and from them we have today much which would have otherwise been lost to us. It is only in the quotations Eusebius used that we have anything at all of some of the early Christian writers. Also the lists of bishops from the beginning, which were drawn up by Irenaeus, have been preserved by Eusebius. The lists are for Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, Laodicea, and Caesarea. In the history we also have recorded the early struggles of the church to understand the doctrine of the Trinity over against varying shades of heresies. Eusebius was an eye witness of scenes of terrible persecution and martyrdom. After the martyrdom of Pamphilus in 310, Eusebius called himself Eusebius Pamphili (son of Pamphilus). MACARIUS I Primate of Jerusalem [314-334] see 300 and 334. He was probably the Macarius who the heretical Arius labelled as an uneducated heretic in his letter to Eusebius of Nicodemia. He attended the Council of Nicaea in 325 and may have actively debated the Arians and helped draft the Creed. His differences with his metropolitan Eusebius of Caesarea [see 314], the church historian, could have stemmed from the latters weak stand against Arianism but could also have been Marcarius attitude that because Jerusalem was the birthplace of Christianity it ought not to be subordinate to Caesarea a provincial capital. Constantines letter assigning construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to Macarius still exists in Eusebius. PHILOGONIUS Primate of Antioch [314-324] see also 308 and 324. SYLVESTER I bishop of Rome [314335]. During his time as bishop, the Arian Controversy arose in which Arius denied the deity of Christ, and Emperor Constantine called upon bishops to settle the issue at a council in Nicea near his capital Nicomedia. This was the first ecumenical council, held in 325, but the aged Sylvester did not attend; he delegated two presbyters in his stead. Later, in the 8th century, Sylvester's name will be used on a forged document called the 'Donation of Constantine', which alleged that Constantine had granted to Sylvester both spiritual and temporal dominion over Rome and the West. The document had substantial influence for centuries until Lorenzo Valla in 1440 proved it to be a forgery. One of the proofs of it being a forgery was terminology in the document that wasn't actually in use at the time it was purported to have been written; for example it refers to the papal crown, and Sylvester was called bishop of Rome, not pope. The title of pope as universal bishop was given to Boniface III in 607. Sylvester is said to have introduced the tradition of the use of wax candles into the church. He succeeded Miltiades [see 311] and succeeded by Mark [see 336]. 315 316 317LACTANTIUS Christian apologist and historian. Born around 240, Lactantius was educated in North Africa and because of his rhetorical expertise had attracted the attention of Diocletian who appointed him teacher of Latin Oratory in his capital Nicomedia. Lactantius became a Christian late in life and when Diocletian's great persecution of the Christians began to rage he resigned his post around 304, moved to the West and began writing in defence of Christianity. He became quite poverty stricken, but was called out of retirement around 317 by Emperor Constantine to tutor his eldest son Crispus in Treveris, Gaul (now Trier, Germany). Lactantius died around 320. His surviving works are "Divine Institutes" which repudiates both philosophy and deluding superstitions, and "The Death of the Persecutors" which documents the fact that persecuting emperors suffer while virtuous and just emperors prosper. 318 319 320 321-330 AD 321 CONSTANTINE DECREES THE FIRST DAY OF THE WEEK A HOLIDAY Constantine issued the law in 321, and referred to this day as "the venerable day of the sun". It was in reference to the Roman pagan holiday dies solis "Sun's Day", which is where the English (Sunday) and German (Sonntag) names come from for the first day of the week. Constantine declared, "On the venerable day of the sun, let the magistrates and the people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country, however, persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits; because it often happens that another day is not so suitable for grain-sowing or for vine-planting." For the first time, slaves had a day off. The law was aimed at providing a day of worship suitable for all people, the pagan sun-worshippers, and the Christians who had worshipped on the first day of the week, resurrection day, from the beginning (Acts 20:7, 1Corinthians 16:2). 322 323AUDIANI A group which took its name from Audi an ascetic deacon near Edessa who criticised worldliness in the church and clergy. Audi was mistreated and left the church becoming a bishop of a monastic community in the deserts. His group won Gothic adherents. 324COLLUTHUS Presbyter of Alexandria who was the first to sign the deposition of Arius [see 325] in an encyclical of Alexander [see 314] of Alexandria in 321. In 324 a synod of Alexandria deposed a presbyter, Ischyras, who had been ordained by Colluthus, and received him back into the church as a layman. Colluthus died prior to the 339 Egyptian synod where it was affirmed that his ordinations were invalid. Later, Philastrius [d.397] followed by Augustine charged Colluthus with the heresy of denying that God made evil. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT SOLE RULER OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE [324-337]. In 324 Constantine defeated his brother-in-law Licinius in two battles to become sole ruler of the empire. The first battle was at Hadrianopolis (in present day European Turkey), and then Licinius surrendered in the second at Chrysopolis (north-western Turkey). Three weeks later Constantine renamed the city of Byzantium, Nova Roma (New Rome), had the foundation rites performed for his new capital, and immediately began to rebuild the city on a grand scale. This decision was sound both strategically and economically, for Rome had been unsuited to the needs of the empire long before this, as Diocletian had recognised. When Constantine became emperor he issued a general exhortation for subjects to become Christians, but used discretion and caution in his relation to heathenism: "Let no one molest another in this matter, but let every one be free to follow the bias of his own mind. With regard to those who will hold themselves aloof from us, let them have, if they please, their temples of lies: we have the glorious edifice of Thy truth which Thou hast given us as our home. We pray, however, that they may receive the same blessing." There were however certain temples dedicated to disgraceful rites that were commanded to be destroyed, and midnight sacrificial offerings to the powers of darkness which led to scenes of unrestrained depravity, were abolished. Constantine gave back to the Senate the status they had lost during the 'barrack emperor' period. He ceased the gladiator fights, abolished crucifixion as a form of execution, and he reduced the killing of unwelcome children. The clergy were released from the burdensome obligation of serving as municipal magistrates, and he exempted them from taxes. In a letter to the proconsul of Africa in 313 he said the Christian clergy shouldn't be distracted from their religious duties by secular offices "for when they are free to render supreme service to the Divinity, it is evident that they confer great benefit upon the affairs of state." Constantine gave the mainstream church legal rights; large financial donations (especially to North Africa); restored all property that had been confiscated during the great persecution and granted compensation; he gave to the bishop of Rome the imperial property of the Lateran Palace (which became the customary residence of bishops and popes of Rome until the fourteenth century). He was harsh however on schisms from the church and heretics, for example, the North African Donatists received no such imperial favour, and according to Eusebius, the Novationists who were separatists from the church in Rome, even received an edict wherein he addressed them as haters of truth, and forbade them to meet, not merely in public but even in private homes (this would change after the Council of Nicea in 325). Constantine wasn't baptised until on his deathbed, and the reasons put forward for this have been firstly, a remark he made when about to undergo the ritual, "I had thought to do this in the waters of the Jordan, wherein our Saviour for our example is recorded to have been baptised"; and secondly, the rather superstitious estimate of baptism that was held in this day, of it being a means of magical absolution better received near the end of ones life when the chance of defiling the soul with new sins was less. LABARUM The first Christian military standard, designed by Constantine from his celestial vision and dream on the eve of the military victory at Milvian Bridge in 313. From 324 it was the official standard of the Roman Empire. Fashioned after legionary standards it substituted the old pagan symbols for the form of a cross surmounted by a jewelled wreath containing the monogram of Christ, on which hung a purple banner inscribed hoc signo victor eris. PAULINUS OF TYRE Primate of Antioch [324-325] see also 314 and 325 325ARIUS Presbyter (teaching elder) of the Alexandrian church. Arius denied that the Son of God is eternal and he speculated about the origin of the pre-incarnate logos. His conclusions denied the full deity of Jesus Christ the Son of God. This became known as the Arian controversy and the necessity of dealing with it led to definitive Christian doctrine. (The modern form of this heresy is proposed by the Jehovahs Witnesses.) Arius originally came from Libya and had his theological training in Antioch under Lucian who was head of the Antiochene School. About 323 when Arius was a presbyter of the Alexandrian church his teaching was investigated by his bishop, Alexander, and when a dispute arose, Emperor Constantine sent his ecclesiastical advisor (Hosius, a Spanish bishop) to Alexandria in 324 to settle it. Arius was condemned at this synod; the bishops were from Egypt and Libya. Arius appealed to Eusebius bishop of Nicomedia (a school friend) who supported and sheltered him, and sponsored a synod in Bithynia which nullified the excommunication. Constantine wrote to the agitators and maintained there was no adequate cause in the nature of the issue for such fierce contention (thereby proving his lack of theological insight). He pointed out to them that philosophers could differ on particular views and yet maintain harmony because of teachings held in common. But such was the importance of this issue that they could not be fobbed off with the example of pagan philosophers. Constantine felt obliged to call upon the bishops to hold a general council. In 336 Arius was restored to imperial favour and brought back from banishment but before he could be formally restored to church fellowship he collapsed and died while walking on the streets of Nova Roma (Constantinople). CANON LAW A body of ecclesiastical rules or laws drawn up and imposed by authority in all matters of faith, morals and discipline. The importance of councils determined the degree of authority attached to the canons; those from Nicea [see below] possessed great authority. The African churches held frequent sessions that produced a lot of canonical material as evidenced in the Council of Chalcedon [see 451]. Their work was supplemented by individuals; men such as Bishops Gregory Thaumaturgas [see 270], Basil of Caesarea [see 370], and Aphilochius of Iconium [see 373]; [see also Decretals 1545]. ECUMENICAL COUNCILS Councils representing the whole church hence called ecumenical from the Greek word meaning the inhabited world. The Roman Catholic Church recognises 21 such councils as having been ecumenical, and according to Canon Law, an ecumenical council must be convoked by the bishop of Rome, and all diocesan bishops of the church must be invited. Its decrees are binding only upon papal ratification and the rulings of the papacy cannot be appealed to a council. There were eight starting with Nicea in 325; Constantinople I [381]; Ephesus [431]; Charlcedon [451]; Constantinople II [553]; Constantinople III [680- 681]; Nicea II [787]; Constantinople IV [869-870] [See also 1123 and 1545] EUSTATHIUS Primate of Antioch [325-332] see also 324 and 332. A prominent and eloquent opponent of Arianism at the Council of Nicea in 325, he attracted the opposition of the Eusebians, the more so because of his strong criticism of Origen [see 230] and because after his return to Antioch he refused to accept Arian clergy and entered into bitter correspondence with Eusebius of Caesarea [see 314]. He was deposed at the synod of Antioch, probably for insulting the emperor's mother, Helena. Constantine banished him to Thrace which further suggests non-theological factors in his deposition. His developed Christology is an anticipation of Nestorianism [see 428]. His only complete surviving work is the sermon on the witch of Endor which was an attack on Origen. HOMOEANS In the controversies stirred by the homoousios clause of the creed of Nicea [325] one group sought to counter the objectionable term by using homoios which means like. The compromise saw its chief but short lived success under the patronage of Arian sympathiser Emperor Valens [364-378] at the synods of Nice and Constantinople whose creeds incorporate the Homoean formula qualified by according to the Scriptures. NICAEA, COUNCIL OF Called in 325 to settle the Arian controversy. It was the first ecumenical council, and was held at Nicaea, Bithynia (now Iznik, Turkey) near Constantine's capital Nicomedia. Invitations were sent to bishops from every section of the empire with Constantine supplying generously for their conveyance to the meeting. Three hundred and eighteen bishops attended, accompanied by numerous presbyters and deacons, but only the bishops would have the privilege of voting. Constantine attended the Council and addressed the assembly in Latin and it was translated into Greek for the Eastern bishops. Representing the three viewpoints of the controversy were Arias, supported by Eusebius of Nicomedia, the smallest party; Eusebius of Caesarea, leader of the moderate or semi Arian (and largest) party; and Alexander of Alexandria accompanied by his deacon and secretary, the young and brilliant Athanasius, whose notes and circulars on behalf of Alexander had a profound effect on the outcome of the Council. At the council, Arius argued that the Son was created out of nothing in eternity past by the Father and is not of the same essence or substance as the Father; he is not Deity. Eusebius of Caesarea put forward that the Son was begotten by the Father in eternity past and is of a similar essence or substance to the Father. The viewpoint of Athanasius however was emphatic: the Son is coequal and coeternal with the Father and of the same essence or substance. The council condemned the Arian and semi-Arian concepts, and issued the "Nicene Creed". It was a carefully worded statement of doctrine, the essential factor being the safeguard against any denial of the Deity of the Son. The foundation for the creed came from baptismal creeds submitted at the council, with the final draft including very important additions, especially the homoousios clause. This clause was the erudite statement of Athanasius that the Son is of one substance with the Father. The 3 viewpoints: Arias the Son being of separate substance to the Father ousiai. Semi-Arian the Son being of similar substance to the Father homoiousios. Athanasius clause the Son being of one substance with the Father homoousios. The difference between the Athanasius clause and the semi-Arian expression was a single iota (i). It gave rise to the popular expression "It makes not one iota of difference", but of course it makes a whole world of difference to orthodox doctrine. Involved are the doctrines of the Trinity, Creation, and Redemption. NICENE CREED We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father, the only-begotten, that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God, and Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; by whom all things were made in heaven and on earth; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down, and was incarnate, and was made man; He suffered, and the third day He rose again, and ascended into heaven, from whence He cometh to judge the quick and the dead. And (we believe) in the Holy Ghost. And those who say, there was a time when He (the Son) was not, and that He was not before He was made, and He was made out of nothing, or out of another substance or thing, or the Son of God is created, or changeable, or alterable, the holy catholic and apostolic Church anathematises." (The Nicene Creed used in Roman Catholic churches worldwide is a misleading term for their creed differs in many respects.) Also on the agenda of the Council of Nicaea was the ongoing problem about the date for the one-day Paschal celebration (Easter). It was decreed that Pascha should be observed on the first Sunday following the first full moon after the spring equinox but technical difficulties prevented a clear settlement of the issue. [See 155 for the beginning of this controversy.] NICHOLAS OF MYRA Very little is known about Nicholas from whom Santa Claus is derived. He is reputed to have suffered imprisonment under the Roman emperor Diocletian only to be released to serve as one of the bishops at the Council of Nicaea in 325, a supposition which is not supported by any of the records of Nicaea. 326CONSTANTINE celebrated his 20th anniversary as emperor in 326, and went to repeat the celebrations in Rome but it was not a successful visit, for his refusal to take part in a pagan procession offended them; he left after a short visit and never returned. During this trip, Constantine ordered the execution of his 21 year old eldest son Crispus, and Fausta his second wife (step-mother of Crispus) was executed a short time afterward. This sad episode of a family embroilment is shrouded in mystery, but the story which circulated at the time was that Fausta, in order to advance her own sons, accused Crispus of attempting to seduce her. Upon the execution of Crispus, Helena, his devoted and grief-stricken grandmother denounced Fausta. SEBASTE, THE 40 MARTYRS OF These were members of the so-called Thundering Legion who were left naked on the ice of a frozen lake at Sebaste Armenia about 320 and who froze to death in sight of baths of hot water set up on the banks of the river to tempt them to recant. The place of one who recanted was taken by one of the pagan guards who was moved to conversion by what he saw. The incident was recorded by Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa. 327HELENA [248-327] First wife of Constantius and mother of Constantine the Great [see 312]. She was of humble origin and her relationship with Constantius might have been that of a concubine rather than a wife. In any case Emperor Maximian required that she should be divorced in favour of his stepdaughter Theodora. After Constantines succession in 306 she was present at his court, where she was greatly honoured. In her old age she visited the Holy Land, where her name is associated with the erection of churches on sites connected with Jesus. She was probably buried at Constantinople. 328ATHANASIUS I [296373] Patriarch of Alexandria [328373] [see also 313 and 373]. Athanasius was a champion of orthodoxy against Arianism. He became the bishop of Alexandria at 33 years of age. Athanasius was exiled 5 times by 4 different emperors totalling seventeen years of hiding and flight over a period of 30 years, sometimes in Europe, at others in the desert with monks or in Alexandria shielded by his people. In the 4th century he saved the church almost single-handedly from pagan intellectualism. Athanasius was a prolific writer, among which included a classic work of Orthodox theology 'The Incarnation of the Word of God' and a two-part work of apologetics 'Against the Heathen'. He also wrote 'Life of Anthony', Bible commentaries, and theological treatises. Important among his works are 'The Letters' written to Sarapion an Egyptian monk, on the divinity of the Holy Spirit, as well as letters to Epictetus, bishop of Corinth, which anticipate future controversies in defending the humanity of Christ. During his banishments he kept in touch with his flock with annual 'Festal Letters'. His decade of peace at home in Alexandria commenced in 346 and he wrote 'Apology Against the Arians'. While in exile in Egypt he completed a huge theological work called 'Four Orations Against the Arians', as well as 'Apology to Constantius', 'Apology of His Flight', and 'History of the Arians'. The Arians, led by Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and semi-Arians led by Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea were very influential at court and several attempts to poison the mind of Constantine against Athanasius were eventually successful. At the synod in Constantinople in 336 he was falsely accused of threatening to interfere with the grain supply from Egypt, and without any formal trial Constantine exiled him to the Rhineland. When Constantine died in 337 Athanasius returned to Alexandria but in 338 Constantius II renewed the order of banishment and installed an Arian bishop in Alexandria. Athanasius was given refuge in Rome by Emperor Constans and Julius the bishop of Rome until his return to Alexandria in 346. This was his second exile in Europe and as a result the Latin church of the West was influenced and greatly benefited. In 346 Emperor Constans pressured his brother Constantius in the East and secured the return of Athanasius from exile. He was welcomed home in Egypt like a popular hero and spent almost a decade of peaceful years as bishop of Alexandria. After the death of Constans in 350 and the civil war that followed, Constantius resumed his pro-Arian policy. In 355 political charges were made against Athanasius; he was banished for the third time and Constantius imposed upon all Western bishops 'The Condemnation of Athanasius', many of whom were exiled for not signing. In 356 at a Pascha service an attempt was made to arrest Athanasius and he withdrew to Upper Egypt where he was protected in monasteries or the homes of friends. In 361 after his initial toleration Julian ordered Athanasius to leave Alexandria. He spent his fourth exile in Upper Egypt and it lasted until the emperor's death in 363. Julian's rule lasted 18 months and that was the extent of the mini revival of worshipping pagan gods. Valens favoured Arianism and ordered the fifth exile of Athanasius. This time Athanasius stayed in the outskirts of Alexandria hidden by the brethren until local authorities in 366 persuaded the emperor to reconsider. Athanasius spent a few years in peace before his death in 373. Athanasius' Festal Letter to Alexandria in 367 listed all 27 books of the New Testament allowing for the Eastern Church to complete its New Testament Canon. [See canon of Scripture 367] 329 330CONSTANTINOPLE Officially inaugurated on May 11, 330. Constantinople (formerly Byzantium) was the capital until 1453 of the Eastern Roman Empire which has been called Byzantine Empire by later historians. Constantine died 7 years after this inauguration and it was then that the city was actually named Konstantinopolis (city of Constantine). Constantine called Byzantium, Nova Roma. The early history of Byzantium began in the 7th century BC when Greek colonists from Megara (a town near Athens) settled there and founded the city Byzantion, named after their king, Byzas. Byzantium is the Latanisation of the original name. In 512 BC, Darius the Persian king took the settlement but then the Athenians took control in 478. The city acknowledged Sparta's supremacy as Athenian power weakened during the Peloponnesian War, and although it was besieged and retaken by an Athenian general, Sparta prevailed over Athens in 405 BC. Byzantium joined the Second Athenian League in 343 and withstood the siege of Phillip II of Macedon three years later, but accepted Macedonian rule under Phillip's son, Alexander the Great. Independence was gained with the fall of Alexander's empire. In the 3rd century BC Byzantium's treasury was drained to buy off marauding Gauls. Under Rome it was at first a free city but gradually fell under imperial control. When it sided with a usurper in 196 AD, Emperor Septimus Severus massacred the populace of Byzantium, broke down the walls, and annexed what was left of the city to Heraclea Perinthus (another city in Thrace). It was sacked again by Emperor Gallienus in 268 AD but during the following years of civil wars and rebellions across the empire, Byzantium remained untouched until Constantine chose it for his capital. The fourth and fifth centuries were a period of great heresies and as these theological battles emerged Constantinople emerged as the second most important religious centre of Christianity after Rome with the Bishop of Constantinople beginning to compete with his western rival. In addition with the language difference with Latin in the west and Greek in the east there was also a tendency to separate. After the capture of Constantinople in 1453 the Patriarch of Constantinople continued to keep his office in the city. The Turks tended to treat their Christian subjects well and in the four centuries of Turkish rule and to this day the Patriarch of Constantinople is the head of the Greek Orthodox Church but does not include the other branches of Eastern Orthodoxy. CODEX SINAITICUS an uncial manuscript of the New Testament which was transcribed around 330. It is the oldest extant Greek codex. A codex is the earliest form of a modern book; a collection of leaves or pages of parchment written on both sides and stitched together. It replaced the scrolls and wax tablets. Uncial refers to the 'inch' size letters used in Greek and Latin manuscripts in the third to ninth centuries that resemble modern capitals (in printing they are called majuscule compared to minuscule). Codex Sinaiticus was discovered in 1859 by Konstantin von Tischendorf, a German biblical critic [see 1869], at the Monastery of St. Catherine at the foot of Mt. Sinai (i.e. the traditional site on the peninsular not the real Mt. Sinai that Paul says is in Arabia). Tischendorf presented the manuscript to Tsar Alexander II of Russia who had sponsored his trip and it remained in St. Petersburg/Leningrad until 1933 when it was sold to the British Museum for 100,000 pounds by the Soviet Union. JUVENCUS, GAIUS VETTIUS AQUILINUS Christian poet. A Spanish priest whose fame rests on his epic of Christ's Life in about 3,200 hexameters. This is the earliest important Christian counterpart to pagan epics. Drawn mainly from Matthew, his work closely paraphrases the Gospels specially Christ's words. He was highly respected in mediaeval times. 331-340 AD 331 332EULALIOS Primate of Antioch [332] see also 325 and 333. 333BORDEAUX PILGRIM An anonymous traveller from Burdigala (now Bordeaux) in Gaul to Jerusalem in 333, returning to Mediolanum (Milan) Italy in 334. The man recorded the itinerary of his journey, the sites shown to him in the Holy Land, and also wrote about the buildings which Constantine and his family gave to the area. It is the first record of a western pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and the earliest mention for some of these things. His itinerary is known as Itinerarium Burdigalense. EUPHRONIUS Primate of Antioch [333-334] see also 332 and 334. 334MAXIMUS III Primate of Jerusalem [334-348] see 314 and 350. PHILACLUS Primate of Antioch [334-341] see also 333 and 341. 335TYRE, SYNOD OF Dealt with the Arian controversy. The Council of Nicea in 325 didn't end the controversy, doctrinal debate continued and was complicated by rivalry among bishops as well as the intrusion of imperial politics. The synod held in Tyre in 335 deposed bishops Athanasius of Alexandria, Marcellus of Ancyra, and Asclepiades of Gaza. Athanasius refuted charges brought against him of mistreatment of Arians before a hostile gathering of Arian bishops, and he refused to recognise the meeting as a general council of the church. 336SYNOD OF CONSTANTINOPLE, ATHANASIUS EXILED The Arians, led by Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and semi-Arians led by Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea were very influential at court and several attempts to poison the mind of Constantine against Athanasius were eventually successful. At the synod in Constantinople in 336 he was falsely accused of threatening to interfere with the grain supply from Egypt, and without any formal trial Constantine exiled him to the Rhineland. He returned to Alexandria when Constantine died the following year. BASIL OF ANCYRA Semi-Arian bishop who succeeded to the see of Ancyra in 336 when Marcellus was exiled by Constantine. Basil was deposed by the western bishops in 342 at the Synod of Sardica but reinstated by Constantius II in 348. In 359 he played a major part in the Synod of Ariminum in his effort to reconcile the various parties of the Arian Controversy but was eventually deposed by heretical eastern bishops in 360 and died in exile in Illyricum around 364. CHRISTMAS The earliest mention of the celebration of December 25th is in the Philocalian Calendar compiled in 354 which cites its observance in Rome in 336. It would not appear to have been celebrated in Antioch until around 375. By 380 it was being observed in Constantinople and by 430 in Alexandria. MARK Bishop of Rome for less than a year. He is credited with having given the bishops of Ostia the right to ordain new bishops of Rome. The Romans considered Ostia their first colony. It was originally at the mouth of the Tiber but now the ancient ruin of Ostia Antica is 6km upstream. Mark succeeded Sylvester I [see 314] and was succeeded by Julius I [see 337]. 337CONSTANTINE'S SONS GOVERN THE EMPIRE When Constantine died in 337, his three sons, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans, each took the title of augustus and divided the empire between them. There were a few months of confusion at the beginning of the new administration when soldiers massacred the other members of the Constantinian family, and suspicion fell on Constantius as being responsible. CONSTANTINE II ruler of Spain, Gaul, and Britannia [337340]. He launched a surprise invasion of northern Italy in 340 to seize the central empire from his brother Constans but was killed in the ensuing battle. CONSTANTIUS II ruler of the East [337-350], sole ruler of the empire [350361]. Between 338 and 350 Constantius was engaged in continual warfare with Shapur II of Persia. The attempts of Constantius to create religious unity under Arianism failed but to that end he deposed and exiled orthodox bishops, passed laws against pagan religion, and directed some of his religious legislation against Jews. In 341 Constantius issued an edict forbidding the heathen to burn incense to the gods. Edicts in 346 and 356 ordered the closure of temples and the death sentence for burning incense to the gods although there wasn't a rigorous enforcement of these laws. His so-called benevolent policy toward the church seems to have been at the expense of the heathen. Hilary, the bishop of Poitiers in Gaul, wrote in Against Constantius, "With the gold of the State you burden the sanctuary of God; and what is plundered from the temples, or won by confiscations, or extorted by punishments, you obtrude upon God." CONSTANS ruler of Italy, Africa, and Illyricum [337340], ruler of the West [340-350]. Constans was sympathetic to the Nicene party of the Arian Controversy and threw his weight behind the orthodox bishops. JULIUS I Bishop of Rome [337352]. In 341 Julius presided over a synod in Rome regarding the Arian Controversy, the outcome of which supported the Nicene position of Athanasius. Julius then wrote letters to the eastern bishops in support of their banished bishops, Athanasius of Alexandria and Marcellus of Ancyra, but to no avail. Although Marcellus had supported the Nicene homoousios clause scholars say he actually held an extreme view; i.e. the Word of God became The Son only at the Incarnation. Julius succeeded Mark [see 336] and was succeeded by Liberius [see 352]. PACHOMIUS [c.287-346] Egyptian pioneer of monasticism. He was won to Christianity while a military conscript by the kindness of the Christians of Thebes. He learned the solitary life before settling at the abandoned village of Tabennisi in 320 to fulfil his vision of an ascetic life patterned on the primitive Jerusalem community. His followers gathered at Easter and in August in general assembly at Pboou his second settlement and headquarters from 337. The monasteries appear as self-sufficient profitable agricultural communities or manufacturing complexes with almost a military form of organisation. Within the monastery the monks were allotted according to their skills to houses in numbers of 30 to 40 each which formed the basic unit of community life. His example was taken by Basil the Great [see 370] and modified for Christian ideals of community and service life. PAUL I Bishop of Constantinople [337-339, 341-342, 346-350] succeeded Alexander [see 314]. As soon as Alexander died the Arians and Orthodox parties clashed, with the Orthodox gaining the upper hand and Paul being elected. Emperor Constantius II returned to Constantinople and banished Paul in 339 and installed Eusebius of Nicodemia in his stead. Eusebius died in 341 and the people restored Paul. His renewed tenure of office was short as Constantius who was in Antioch ordered Hermogenes his general of cavalry to remove Paul. The people of Constantinople responded by killing Hermogenes and burning his house. Constantius returned and in 342 drove Paul into exile again setting Macedonias as bishop until 346. Paul and Athanasius then went to Rome where Bishop Julius I ruled that they were orthodox and both of them regained their sees in 346 with Paul in control to 350. Constantius was at least consistent as he sent another legate Phillipus to Constantinople to reinstate Macedonias and in 351 Macedonias I was restored and held office until 360. Paul was removed and eventually died at Cuscusus in Armenia. 338EPHRAEM THE SYRIAN [306-373] Classical writer of the Syrian church who was made a deacon in 338. At some time he probably lived as a monk, but apparently never entered the priesthood. After the Persian occupation of Nisibis he fled to Edessa where his life was spent in teaching, preaching, and literary activities. His writings are many, covering different aspects of theology and church life. He also composed many hymns and poems. 339EUSEBIUS OF NICOMEDIA Bishop of Constantinople [339-341]. Originally the bishop of Berytus, modern day Beirut, and subsequently Nicomedia, he was given the see of Constantinople by Constantius II after the first deposition of Paul [see 337]. He was a distant relation of Constantine whom he baptised in 337. He was a supporter of Arius but changed his mind and after long and heated opposition signed the Confession at the first council of Nicaea in 325. His defence of Arius angered Constantine and he went into exile for a while. Bishop Eusebius should not be confused with the church historian of the same name. FRUMENTIUS First bishop of Axumis. He and his brother accompanied their teacher Meropus on a voyage from Tyre to Ethiopia. Here they were both captured and taken to the king at Axumis. The brothers were Christians, and were persuaded by the Queen Mother to remain after the death of the king and to help with the education of the prince and with the government during the princes minority. As a result they were able to promote to the Christian faith. On the princes majority they were permitted to return to their own country. Frumentius visited Alexandria around 339 and was consecrated bishop of Axumis by Athanasius. He took the title "ur Father" which was retained by primates of the Ethiopian church. SERAPION OF THMUIS [d. c.362] Bishop of Thmuis who was the superior of a colony of monks and friend of Anthony. He was consecrated bishop of Thmuis, Lower Egypt, around 339. He was sent by Athanasius with four other Egyptian bishops in 356 to the court of Emperor Constantius II to refute Arian charges. Later he was ousted from his see by an Arian, Ptolemaius, in 359. He reported to Athanasius concerning some Egyptian Christians who believed the Holy Spirit was merely a creature rather than God. The four letters Athanasius wrote to Serapion about this constitute the first formal statement of the deity of the Holy Spirit. 340ETHIOPIA [see also 1268] It was said that Frumentius [see 339] and Edesius of Tyre were taken as prisoners to Abyssinia, but in gaining favour with the Emperor Ezana were set free and began to evangelise the country. About 340 Frumentius was consecrated bishop of Ethiopia by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria. At the close of the fifth century nine monks reportedly came from Syria, and the Ethiopian church was confirmed in the Monophysitism that had characterised the original link with Alexandria. The Christian influence declined as Islamic influence spread in Africa though contact was still maintained with the Coptic Church. PAUL OF THEBES [d. c.340] Traditionally the first Christian hermit. He was born during the Decian persecution [249-251] and fled to a cave near the Red Sea at the age of 16 when he is said to have lived a life of prayer and penitence for about 100 years. He is said to have been visited by Antony when he was 113 but there is no confirmation of this visit. In later art Paul is represented with a palm tree from the leaves of which he wove a tunic. 341-350 AD 341ANTIOCH SYNOD held in 341 for the dedication of a cathedral built by Constantine I. At the synod the eastern bishops discussed the Arian controversy; they denied being Arians and repudiated the extremes of both Arius and Marcellus. A new creed was drawn up with a modified Arianism to replace the Nicene Creed. Missing, was the important homoousios clause that The Son was of the same substance as The Father. The creed was inadequate; teaching that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are "three persons, in agreement one" (with only one will). ASTERIUS THE SOPHIST was an Arian theologian, a disciple of Lucian, the teacher at Antioch. His writings confirm that baptism was a regular part of the Easter vigil leading up to the Eucharist on Easter day. An intriguing hymn to Easter night survives in his homilies. JACOB OF NISBIS Jacob was a solitary ascetic and made bishop of Nisibis by popular acclaim. A confessor in the persecution of Maximus he took a leading part in the Council of Nicaea and is classed favourably by Athanasius with Hosius of Cordova and Alexander of Alexandria. Apparently he subscribed to the decrees of the Dedication Council of Antioch in 341. Nicknamed the Moses in Mesopotamia he organised a week of public prayer which was coincided with the death of Arius. He so strongly defended Nisibis against the Persians that after he died his bones were treated as guarantees of civic protection but they were removed when Nisibis fell in 363. STEPHEN I Primate of Antioch [341-345] see also 334 and 345. 342MACEDONIUS I Bishop of Constantinople [342-346, 351-360] succeeded Paul [see 337] on two occasions. He encouraged a sect called the Macedonians who were later suppressed as heretical. He had hoped to replace Paul in 339 at the time of Pauls first exile but the see was given to Eusebius [see 339]. Macedonius however did gain the see from 342-346 while Paul was in exile and synods and counter synods held about Pauls case. Constans the emperor of the West eventually forced Paul to be reinstated but after Constans was murdered in 350 Constantius became sole ruler of the empire and deposed Paul for the last time placing Macedonius in charge for a ten year period. On his return to the see he treated his opponents very poorly, one of the contemporary writers saying his exploits on behalf of Christianity consisted of murders, battles, incarcerations and civil wars. He was deposed in 360 on the grounds of cruelty and canonical irregularities. SYNOD OF SARDICA [342] General council of the church convened by Emperors Constantius and Constans at the request of Julius bishop of Rome and several other bishops. It was called to settle the Arian Controversy, especially the question of the orthodoxy of three deposed eastern bishops Athanasius of Alexandria, Marcellus of Ancyra, and Asclepiades of Gaza, who had all been deposed at the Synod of Tyre in 335 and exiled to the West. It was held in Sardica, in the Eastern province of Thrace (now Sofia, Bulgaria). When Athanasius appeared at the council and was accepted as a member of it the Arians from the East refused to take part. With a Spanish bishop presiding (Hosius of Cordoba), the Western and Egyptian bishops went ahead with the council, and the three Eastern bishops in question were declared orthodox but a number of other Eastern bishops were declared Arian. The Eastern bishops who had withdrawn from the council wrote and circulated a letter condemning Hosius, Julius, and others for holding communion with Athanasius. Relations between the West and East were embittered still further after this. Of other interest were three canons to come out of this council which authorised the bishop of Rome as a court of appeal for bishops condemned in their own provinces. This authority was for some of the circumstances, not all, but it is of interest with a view to history. 343 344 345 APHRAATES were the 23 Syriac Tractates of Aphrahat written 337-345 which are the earliest existing evidence of Syrian church life and thought. An ascetic from Mosul, Aphrahat taught God in Christ, the Spirit and Resurrection, baptism and asceticism. God the creator gave the law to Moses, Christ is the Son of God whose holy spirit enters a man at baptism and helps him attain resurrection. LEONTIUS Primate of Antioch [345-350] see also 341 and 350. MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 1330] These are the St Thomas Christians of south west India with Malabar being broadly equivalent to the present state of Kerala. Tradition holds that St Thomas landed at Cranganore in 52 AD and founded churches in seven places in Kerala. A separate tradition concerns immigration of Syrian Christians at Craganore in 345 after the king and the bishop of Edessa had resolved to reinforce the churches in Kerala. The leader was Thomas of Cana. A subsequent immigration of Syrians at Quilon is traditionally dated at 823. 346 347 348 ANCHORITE or ANCHORESS was a person who becomes a hermit in order to triumph over the flesh in prayer, contemplation and mortification which became respected in the 4th and 5th centuries. Later it became the name by which those who lived as hermits, who had previously been associated with a monastery, were known. Some in Syria, where Simeon the Stylite [see 459] is the best known, engaged in amazing acts of asceticism in their anchorite experience. SPYRIDON [d. c.348] Bishop of Tremithius, Cyprus. Spydiron was a shepherd who suffered in the persecution under Diocletian and later became a bishop and attended the Council of Nicaea in 325. He also attended the Council of Sardica in 342. At the Council of Nicaea he recited the statement of Christian faith to a pagan philosopher named Eulogius who had previously disputed with other Christians but this time it led to his conversion and baptism. 349 350ABYSSINIA (Ethiopia) The ruling class in Abyssinia (Kingdom of Axumis) accepted Christianity from Syrian captives. Two brothers from Tyre, Frumentius and Aedesius, were the only survivors of a science expedition after their sailing vessel was attacked when it put into shore on the coast of Abyssinia. Their teacher Meropius plus the crew were murdered and the brothers taken captive to the king at Aximus, placed in his service and eventually promoted to positions of honour. During this time the queen was led to Christ, and after the death of the king the brothers assisted with educating the two princes, and in governing until the elder was of age. The Christian faith was promoted during their time there, and in due course they were permitted to return home. Frumentius visited Alexandria and is said to have been made bishop of Axumis by Athanasius around 350. CANDLEMAS / THE MEETING The festival originated in the Jerusalem church in 350 and it is called 'The Meeting' i.e. of Jesus and Simeon. It commemorates the presentation of Jesus in the Temple 40 days after his birth. In 542 Emperor Justinian will order the observance of The Meeting in Constantinople. Pope Sergius [687-701] will introduce it to Rome as Candlemas except it will commemorate the purification of Mary 40 days after giving birth. CONSTANTIUS II became sole ruler of the empire in 350 when his brother Constans was slain in a mutiny. Constantius had been occupied in the East for over a decade against Shapur II of Persia but returned to Europe in 350 to confront two usurpers. Vetranio who was commander of the Danube forces was persuaded to give up, but Magnentius of the Imperial Guard unit who had seized the territories of Constans and had him killed, proved difficult to shift. Constantius eventually defeated Magnentius in 351 although there were heavy casualties on both sides. Magnentius chose to fall on his sword. CYRIL I Primate of Jerusalem [350-386] see 334 and 386. Cyril soon came into conflict with Bishop Acacius of Caesarea [see 366] because during a famine he sold church property donated by the emperor to feed the poor. After being deposed at a local synod he appealed to the emperor and though cleared he was exiled by Constantius but was able to return when Julian the Apostate began to reign in 361. His reign continued to be turbulent depending on who was reigning. Cyrils 24 Catecheses are his chief surviving work. EUDOXIUS Primate of Antioch [350-354] see also 345 and 354. Eudoxius was Patriarch of Constantinople [360-370] [see also 360] 351-360 AD 351ULFILAS or WULFILA (Gothic) [311383] Arian bishop of the Gothic Christians who wrote the earliest translation of the Bible into a Germanic language. Ulfilas invented the Gothic alphabet and translated a large part of the Bible from Greek, producing the earliest text of a Gothic Bible. Although his original translation has not survived, several extant documents of the 5th and 6th centuries reproduce fragments of his work, the most important being "Codex Argentaeus", which is written in gold and silver on purple-red parchment. These documents not only preserve the Gothic alphabet but are the only record of the Gothic language, which is now extinct. Ulfilas is said to have come from north of the Danube, and was ordained bishop in 341 by Eusebius of Nicomedia, the Arian bishop of Constantinople. Around 375 he obtained imperial permission to move persecuted Christians over the Danube into Roman territory. The Gothic Church was Arian from the start for Ulfilas taught the similarity of the Son to the Father and the complete subordination of the Holy Spirit. The Arian form of Christianity was accepted not only by the Goths, Visigoths and Ostrogoths, but other Germanic peoples, including Vandals, and Burgundians. 352LIBERIUS Bishop of Rome [352366] during whose time the emperors constantly meddled in church affairs mainly in the area of Arianism. In 355 Liberius refused to sign 'The Condemnation of Athanasius' and was exiled to Thrace by Constantius with the emperor installing Felix his own Arian nominee as bishop of Rome. In 357 Liberius was summoned to Sirmium, submitted to the authority of Constantius and signed an Arian creed and agreed to sever relations with Athanasius. He was then allowed to return to Rome as bishop whereupon Felix fled, and although Constantius decreed that they should co-rule it was disregarded. After the death of Constantius in 361 the Arian faction declined in the West. In 366 Liberius received into communion representatives from the Eastern church fleeing from Valens the pro Arian emperor. He succeeded Julius I [see 337] and was succeeded by Damasus I [see 366]. 353HILARY Bishop of Poitiers, Gaul, elected around 353. He was exiled from 356-360 to Phrygia by Emperor Constantius for not signing 'The Condemnation of Athanasius'. While in Phrygia he wrote a work about the Trinity, and another explaining the history of the Arian controversy, exhorting believers in the East to rally against those who held the Son to be less than the Father. Hilary was then expelled from the East by Constantius, and he spent his last years in Poitiers combating Arianism, and writing a commentary on the Psalms and a work on Typology. His stance for orthodoxy almost alone in Gaul earned him the title 'The Athanasius of the West". MARCELLINA [c.330-398] Sister of Satyrus [see 375] and Ambrose [see 374] of Milan. Born in Rome she helped her mother with Ambrose's education after her father's death. She was consecrated a virgin by Bishop Liberius 353. Later she lived at Milan with Ambrose who tried to dissuade her from excessive austerities. NERSES (Narses the Great) [326-373] Armenian Catholic Patriarch [Catholicos]. Born into possibly a royal family he married a princess and after her death Nerses was ordained a priest. In 353 he became the patriarch of Armenia which marks a new era in Armenian history. Until then the church had been identified with the royal family and the nobility. Nerses brought it closer to the people with numerous laws on marriage, fast days and divine worship. He built schools and hospitals and sent monks throughout the land preaching the gospel. Some of the reforms brought him into conflict with King Arshak III who expelled him to Edessa. On the king's death he returned at the command of King Pap in 369 only to repeat his offence. Tradition says he was poisoned at the instigation of the king. PAULINUS OF TRIER [d.358] He was an anti-Arian bishop when Constantius induced other Western bishops at the Synod of Arles's in 353 to accept the Arian formula. Paulinus stood firm alone and was banished to Phrygia where he died in exile. 354LIBERIAN CATALOGUE The list of Roman bishops from Peter down to Liberius [352-366], one part in a collection of documents made by a compiler known as the Chronographer in 354. It contains two sections, the first dating the pontificates from Peter to 231 based on authentic but faulty traditions as with a list in the Chronicle of Hippolytus, and secondly the period 231-352 which seems to evidence official documentation. MELETIUS Primate of Antioch [354] see also 350 and 357. 355AERIUS Pioneer of monasteries. He pioneered this work in Pontus with Eustathius [see 356]. He was appointed presbyter to supervise a hostel for the poor when Eustathius was made bishop. Viewed in later controversy as anticipating Reformation objections he advocated the equal rank of bishops and presbyters, the rejection of Easter, and proscribed fasts as relics of Jewish bondage, and of prayers and alms giving for the dead as futile and detrimental to spirituality. AUXENTIUS [d.374] was ordained by Gregory of Alexandria in 343 and became bishop of Milan in 355. Supporting Valens at the council of Rimini [see 359] he subscribed to the Dated Creed. Influenced by Athanasius [see 329], Damasus [see 366] bishop of Rome condemned the Dated Creed in 372 and its supporters but Valentinian [see 364] would not depose Auxentius. EUSEBIUS [d.371] First bishop of Vercilli. A strong upholder of the Nicene orthodoxy, he was respected for his holiness and was a leading spokesman for Liberius [see 352] bishop of Rome, at the Council of Milan in 355 where he courageously resisted efforts of the powerful pro-Arian bishops, who were supported by Emperor Constantius, to join in the condemnation of Athanasius [see 329]. He requested that before anything was decided there should be an acceptance of the Nicene creed. He was defeated and exiled in the East. When released, he was one of the instigators of the Council of Alexandria of 362. On returning to the West, Eusebius joined with Hillary of Poitiers in an unsuccessful attempt to depose the Arian bishop of Milan, Auxentius. He may have written the Codex Vercelensis, a pre Jerome text of the Gospels. FELIX II Rival bishop (antipope) [355-365]. He was in opposition to Bishop Liberius and was installed as bishop of Rome in 355 after HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperor" \o "Roman Emperor" Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_II" \o "Constantius II" Constantius II banished the reigning bishop, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Liberius" \o "Pope Liberius" Liberius, for refusing to subscribe the sentence of condemnation against Athanasius. In May 357 the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome he died on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_22" \o "November 22" 22 November HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/365" \o "365" 365. 356EUSTATHIUS [c.300c.377] Bishop of Sebaste. His ascetic practices and those of his followers were extreme and enough to earn the condemnation of several synods, but he was nevertheless sufficiently respected to be elected bishop of Sebaste in Armenia Minor in 356. He became a formative influence on the development of Basil the Great [see 370]. He was one of the delegates from the East who appealed to the Western emperor, Valentinian, and Liberius, bishop of Rome [see 352] in 366. Later he became a leader of the Macedonian heresy (denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit), and his relation with Basil the Great was completely severed. 357ANNIAS Primate of Antioch [357-360] see also 354 and 360. ANOMOEANS A group of radical Arians led by Aetius [see 360] in the period 357-361. They held that the Son is unlike the Father and later influenced the Pneumatomachi who excluded the Son and the Spirit from the Godhead. This group were rejected as heretics at the Council of Constantinople in 381. GEORGE OF CAPPADOCIA [d.361] Bishop of Alexandria and an Arian who was thrust upon into the see of Alexandria from 357 following the deposition of Athanasius the previous year. His arrival was accompanied by soldiers, and the cruelty that had accompanied earlier eviction of the orthodox from their churches, recommenced with George. He was also violent against the pagans as well and eventually his tyranny caused him, in 361, to be seized by a mob and killed several weeks later. HOSIUS OF CORDOBA [c.256-357] Spanish bishop of Cordova, and ecclesiastical advisor of Constantine the Great. Hosius was present at the Synod of Elvira in Spain held around 305, and became advisor to Constantine in 312. He was sent by Constantine to Alexandria in 324 to try and settle the dispute between Bishop Alexander and his presbyter Arius but this developed into the Arian Controversy. Hosius was present and may have presided at the Council of Nicea in 325 after which he returned to Spain. He appeared again in 342 to preside at the Council of Sardica, travelling to Sardica with Athanasius. In 355 Emperor Constantius summoned the very elderly Hosius (and other Western bishops) to Milan to condemn Athanasius and hold communion with the Arians. Hosius refused and wrote a famous letter to Constantius reproving him for intruding into ecclesiastical matters. He was subsequently summoned to Sirmium by Constantius and detained in court for a year where, after threats and physical violence, he signed an Arian creed in 357. Soon afterward Hosius repudiated this creed before his death in Spain the same year. Athanasius held Hosius in high esteem although others described him as dictatorial, harsh, and inflexible. 358 359 ALL SAINTS DAY A feast kept by both eastern and western churches to commemorate the fellowship of all Christians both in heaven and on earth, the origin of which is uncertain. A hymn by Ephraem in 359 refers to remembering all martyrs on 13 May while a sermon by John Chrysostem [see 398] showed that Antioch remembered its martyrs on the Sunday after Pentecost, and it soon included other saints besides martyrs. The feast day being November I possibly refers to the dedication on that day in St Peters basilica of an oratory to all the saints by Gregory III [see 731]. SYNOD OF ARIMINUM (now Rimini) Held in the West simultaneously with the SYNOD OF SELEUCIA in the East (now Silifke). The synods were called by Emperor Constantius to resolve the Arian Controversy. Orthodox bishops plus varying shades of Arians were all out-manoeuvred by Constantius himself who, regardless of their decision at the synods, forced them to sign an Arian Creed when they arrived to inform him of the outcome. EUSEBIUS [d.359] Arian bishop of Emesa. He studied theology under Eusebius of Caesarea and subsequently philosophy at Alexandria. As he was a man of considerable learning, high personal character, with a theology acceptable to the Eusebian party and with a knowledge of Alexandria, it was not surprising that the Council of Antioch in 341 offered Eusebius the bishopric of Alexandria, made vacant through the exile of Athanasius [see 329]. He refused the offer having no great desire to advance himself and certainly not expose himself to the unpopularity that a usurper of Athanasius was certain to encounter. He was a friend and adviser of Emperor Constantius. Originally there were only a few remnants of his writings but 17 of his sermons were discovered in the 20th century. GEORGE OF LAODICEA [d. c.360]. Born in Alexandria he was ordained a presbyter by Alexander and was later deposed by him following an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the Arians and the Catholics in Antioch. Later he succeeded the Arian Theodotus of Laodicea and then as bishop took part in a number of councils opposed to Athanasius, who described George as one of the worst of the Arians. He played a leading role in deposing the Anomoeans [see 357] at the Council of Seleucia in 359. SELEUCIA, COUNCIL OF An assembly of the Eastern Church called by Emperor Constantius II to settle the Arian controversy. Constantius had endorsed a creedal statement which was intended to be a compromise between the different factions in this controversy, a statement which conceded to the semi-Arians their view that the Son was not of the same essence as the Father. Despite the emperors wishes the council stood firm. Ten delegates were summoned to the emperor and persuaded to accept a compromise creed. This compromise creed was later reaffirmed by the Council of Constantinople in 381. 360 AETIUS [d 367] the intellectual leader of the Anomoean heretics who in 360 was banished by Constantius II [see 337] for denying that God and the Son are in anyway alike. Recalled in 362 by Constantius successor Julian the Apostate [see 361], Aetius helped the Anomoeans to form a distinct group. In his writing he taught that the uncreated God and his offspring can be neither identical nor alike. SYNOD OF CONSTANTINOPLE The Arian Creed was formally ratified in the East by Arian bishops led by Acacius of Caesarea at a synod in Constantinople in 360. Basil of Ancyra, a leader of the semi-Arians was deposed at this synod and banished to Illyricum where he died around 364. EUDOXIUS OF ANTIOCH Bishop of Constantinople [360-370]. He was an Arian who had been bishop of Germanicia for 17 years, heard that the see of Antioch was vacant due to the death of its bishop and hurried there to say that he was the emperors selected replacement. He was a very proud and doctrinally erroneous man as seen by the responses of three notables who heard him. Hiliary of Poitiers said that he wished he was deaf so horribly blasphemous was the language while Theodoret and Epiphanius of Cyprus reported him of boasting that he has as much knowledge about God as God had about him. His term in office was stormy, working with various emperors, with bishops who had been restored under Emperor Julian [see 361], and being deposed during the reign of Emperor Valens [see 364]. He died in 370. EUZOIUS Primate of Antioch [360-370] see also 357 and 370. PAPHNUTIUS [d. c.360] Bishop of Upper Thebaid, Egypt, he was a monk and disciple of Anthony [see 271]. He was badly mutilated during the persecution of Maximin Daia [305-313]. Constantine is said to have kissed his seared eye before the council of Nicaea in 325. Paphnutius supported Athanasius at the Synod of Tyre in 335 walking out in protest at the unjust proceedings. 361-370 AD 361APOLLINARIUS Bishop of Laodicea [c.361]. Apollinarius was born about 310 in Laodicea. He was a supporter of the Nicene homoousios view (Christ was of one substance with the Father) and the Nicene congregation at Laodicea appointed him bishop around 361. However, when the Council of Alexandria (362) attributed a human soul to Christ, Apollinarius opposed this view and several years later disassociated himself from the Orthodox Church. His doctrinal stance became known as Apollinarianism and he and his adherents were condemned in the West and in the East at several councils from 377 to 381. JULIAN THE APOSTATE Roman emperor [361363]. He was the nephew of Constantine the Great. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops when Constantius II died suddenly in 360, and acknowledged sole ruler of the empire in 361. Julian had been left an orphan at 6 years of age and was brought up at first in Bithynia by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia and then at a remote estate in Cappadocia. He was baptised into a heretical form of Christianity but upon studying the philosophers of classical Greek he announced his conversion to the old pagan gods thus acquiring his by-name the Apostate. One of his edicts in 361 proclaimed toleration of all forms of religion; Julian himself performed animal sacrifices, pagan temples were reopened, and all Christian bishops who had been exiled were allowed to return home. His apparent toleration of Christianity was short-lived; suppression was followed by outright persecution, for Christians were expelled from the army, banned from teaching professions, and Christian cities penalised. Churches were burned in Damascus and Beirut, the great basilica at Antioch closed, and a pagan god installed in two basilicas in Syria. He made an attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem but it was abandoned after reports that the workmen had been frightened off by balls of fire issuing from the old foundations. Considered a noted scholar, his attack on Christianity called Against the Galileans argued that it was made up of fables and irrational falsehoods and only appealed to rustics. Julian however, with his priggish austerity appealed to no one, not even the pagans. He sported a philosopher's beard and claimed to be one on the strength of it, which offended everyone. The Roman historian Ammianus, who served in the army of Julian, and was a religiously tolerant pagan, made Julian the central figure of his history but depicted him as an addict of superstition rather than religion. LAODICEA, SYNODS OF Synods held in Laodicea cannot be dated precisely but the canons to come from them are listed between the Synod of Antioch in 341 and the Synod of Constantinople in 381 and the repetition of the canons suggest there was more than one synod held in Laodicea. Of interest in the canons, apart from requirements for the clergy and worship practises and so on, are topics covered such as the need to prohibit clergy from being magicians, enchanters, mathematicians, or astrologers, and there are references to female presbyters, and pronouncements against the widespread practise of bishops taking up rural appointments and against the hoi polloi making the choice of bishop. 362GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS [330-389] Capadocian Father [see 376]. Brought up on the family estate near Cappadocia he was educated at Caesarea where he met Basil [see 370]. Eventually the two friends, about 350, went to the University of Athens. In 362 against his will his father had him ordained a priest and 10 years later he reluctantly agreed with Basil's wish that he be bishop of Sasima but it was a position he never fulfilled, he stayed at home and assisted his father. Gregory retired to Seleucia after his fathers death in 374 but was summoned from his monastic peace to Constantinople to defend the Nicene faith against Arianism. His ministry at the Church of the Resurrection in Constantinople made a significant contribution to the final establishment of the Orthodox faith. During the council he was appointed bishop of Constantinople, but characteristically resigned when his election was disputed. He was a great orator and is famous for five theological addresses he gave against the Arians. On the doctrine of God the Son he contended that the orthodox teaching concerning the equality of the Father and the Son was much more Christian and more logical than the Arian concept of the Godhead, and concerning the Holy Spirit he argued for the consubstantiality of the Spirit with the Father and the Son. Gregory retired in 384 to his family estate where he finally died. 363JOVIAN Roman emperor [363364] who succeeded when Julian the Apostate was fatally wounded by a spear during a retreat in a disastrous campaign against Shapur II. Jovian was proclaimed emperor by his troops and immediately concluded a treaty favourable to the Persians, giving up five provinces in order to extricate the huge army from Mesopotamia. Jovian was a Christian from the province of Pannonia, and reigned for only eight months before dying in mysterious circumstances on his way home from the frontier. 364VALENTINIAN I Roman Emperor [364375]. He was chosen unanimously by his army's general staff upon the death of Jovian. The son of an army officer, Valentinian like Jovian was a Christian from Pannonia. He appointed his younger brother Valens to co-rule as Augustus of the East, and it was agreed upon to allow religious toleration, which Valentinian upheld throughout his reign, unlike his brother. VALENS Roman Emperor of the East [364-378]. During his reign, Valens had to confront the theological diversity that was beginning to create division in the empire. Julian the Apostate (361363) had tried to revive the pagan religions. His reactionary attempt took advantage of the dissensions between the different factions among the Christians and a largely Pagan rank and file military. However, in spite of broad support, his actions were often viewed as excessive, and before he died in a campaign against the Persians, he was often treated with disdain. His death was considered a sign from God. Like the brothers Constantius II and Constans, Valens and Valentinian I held divergent theological views. Valens was an Arian and Valentinian I upheld the Nicene Creed. When Valens died however, the cause of Arianism in the Roman East was to come to an end. His successor Theodosius I would endorse the Nicene Creed. 365ADELOPHAGI A fourth century sect who believed that the Holy Spirit is a created being ranking with the angels. They were said to be unsocial at meals which is indicated by their name which means not eating together as they believed a Christian should eat in secret. 366ACACIUS [d 366] A semi-Arian theologian and bishop of Caesarea who opposed the theology of the council of Nicea [see 325]. He enjoyed the patronage of the emperor and in 340 became the bishop of Caesarea and inherited from his predecessor Eusebius a large library which he used well. He became leader of the Homoeans who asserted that Jesus Christ was like the Father but not necessarily of the same essence. He was deposed in 359 and found it expedient to accept the Nicene creed although after the death of Jovian [see 363] he returned to his old beliefs. DAMASUS I Bishop of Rome [366384]. Arians still troubled the church with Macedonians preaching that the Holy Spirit was not divine and Appollinaris teaching that Christ did not have a human soul. Damasus decreed that the bishop of Rome was supreme placing Alexandria second and Antioch third. He took for himself the title of Pontifex Maximus. It was a pagan priest title which had been taken by the Roman Caesars BC, and now in 378 by the bishop of Rome. In 382 he commissioned Jerome, who was his private secretary, to revise the Latin translation of the Bible. Damasus also encouraged devotion to martyrs, veneration of images, dead saints, and angels. He succeeded Liberius [see 352] and was succeeded by Siricius [see 384]. URSICINUS Antipope [366-367] in opposition to Bishop Damasus. He was elected bishop of Rome in a violently contested election in 366. He ruled in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome for several months in 366367 and was afterwards declared an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope. The rival parties remained highly polarised in Rome however. In the early HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" \o "Roman Catholic Church" Church new bishops of Rome were chosen in the manner customarily used in the other HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese" \o "Diocese" dioceses, that is they were elected by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy" \o "Clergy" clergy with the approval or disapproval of the people of the diocese, in the presence of the other bishops in the province. This was a simple method in a small community of Christians that was unified by persecution. However as the Christian congregation of Rome grew in size the acclamation of a new bishop was fraught with division. Rival claimants and a certain class-hostility between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" \o "Patrician (ancient Rome)" patrician and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebeian" \o "Plebeian" plebeian candidates unsettled some episcopal elections. At the same time 4th century emperors were expected to confirm each new bishop. The upper-class partisans of Felix supported the election of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Damasus_I" \o "Pope Damasus I" Damasus, but the opposing supporters of Liberius, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deacon" \o "Deacon" deacons and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laity" \o "Laity" laity, supported Ursicinus; the two were elected simultaneously in an atmosphere of rioting. Such was the violence and bloodshed that the two prefects of the city were called in to restore order, and after a setback, when they were driven to the suburbs and a massacre of 137 was perpetrated in the basilica of Sicininus the prefects banished Ursicinus to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" \o "Gaul" Gaul. There was further violence when he returned, which continued after Ursicinus was exiled again. At a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod" \o "Synod" synod in 378 Ursicinus was condemned and Damasus exonerated and declared the true bishop. A decree of 502 ruled that laymen should no longer vote for the bishops and that only higher clergy should be considered eligible. 367EPIPHANIUS [c.315 403] Bishop of Salamis. After a brief visit to meet Egyptian monks, he founded a monastery in Judea. In 367 he was elected by the bishops of Cyprus as bishop of Salamis and metropolitan of the island. His qualities included orthodoxy, scholarship, linguistic ability, and austerity. His weaknesses included an unenlightened zeal for orthodoxy and an inability to understand the points of view of others. He died at sea after a visit to Constantinople on behalf of Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria. In his written works are found many extracts from earlier sources now lost, and several baptismal creeds. He wrote the Medicine Box to heal those who had been bitten by poisonous snakes i.e. heresies. He also wrote a Bible encyclopaedia. GELASIUS [d.394] Bishop of Caesarea from 367. He was a nephew of Cyril of Jerusalem and a convinced Nicene who was removed from his see during the reign of Valens, then restored on the accession of Theodosius in 378. He was at the Council of Constantinople in 381. According to Jerome he wrote more or less in a carefully polished style, but not to publish his works. NEW TESTAMENT CANON, COMPLETION OF The first decisions made on the canon at a church council was at Laodicea in 363. Bishop Athanasius [see 329] Easter Festal Letter to Alexandria in 367 listed the 27 books of the New Testament allowing for the Eastern Church to complete its New Testament Canon. This was confirmed at the Synod of Carthage in 397. In the western church it was not until the time of Jerome [see 382] and Augustine [see 396] that certain New Testament books were accepted. Canon of Scripture means a list or catalogue of admitted books of the Bible. The Old Testament Canon was probably set well before the Septuagint the Greek translation of the Old Testament which was published some 200 years before Christ. The last canonical book in the Old Testament was completed around 400 BC. 368 369TOME OF ST DAMASUS The collection of canons by Bishop Damasus I to bishops at a Roman synod. It consisted of a creed to which are added 24 famous anathemas against heretics and schismatics among them the Sabellians, Macedonians, and Melitius of Antioch. In the canons the Holy Spirit is said to be of one power and substance with the Father and the Son, and must be adored by all creatures, just as the Father and Son. 370BASIL the Great [329379] Bishop of Caeserea [370379]. Son of Christian parents Basil was educated at the University of Athens where he befriended Gregory of Nazianzus. After being ordained as a reader in 357 he visited many monastic settlements in Palestine. Basil's contribution to the church was threefold: a) the establishment of a monastic system in Pontus, b) he created accommodation for the poor and hospitals to care for others, c) he defended the Nicene creed and attacked Arian doctrines. DEMOPHILUS Bishop of Constantinople [370-379] succeeded Eudoxius [see 360]. Continuing the Arian controversy he was elected by the Arians. Originally from Macedonia where he held the see of Verroia he became bishop of Constantinople in 370. In 379 Emperor Theodosius the Great removed the Arians from Constantinople and deposed Demophilius who returned to Verroia where he died c.385. DOROTHEUS Primate of Antioch [370-371] see also 360 and 371. LUCIFER [d.370] Bishop of Cagliari and a strong opponent of Arianism. He was one of the envoys of Bishop Liberius to Emperor Constantius in 354 requesting a council to confirm adherence to the Nicene position and to settle the question of Athanasius. The council met at Milan in 355 and there, with a few others, Lucifer fiercely resisted the emperor's wishes and refused to sign the condemnation of Athanasius. He was sent into exile and had to be kept moving to try and silence him. During this period he wrote five pamphlets to Constantius regarding the dualistic role of church and state, arguing that the emperor should be subordinate in matters of the church. On his release from exile by Julius he impetuously bypassed the deliberations of the Council of Alexandria [362] and travelled to Antioch to try and deal with the schism himself. This inflamed the situation and he separated from them and returned to Sardinia with a group of followers. 371-380 AD 371BORBORIANS Heretical sect with a reputation for licentious living and disbelief in future judgement. They were associated with the Ophite Gnostics [see below]. In 428 they were forbidden to assemble and pray. In the sixth century laws of Justinian against heretics they were described as a subsection of the Manchaeans [see240]. GREGORY OF NYSSA [330-395] Bishop of Nyssa and Capadocian Father [see 376]. He was the younger brother of Basil [see 370] of Caesarea. Gregory was totally dominated by his forceful brother whom he sometimes called the Master. After a very brief period as reader in the church he became a teacher of rhetoric incurring Basil's great displeasure because of his entering upon secular life. In penitence he entered a monastery founded by Basil and in 371 he accepted Basil's invitation to become the bishop of Nyssa. Because he supported the Nicene faith Gregory was deposed by a synod of Arian bishops in 376 then regained his see in 378. He was asked in 379 to visit the Church of Syria to help solve the problem of the schism in that see. In some respects Gregory was the most gifted member of the distinguished family. He was an outstanding thinker of the fourth century. His idealism, allegorical interpretation of Scripture, and doctrine of human freedom and the final hope indicated the extent of Origens influence. He was the first theologian to interweave firmly the doctrine of the sacraments into a systematic theology of the Incarnation. HILARION [291-371] Eastern ascetic who was born of pagan parents near Gaza and educated at Alexandria where he converted to Christianity. For a time he was a disciple of Anthony in the Egyptian desert, but soon return to Palestine, where he continued to practice the ascetic life which he had adopted in Egypt. Jerome traces the origin of the practice of the ascetic life in Palestine to Hilarion. He gathered disciples and organised them into societies. In his later life he was pursued by authorities and was forced to leave and stayed for a while in Sicily and Dalmatia and finally to Cyprus where he died. PAULINUS Primate of Antioch [371-376] see also 370 and 376. 372MARTIN OF TOURS [c.335-400] Pioneer of monasticism in Gaul. Born in Hungary the son of a pagan soldier who enlisted Martin in the Roman army at fifteen years of age. Three years later came the famous incident when he divided his military cloak with a beggar and subsequently had a vision of Christ wearing the half-cloak. About two years later he was baptised. In 361 he joined Hillary of Poitiers [see 353] and adopted the monastic life, founding a monastic community at Liguge. In 372 by popular acclaim he was made bishop of Tours. He engaged in active missionary work introducing a rudimentary parochial system and encouraging monasticism. In 386 he protested to Emperor Maximus against the first execution for heresy. MONICA [331-387] Mother of Augustine of Hippo. The child of Christian parents, strongly influenced by her nurse, she married Patricius of Tagaste, a pagan with civic responsibilities who was of limited means and had a short temper, and became a Christian shortly before he died in 372. The children all became involved in religious work. Her daughter who as a widow headed up the convent in Hippo for which Augustine later wrote the basis of the rule of St Augustine. Augustine depicts Monica as his spiritual mother who pursued him with praise, tears, and admonitions to Carthage and Milan. Her cult was promoted by the translation of her relics to Rome in 1430. 373AMPHILOCHIUS [d after 394] became bishop of Iconium in 373 at the instigation of his friend Basil of Caesarea [see 370]. He opposed the Arians and associating with Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus affirmed the Cappadocian Trinitarian model of one substance and three modes of existence or relation. PETER II Patriarch of Alexandria [373-380] see 328 and 380. He was a follower of Athanasius the Great. He endured dreadful suffering by the followers of Arius. 374AMBROSE [339397] Bishop of Milan. Ambrose distributed his great wealth to the poor upon his consecration. An important teacher he protected the church against gross heresy but also believed that his direct revelations were higher than the Scriptures. He influenced many including Augustine. He also stated that the emperor was in the church and not over it. He encouraged congregational participation in hymn and psalm singing. He set plainsong in order and introduced four modes. DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH This is a term that came to be applied to eight early fathers conspicuous for learning, sound doctrine, and saintliness. These comprise Ambrose, Augustine of Hippo, Gregory the Great, Jerome, John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Athanasius. During the past four centuries the Roman Catholic Church has proclaimed 24 more doctors beginning with Thomas Aquinas in 1567. The most recent proclaimed were Teresa of Avilla and Catherine of Siena both in 1970. EUSEBIUS [d.380] Bishop of Samosata from 361. Champion of the Nicene faith. He was a member of the synod held under Melitius of Antioch in 363 which accepted the formula Homoousios of the same substance as ascribing the relationship of the Son and the Father. He was associated with Basil in Ancyra and Gregory of Nazianzus in opposing Arianism, but in 374 was banished first to Cappadocia and thence into Thrace. He has a reputation of being one of the few bishops of the 4th century of whom nothing evil is known. He was killed in Syria by a missile thrown at him by a woman supporter of Arianism. MARCELLUS OF ANCYRA [d. c.374] Bishop of Ancyra in central Anatolia who is known through his letter to the bishop of Rome Julius I [337-352] which includes the oldest Greek text of the Old Roman Creed [see 235] and 115 fragments of a treatise. Marcellus had been a supporter with Athanasius of the homoousion position at the Council of Nicaea [see 325] though his Christology seems to have been based on the notion that the Word of God became the Son only at the incarnation. He was deposed at the Synod of Constantinople in 336 after coming into conflict with a number of prominent leaders. In exile Marcellus found refuge with Julius in Rome and subsequent to the arrival of Athanasius participated in council sessions which cleared him of all charges. He was temporarily restored to his see in 344 but Emperor Constantius again removed him upon dissent form the Eastern bishops in 347. He died in exile only to have his position condemned as heretical at the Council of Constantinople in 381. 375ANTIOCH COUNCIL at which 153 Eastern bishops agreed to reconciliation with the West thus paving the way for the ecumenical Council of Constantinople. VALENTINIAN II Joint Roman Emperor of the West [375392]. He was proclaimed emperor as a child of four and as such was under the influence of his Arian mother, the Empress Justina, and the imperial court at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan" \o "Milan" Milan, an influence contested by the bishop of Milan, Ambrose [see 374]. Justina used her influence over her young son to oppose the Catholic party which was championed by Ambrose. In 385 Ambrose, backed by Milan's populace, refused an imperial request to hand over the Portian basilica for the use of Arian troops. The following year Justina and Valentinian received the Arian bishop Auxentius, and Ambrose was again ordered to hand over a church in Milan for Arian usage. Ambrose and his congregation barricaded themselves inside the church, and the imperial order was rescinded. Valentinian also tried to restrain the despoiling of pagan temples in Rome. Buoyed by this instruction, the pagan HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate" \o "Roman Senate" senators, led by Aurelius Symmachus, the Prefect of Rome, petitioned in 384 for the restoration of the Altar of Victory in the Senate House, which had been removed by Gratian in 382. Valentinian, at the insistence of Ambrose, refused the request and, in so doing, rejected the traditions and rituals of pagan Rome to which Symmachus had appealed. He died by hanging considered a possible suicide at the age of 21. 376CAPPADOCIAN FATHERS Three theologians from the province of Cappadocia that had a profound influence upon the character of Christian theology as they gave final shape to the Greek doctrine of the Trinity and through their efforts Arianism was finally defeated. They were Basil of Caesarea [see 370], Gregory of Nyssa [see 371] and Gregory I [see 379]. VITALIUS II Primate of Antioch [376-384] see also 371 and 384. 377 378DIODORE OF TARSUS [d.394] Bishop of Tarsus who was educated in both secular and religious disciplines in Antioch and Athens before he became a Christian monk and a teacher in Antioch. His two most distinguished disciples were Theodore of Mopsuestia [see 392] and John Chrysostom [see 398]. In 372 he was banished from Antioch to Armenia by Emperor Valens but in 378 he became bishop of Tarsus. He was an opponent of paganism and generally regarded as orthodox but was nevertheless condemned by the synod at Antioch in 499 as the author of Nestrorianism. While long after his death, this condemnation meant that copies of his writings were doomed to destruction. GRATIAN Roman Emperor of the West [378383]. The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical history, since during that period Orthodox Christianity for the first time became dominant throughout the empire. Under the influence of Ambrose Bishop of Milan he prohibited pagan worship at Rome; refusing to wear the insignia of the Pontifex Maximus as unbefitting a Christian. He removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate House at Rome, despite protests of the pagan members of the Senate, and confiscated its revenues; forbade legacies of real property to the Vestals; and abolished other privileges belonging to them and to the pontiffs. Nevertheless he was still deified after his death. Gratian also published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith). The move was mainly thrust at the various beliefs that had arisen out of Arianism, but smaller dissident sects, such as the Macedonians, were also prohibited. THEODOSIUS I Roman emperor of the East [378392] succeeded Valens [see 364]. He was the last Roman Emperor to rule the whole empire from 392 to 395. On 26 November 380, two days after he had arrived in Constantinople, Theodosius expelled the non-Nicene bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and appointed Meletius patriarch of Antioch, and Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the Cappadocian Fathers from Antioch, patriarch of Constantinople. Theodosius had just been baptised by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. On 27 February 380 he, Gratiae and Valentinian II published an edict in order that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith), thus the principle of religious intolerance was proclaimed. The move was mainly a thrust at the various beliefs that had arisen out of Arianism, but smaller dissident sects, such as the Macedonians, were also prohibited. The edict was put forward by Theodosius without consulting the ecclesiastical authorities. In May 381, Theodosius summoned a new ecumenical council at Constantinople to repair the schism between East and West on the basis of Nicean orthodoxy. The council also "condemned the Apollonian and Macedonian heresies, clarified church jurisdictions according to the civil boundaries of dioceses and ruled that Constantinople was second in precedence to Rome." In 383 a third synod at Constantinople was held. In spite of the decrees of bishops and emperor, the Ariansand Pneumatomachians continued to spread their doctrines. Theodosius summoned all parties to the imperial city for a great discussion in June, hoping to reconcile all differences. Before this he had sent for the archbishop and told him that all questions should be fully debated. It was suggested that they should produce the testimonies of the old Fathers of the Church on the doctrine of the Son, and first ask the heads of the several parties whether they accepted these authorities or desired to anathematise them. By decree in 391, Theodosius ended the subsidies that had still trickled to some remnants of Greco-Roman civic paganism too. The eternal fire in the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum was extinguished, and the Vestal Virgins were disbanded. Pagan members of the Senate in Rome appealed to him to restore the Altar of Victory in the Senate House; he refused. 379GREGORY 1 Bishop of Constantinople [379-381] succeeded Demophilus [see 370]. He is also known as Gregory the Theologian or Gregory Nazianzen. He is widely considered the most accomplished rhetorical stylist of the patristic age. Gregory made a significant impact on the shape of Trinitarian theology among both Greek and Latin-speaking theologians, and he is remembered as the "Trinitarian Theologian". Much of his theological work continues to influence modern theologians, especially in regard to the relationship among the three Persons of the Trinity. Along with Basil the Great [see 370] and Gregory of Nyssa [see 371], he is known as one of the Cappadocian Fathers. He is revered as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs along with Basil the Great and John Chrysostom [see 398]. MACRINA THE YOUNGER [c.328-380] Eastern ascetic who was born in Cappadocia and was the sister of Basil of Caesarea [see 370] and Gregory of Nyssa [see 371]. While Basil was choosing the ascetic life she was establishing one of the earliest communities of women ascetics on the family estate in Pontus. Returning from the synod of Antioch in 379 Gregory visited her and at the request of the monk Olympus wrote her life, also providing details about her brother's. Manuscripts of this biography suggest that her cult spread through the Eastern churches. It came much later to the West. 380THESSALONIA edict prohibited Arianism in the East with Athanasianism becoming the state religion. TIMOTHY I Patriarch of Alexandria [380-385] see 373 and 385. He excelled in the struggle against the Arian erroneous beliefs. He participated in the second Ecumenical Council. He distinguished himself for his philanthropic activities. VICTRICIUS [c.330-407] Bishop of Rouen who enlisted in the Roman military service at the age of 17 but renounced this when he was converted soon afterwards. He was flogged and sentenced to death but following a miraculous delivery he later studied philosophy and theology and was chosen bishop about 380 while still a layman. He founded many churches in rural areas, encouraged the monastic life and brought many relics from Rome to Rouen Cathedral. He preached among the heathen in Gaul, Flanders, and other areas. 381-390 AD 381APOSTOLIC CANONS Eighty Five (85) canons attributed to the apostles and contained in book 8 of the Apostles Constitutions produced around 381. They deal with the election, ordination, official responsibilities and moral conduct of the clergy and with the Christian life in general. It also included excommunication and deposition of offenders. CONSTANTINOPLE, FIRST COUNCIL OF Summoned by Theodosius I who succeeded the Arian influenced Valens. It was attended from the eastern church. It confirmed the deity of the Holy Spirit and that Christ had a human soul and anathematised all heretics, forbade bishops functioning outside their see, gave Constantinople primacy of honour next to Rome because Constantinople is the new Rome. [See 2nd Council 553] MELITIUS [d.381] Bishop of Antioch was counted among the fourth century members of the Antiochene School of exegetical literalism. It was Melitius who discovered John Chrysostom [see 398] and later ordained him as a deacon in 381. Although venerated for his holy and ascetic life he was caught up in controversies of times. He was held at first to be too Nicene but was designated to preside at the Council of Constantinople in 381 at which he died. NECTARIUS Bishop of Constantinople [381-397] succeeded Gregory I [see 379]. When Gregory resigned, Nectarius, preparing for a journey to Tarsus called on the bishop of Tarsus, Diodorus, who was attending the First Council of Constantinople, to ask if he could take letters for him. His appearance and manners struck the bishop so forcibly that he determined that he should be advanced as a candidate for archbishop and took Nectarius to see the bishop of Antioch, who asked Nectarius to put off his journey a short time. Emperor Theodosius chose him much to the surprise of many. Nectarius was duly baptised and his clothes were changed for therobes of a bishop of the Imperial City and became at once president of the Council. The 3rd canon of the council declares that, "...the bishop of Constantinople shall hold the first rank after the bishop of Rome, because Constantinople is the new Rome." However, it was not until 1439 that the Council of Florence admitted the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 383 a third synod at Constantinople was held. In spite of the decrees of bishops and emperor, the Ariansand Pneumatomachians continued to spread their doctrines. Theodosius summoned all parties to the Imperial City for a great discussion in June, hoping to reconcile all differences. Before this he had sent for the archbishop and told him that all questions should be fully debated. It was suggested that they should produce the testimonies of the old Fathers of the Church on the Doctrine of the Son, and first ask the heads of the several parties whether they accepted these authorities or desired to anathematise them. Towards the close of his episcopate, Nectarius abolished the office ofpresbyterpenitentiary, whose duty appears to have been to receive confessions before communion. His example was followed by nearly all other bishops. The presbyter penitentiary was added to the ecclesiastical roll about the time of the Novatianist schism, when that party declined to communicate with those who had lapsed in the Decian persecution. Gradually there were fewer lapsed to reconcile, and his duties became more closely connected with preparation for communion. Nectarius died in office in 397 or 398. RUFINUS TYRANNIUS [345-410] Presbyter and scholar who was educated at Rome where he began a long association with Jerome [see 382]. Rufinus went to Egypt where he suffered in the persecution which followed the death of Athanasius and in 373 and settled in Alexandria for eight years of studying Scripture and Origen under Didymus the Blind [see 398] and Gregory of Nazianzus [see 362] and visited the Desert Fathers. In 381 he founded a monastery in Jerusalem and translated a large number of Greek theological works into Latin aiding Western asceticism and theology. 382JEROME [c.345-419] Biblical scholar and translator, born in Italy and went to Rome and studied Greek, Latin, rhetoric, and philosophy. Here he spent his Sundays in catacombs translating the inscriptions. At the age of 19 after being baptised he journeyed to Gaul where he became acquainted with monasticism and on returning to Rome joined a group of ascetics. In 373 he left, going to the east to spend some time living as an ascetic in the desert near Chalcis. Here he mastered the Hebrew language, perfected his Greek, and was challenged in his famous dream as to whether he was a Christian. He went to Antioch and was ordained and then to Constantinople where he studied with Gregory Nazianzus [see 362] and perhaps Gregory of Nyssa [see 371]. While there he translated some of the works of Eusebius and others. In 382 in Rome he became friend and secretary of the bishop of Rome, Damasus, but after the bishops death in 386 he made Bethlehem his home and spent the rest of his life there. He engaged in theological controversy with a Vigilantius, Origen, Pelagius, Jovinian, and Augustine of Hippo. Upon the urging of Bishop Damasus he used his linguistic skills to translate the Bible into Latin known as the Vulgate. He checked Old Testament sections with local rabbis, and questioned the inclusion of the Apocrypha. The Vulgate has left a tremendous imprint upon the development of the church with his scholarship extending into this day. 383GALLICAN PSALTER At different times Jerome [see 382] made three versions of the Psalter, known as the Roman, the Gallican and the Hebrew. The first, produced about 383 at the request of the bishop of Rome, Damasus, was a revision of the old Latin version, in which Jerome made use of the Septuagint. This version remained in use in the Roman church until the time of Pius V who became pope in 1566. The Gallican version was made in Bethlehem by Jerome about 389 also using the Septuagint and other works in Origens Hexapla [see 225], and it was taken to Gaul by Gregory of Tours [see 573] then later removed to England where it eventually replaced the Old Latin version and became the basis for the Prayer Book version of the Psalms. 384CELIBACY OF THE CLERGY IN THE 4TH CENTURY Before the end of the third century there was a general preference for the clergy to be celibate but only the Spanish Church, around 305, required by canon law the three orders of the ministry to lead a celibate life. In Galatia, the Synod of Ancyra (314) allowed deacons the option of married life, while in Pontus the Synod of Neo-Caesarea (also 314) determined that a presbyter be removed from the clergy if he married. In Bithynia celibacy was talked of being deliberated at the Council of Nicaea (325) but then the idea was abandoned after the distinguished and strictly celibate Paphnutius requested that they not impose such a heavy burden on the clergy. The Greek Church never insisted on all the clergy being celibate, and it was a gradual process to require their bishops to abstain from married life, in fact they avoided the problem by filling the vacancies with monks or widower presbyters. The severe decree from Siricius of the Latin Church in 385 re-affirmed the position of the Spanish Church since 305, which disallowed married life to bishops, presbyters, and deacons. FLAVIAN I Primate of Antioch [384-404] see also 376 and 404. He was leader of Melitius supporters during the latter's banishment under Constantius in 360 and Valens in 370, and was largely responsible for his recognition as the rightful claimant to the see of Antioch. Flavian accompanied Melitius to the Council of Constantinople in 381 where the latter died and Flavian was elected as bishop of Antioch. The rival to both of them, Paulinus, continued as bishop of Egyptian and Western choice. The schism was based on acceptance or rejection of Antiochene doctrines. SIRICIUS Bishop of Rome [384399]. He was troubled by the monk Jovian who taught that the strict life was of little avail and encouraged the church to forget its sober ways. Jovian and his followers were excommunicated by Siricius. He introduced the Mass as a daily celebration. Siricius was the first bishop of Rome to write letters and issue them as decrees thus revealing an elevated opinion of his position. In 385 he issued a decretal letter which disallowed married life to bishops, presbyters, and deacons. This was in answer to an enquiry from the Spanish Church, which had itself, since the Synod of Elvira held around 305, required their clergy to lead celibate lives. He succeeded Damasus I [see 366] and was succeeded by Anastasius I [see 399]. 385ABSTINENTS The title given to several sects that flourished in south western Europe in the 3rd and 4th centuries partly in revolt against the worldliness of the established churches. Strict asceticism was demanded including a ban on marriage. Vegetarianism, fasts and constant prayers were also demanded. Their most prominent member Priscillian was executed in 385 [see below]. PRISCILLIAN [d.385] Heretical bishop of Avila who was of noble birth, rich, learned, pious, ascetic, and eloquent but was influenced by Gnostic doctrines brought to Spain by an Egyptian named Marcus. In the eyes of the orthodox he was soon judged a heretic; he caused great problems to the church, since his views and influence were widely spread and he had many followers who included a few bishops. In 381 the church and empire combined to force the group into exile in France. Priscillian appealed the decision and had a trial by Emperor Maximus in which he was found guilty of using magic arts associated with Gnosticism. The emperor decided he should be put to death and with six others was beheaded in 385, the first people to suffer death as heretics in the history of Christianity. His followers however were still flourishing in the fifth century. THEOPHILUS [d.412] Patriarch of Alexandria [385-412] see 380 and 412. A learned and gifted man, Theophilus conducted his office well during the early years of his administration but in his efforts to destroy paganism in Egypt he turned to violence and intrigue. Originally an admirer of Origen he turned against his theology and drove the Origenist monks out of Egypt. When about fifty of these monks found a warmer welcome from John Chrysostom in Constantinople, Theophilus went to that city where he held a council which drew up false charges against John with the result that he was deposed and banished in 403. His treatment of John Chrysostom brought Theophilus into disrepute. 386EUSTOCHIUM, JULIA [370-418] First Roman lady of noble birth to take a vow of perpetual virginity. She was a friend of Jerome [see 382]. It was to her that Jerome addressed the famous letter in which he discusses the motives that ought to activate those who devote themselves to live in perpetual virginity and the rules by which they should live. Jerome left Rome and was followed by Eustochium who met him in Antioch. They then travelled together through Palestine to Egypt, visiting the monks of Nitria and Didymus the Blind [see 398]. They returned to Palestine in the autumn of 386 and settled at Bethlehem. Here a monastery was built of which Jerome was head, and a convent for women of which Julia was head from the time of her mother's death in 404. Jerome spoke glowingly of her devotion to the ascetic life, to the study the Scriptures, and the training of virgins. JOHN II Primate of Jerusalem [386-417] see 350 and 417. 387GAUDENTIUS Bishop of Brescia in Italy. While on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land he was elected in 387 to succeed Philaster the bishop of Brescia and was persuaded by Ambrose and some Eastern bishops to accept the election. He was sent to Constantinople in 404 by Honorius and Innocent I to plead the cause of Chrysostom but was unsuccessful, nevertheless was thanked by him. A number of his sermons survive showing a tendency towards using allegory. 388CHROMATIUS [d.407] Bishop of Aquileia. Chromatius encouraged others to advance biblical knowledge, helping to financially stimulate the translation of the Old Testament by Jerome. He also encouraged Rufinus to translate Eusebius church history. 389 390ISAAC THE GREAT [c.350-440] Armenian patriarch who was the sixth patriarch of the Armenian Church. Isaac received a good education at Constantinople. He married but after the death of his young wife he became a monk. In 390 he became the 10th patriarch and negotiated the severance of the Armenian Church from the submission to the see of Caesarea in Cappadocia. He also encouraged the creation of Armenian literature including the translation of the Bible and theological works to which he contributed. MACARIUS OF EGYPT [d. c.390] Ascetic writer also called Macarius the Elder or the Great. He lived some 60 years in the wilderness of Scete, the centre of Egyptian monasticism. He gained a reputation as an ascetic and therefore became a highly respected holy man. He has been credited as the author of 50 homilies which are of importance in understanding mystical theology. 391-400 AD 391AURELIUS Bishop of Carthage to 424, he presided over at least ten provincial and fourteen general councils; Donatism, the Pelagians and Roman jurisdiction were the main topics. The council of 419 is credited with the Codes of Canons of the African church. He was greatly admired by Augustine bishop of Hippo. BONOSUS [d.400] Bishop of Naissus in Yugoslavia who was deposed after the Council of Capua in 391 having been found guilty by fellow bishops of teaching that Mary and Joseph had children after the birth of Jesus. A group called the Bonosiani followed the schism and survived in Western Europe until the 7th century. CHRISTIANITY became the State religion with the prohibition of all heathen cults. TELEMACHUS [d.391] Eastern monk who is unknown apart from his martyrdom where he rushed into the arena in 391 to separate the gladiators and as a result was stoned to death by the exasperated spectators. As result Emperor Honorius abolished gladiatorial combat soon afterwards. 392GREGORY OF ELVIRA [d. c.392] Bishop of Elvira near Granada and greatly esteemed as a defender of Nicene orthodoxy and an opponent of Arianism. Gregory succeeded Lucifer of Calaris whose decision not to pardon those who became Arians at the Council of Arminum in 359 he approved. He was an author. Like many of his day, Gregory's exegesis of the Bible was allegorical. MESROB [361-440] Mesrob or Mashtotz was an important figure in the history of Armenian culture and spirituality. He entered royal service well versed in languages and became a monk in 392. After a brief time in evangelism he became the associate of Sahak III who he succeeded as patriarch. The main activity of his association with Sahak was in the field of translation of biblical and patristic writings. For his work Mesrob devised the Armenian alphabet since Armenian had previously had no satisfactory means of transcription. THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA [c.350-428] Antiochene exegete and theologian who was educated with John Chrysostom [see 398] under Libanius and like John abandoned a secular career for the monastic school of Diodore of Tarsus. He was made bishop of Mopsuestia in 392. While his writings during his lifetime were virtually unquestioned they were condemned after his death by Justinian and at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553. 393HIPPO, COUNCIL OF Held in 393 with Aurelius of Carthage presiding and Augustine present as a presbyter in the entourage of Valerius of Hippo. It is chiefly important for the conciliatory measures towards Donatism [see 313]. It resolved to accept as clergy those Donatists who came over to the Catholic communion. An overview of the canons of Hippo were read at the Council of Carthage in 397 and passed ultimately into general canon law. The New Testament Canon was also considered for the West at this council. 394 395ARCADIUS Roman emperor of the East [395408] succeeded Theodorus I [see 378]. He was born in Spain a brother of Honorius, who would become a Western Roman Emperor. His father declared him an Augustus and co-ruler for the Eastern half of the Empire in January, 383. His younger brother was also declared Augustus in 393, for the Western half. In 399 on the 13th July, Arcadius issued an edict ordering that all remaining non-Christian temples should be immediately demolished. His wifes influence in the court was strongly opposed by John Chrysostom, the Patriarch of Constantinople, who felt that she had used her family's wealth to gain control over the emperor. She used her influence to have Chrysostom deposed in 404, but she died later that year. Arcadius himself appeared to be more concerned with appearing to be a pious Christian than he was with political or military matters, and he died, only nominally in control of his empire, in 408. EUNOMIUS [d.395] He propagated the theological heresy of Eunomianism. Born in Cappadocia he went to Alexandria and became a follower of Aetius, the Anomoean (radical Arian). Eunomius became bishop of Cyzicus in Mysia but returned to Cappadocia after being forced to resign when his extreme views became known. When Aetius died he became the leader of the Anomoeans and wrote books and went on lecture tours to spread his advanced views. He said that God was the ungenerated Being, the single, supreme, ultimate, and simple Substance. He held that the Son of God was actually created by the Father, and though possessing creative power was not of His essence; further, the Holy Spirit was created by the Son in order to be the Sanctifier of souls. Putting greater emphasis on doctrine, he devalued the value of the sacraments and the ascetic life. His teaching had no permanent success and was refuted by Gregory of Nyssa. FABIOLA [d.399] A noble Roman lady who due to the unfaithfulness of her first husband was led to divorce him. A second marriage occurred while he was still alive, however, which cut her off from fellowship of the church. On the death of her second husband she went through extreme penitential discipline and decided to give away her great wealth. Her many acts of charity included the building of a hospital in which she herself worked. In 395 she went to the holy land and became a disciple of Jerome. Later, fear of the Huns caused her to return to Rome and continue her good works. HONORIUS Roman Emperor of the West [395423] succeeded Theodorus I [see 378]. He was the younger son of Theodorus and became Western Roman Emperor at the age of ten. During the first part of his reign Honorius depended on the military leadership of the general Stilicho, who was of mixed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandal" \o "Vandal" Vandal and Roman ancestry. To strengthen his bonds with the young emperor, Stilicho married his daughter HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria,_daughter_of_Stilicho" \o "Maria, daughter of Stilicho" Maria to him. Honorius' reign was plagued by many threats: from the barbarians entering within the empire's borders to several usurpers. The most notable event of his reign was the assault and Sack of Rome on August 24, 410 by the Visigoths under Alaric. The city had been under Visigothic siege since the summer of 408. Stricken by starvation, somebody opened Rome's defences to Alaric and the Goths poured in. The city had not been under the control of a foreign force since an invasion of Gauls some eight centuries before. The sack itself was notably mild as sacks go; Churches and religious statuary went unharmed for example. The psychological blow to the Romans was considerably more painful. The shock of this event reverberated from Britain to Jerusalem, and inspired Augustine [see 396] to write his great work The City of God. Honorius died of dropsy in 423, leaving no heir. In the following period subsequent interregnum Joannes was nominated emperor [see 423]. 396AFRICA, ROMAN [see 196] was subject to a number of attacks by different groups including the Donatists, Manichaeism and the Arians. Its most important figure was Augustine the bishop of Hippo [see below]. Donatism was eclipsed by Augustine and Aurelius in the fifth century having been dominant in the fourth century. [Continued see 533] AUGUSTINE [354430] Bishop of Hippo [396411]. He was the greatest of Latin Fathers who was born at Tagaste. He excelled in rhetoric centred training of late antiquity but failed to master Greek. Converted to philosophy he became disillusioned with the Bibles style and substance and this led him to Manichaeism [see 240] but over time he lost enthusiasm for it which fanned his devotion to spiritual philosophy. In late 386 his struggles climaxed in a garden with the reading of Romans 13:13-14. Augustine formed a fellowship of the servants of God committed to contemplative philosophy. While visiting Hippo he was pressured into the priesthood in 391 having pleaded for more time to improve his biblical knowledge. In Hippo he founded a monastery and on succeeding Bishop Valerius in 396 turned the bishops house into a training area for future African bishops. He often travelled around his diocese but never again left Africa. His typically African preoccupation with the church and baptism persisted against Pelagius [see 411] and his followers. He wrote "City of God" [413-27] after the sack of Rome by the Visigoths [see 410] and he died in 430 as Roman Africa succumbed to the Vandals besieging Hippo. 397COUNCIL OF CARTHAGE where the New Testament was fixed for the church in the West with the inclusion of James, 2nd Peter, 2nd and 3rd John, and Jude. FILASTER [d. c.397] Writer of a famous treatise which sought to refute 128 Christian and 28 Jewish heresies. It met a real contemporary need and was used by Augustine of Hippo. Its weakness was to play side-by-side major heresies such as Arianism and minor aberrations such as astronomical speculation. Towards the end of his life he became bishop of Brescia in Italy. SIMPLICIANUS [d.400] Bishop of Milan. He is first heard of in Rome as being involved in the conversion of Victorinus a Platonist professor of rhetoric. When his pupil Ambrose became bishop of Milan in 373 he moved there to prepare him for baptism and ordination. He succeeded Ambrose as Bishop in 397. 398JOHN CHRYSOSTOM Bishop of Constantinople [398-404] succeeded Nectarius [see 381]. His monastic aspirations were curbed by his responsibility to his widowed mother until 373 when he became a hermit in the mountains. His preaching in the cathedral in Antioch from 381 gave him his 6th century name chrysostomos meaning golden mouthed. In 398 he was unwillingly made archbishop of Constantinople where his reformist zeal antagonised Empress Eudoxia as well as Theophilus bishop of Alexandria. This resulted in him being deposed a couple of times, exiled but recalled, eventually being expelled in 404. He died in 407 in exile enjoying historically wider esteem than any other Church Father. DIDYMUS THE BLIND [309-398] Alexandrian theologian who although blinded at the age of four acquired considerable learning and was appointed by Athanasius head of the catechetical school at Alexandria. His ability was widely acknowledged and he numbered Antony, Rufinus and Jerome [see 382] among his pupils. He is said to have been unskilled in speech but not in knowledge, exhibiting in his very speech the character of an apostolic man, as well by luminous thought or by simplicity of words. Works of his that we have showed little evidence of being involved with Origen but he was charged with Origenism by Jerome and may have been also by the Council of Constantinople in 553 which condemned Origen. 399ANASTASIUS I Bishop of Rome [399401] had to deliberate between Jerome and Origen, and supported Jerome. He was also a great friend of Augustine and issued several decrees regarding the behaviour of priests. Jerome speaks of him as a man of great holiness who was rich in his poverty. He succeeded Siricius [see 384] and was succeeded by Innocent I [see 401]. EVAGRIUS, PONTICUS [345-399] Eastern writer who was ordained as a reader by Basil and as a deacon by Gregory of Nazianzus at Constantinople. He attended the council in 381 and on Gregory's departure from Constantinople remained to assist the new bishop, Nectarius, in dealing with theological questions. Because of the developing relationship between himself and a married woman, he left Constantinople and went to Jerusalem. There he was influenced by Melania to adopt the ascetic life and at her instigation went to Egypt where he practiced and taught the ascetic life until his death. It seems possible that John Cassian [see 425] met Evagrius during his visit to Egypt and certainly Cassian's own writings on monasticism reveal influences of such contact. Evagrius was condemned by Jerome who spoke contemptuously of his writings. 400CELESTIUS An African associate of Pelagius [see 409] who accompanied him to Sicily in 409-10. In 411 he received the first Catholic condemnation as a Pelagian. Withdrawing to Ephesus he obtained ordination but there and at Constantinople he was hounded. In 417 he appealed personally to the bishop of Rome, Zosimus [see 417] but the following year Emperor Honorius expelled the Pelagians. He returned to Ephesus in 431 after which he disappeared from history. NEMESIUS Bishop of Emesa in Syria. He was the author of a remarkable Christian philosophical work On the Nature of Man. Apart from this publication nothing is known of his life. NINIAN British missionary who according to Bede was the son of a British chieftain, trained for the church in Rome. He settled in south-west Scotland at Whithorn where he built a white church named in honour of Martin of Tours [see 372]. It is believed that Ninian was largely responsible for the conversion of the Picts of Eastern Scotland. PALLADIUS [c.363-425] Bishop and ascetic who entered the monastic life in Jerusalem from the age of 23 and later went to Egypt to follow the ascetic life firstly in Alexandria and then in the Nitrian Desert. Through ill-health he returned to Palestine and was consecrated bishop of Helenopolis in 400 by his friend John Chrysostom. He appeared with the latter at the synod of The Oak [see 403] and in trying to defend Chrysostom was himself exiled to Egypt. He returned to his diocese when all opposition ceased in 412. 401-410 AD 401INNOCENT I Bishop of Rome [401417]. He was, according to his contemporary Jerome, the son of Anastasius I [see 399], whom he was called, by the unanimous voice of the clergy and laity, to succeed having been born before his father's entry to the priesthood. Innocent I lost no opportunity of maintaining and extending the authority of the Roman see as the ultimate resort for the settlement of all disputes. We still have his communications with Victricius of Rouen, Exuperius of Toulouse, Alexander of Antioch and others. In addition his actions on the appeal made to him by John Chrysostom against Theophilus of Alexandria show that opportunities of the kind were numerous and varied. He took a decided view on the Pelagian controversy, confirming the decisions of the synod of the province of proconsular Africa, held in Carthage in 416 which had been sent to him. Also in 416 he wrote in a similar sense to the fathers of the Numidian synod of Mileve who, Augustine being one of their number, had addressed him. Among Innocent I's letters is one to Jerome and another to John II, bishop of Jerusalem, regarding annoyances to which the former had been subjected by the Pelagians at Bethlehem. He also first listed prohibited books for the Index. He died on 12 March 417. He was succeeded by Zosimus [see 417]. 402 403OAK, SYNOD OF [403] When Theophilus, patriarch of Antioch, was summoned to Constantinople by imperial order to answer charges of persecution against a group of pro-Origenist monks, he formed alliances with those, including Empress Eudoxia, who disliked John Chrysostom's reforming zeal. Theophilus manoeuvred the trial away from Constantinople to a suburb of Chalcedon called The Oak with a group of bishops who were anti Chrysostom and managed to turn it into a trial of John. John refused to appear before the judges who were his declared enemies and was therefore condemned and exiled by Emperor Arcadius. He was recalled within a few days, however, partly because of the disquiet of the people of Constantinople and partly because of Eudoxias disturbed conscience. 404ARSACIUS Bishop of Constantinople [404-405] succeeded John Chrysostom [see 398] after his violent expulsion. He was the brother of Nectarius, Chrysostom's predecessor, and had served as presbyter under Chrysostom. Before that his brother had selected him for the bishopric of Tarsus, but he refused. He was picked by those who had deposed John because of his age and his open hostility to Chrysostom which had been seen at the synod of the Oak, when he appeared as a witness against him and vehemently pressed his condemnation. On hearing of his consecration Chrysostom denounced him "as a spiritual adulterer, and a wolf in sheep's clothing." The diocese soon made it plain that they regarded the new archbishop as an intruder as with the exception of a few officials who were the dependants of the court party the people of Constantinople refused to attend any religious assembly at which he might be expected to be present. Deserting the churches they gathered in the outskirts of the city and in the open air. Arsacius appealed to the emperor, Arcadius, by whose orders soldiers were sent to disperse the suburban assemblies. Those who had taken a leading part in them were apprehended and tortured, and a fierce persecution commenced of the adherents of Chrysostom. We learn that Arsacius was not personally responsible for these cruel deeds; but he lacked strength of character to offer any decided opposition to the proceedings of his clergy. They did what they pleased, and Arsacius bore the blame. As a result his position became intolerable. All the bishops and clergy who by embracing Chrysostom's cause, had refused to recognise him were driven out of the East in November HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/404" \o "404" 404 but this only spread the discontent more widely. The whole Western episcopate refused to acknowledge him, and the bishop of Rome, Innocent I, who had warmly supported Chrysostom wrote to the clergy and laity of Constantinople strongly condemning the intrusion of Arsacius, and exhorting them to persevere in their support of their true archbishop. As a result it is no surprise that Arsacius's episcopate was a brief one, and that a feeble character worn out by old age should give way to such universal opposition. He died on 11th November 405. MACARIUS OF ALEXANDRIA [c.320-404] Desert Father who was banished with Macarius of Egypt [see 390] to an island by Lucius, Arian patriarch of Alexandria, during the Valens persecution of orthodoxy [364-378]. A monastic rule containing 30 regulations for his 5000 monks of the Nitrian Desert and a sermon on the eschatology of souls are amongst the writings ascribed to him. PAULA [347-404] Roman friend of Jerome and the mother of five children who at the age of 33 dedicated herself to ascetic life. In 385 with her daughter she followed Jerome [see 382] to Palestine, despite the pleas of her other children. After visiting the holy places and hermits in the Egyptian deserts Paula settled in Bethlehem and founded three nunneries and a monastery and gave away her remaining wealth dying in poverty. PORPHYRIUS Primate of Antioch [404-408] see also 384 and 408. 405 406 ATTICUS Bishop of Constantinople [406-425] succeeded Arsacius [see 404]. Born in Armenia he early embraced a monasticlife. He had been an opponent of John Chrysostomand helped Arsacius of Tarsus depose him, but later became a supporter of him after his death. He rebuilt the small church that was located on the site of the later Hagia Sophia, and was an opponent of the Pelagains, which helped increase his popularity among the citizens of Constantinople. Vigorous measures were at once adopted by Atticus in conjunction with the other members of the triumvirate to which the Eastern Church had been subjected, Theophilus of Alexandria, and Porphyry of Antioch, to crush the adherents of Chrysostom. An imperial rescript was obtained imposing the severest penalties on all who dared to reject the communion of the patriarchs. A large number of the bishops of the East persevered in the refusal, and suffered a cruel persecution; while even the inferior clergy and laity were compelled to keep themselves in concealment, or to fly the country. Unity seemed hardly nearer when the death of Chrysostom on September 14, 407 removed the original ground of the schism. A large proportion of the Christian population of Constantinople still refused communion with the usurper, and continued to hold their religious assemblies, more numerously attended than the churches, in the open air in the suburbs of the city. Atticus displayed great vigour in combating and repressing heresy. He wrote to the bishops of Pamphylia and to Amphilochiusof Iconium, calling on them to drive out the Messalians. The zeal and energy he displayed against the Pelagians are highly commended by the bishop of Rome, Celestine I, who goes so far as to style him "a true successor of St. Chrysostom". His writings were quoted as those of an orthodox teacher by the councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. VIGILANTIUS A French Roman opponent of excessive asceticism. Born around 370 he was brought up in an inn and managed the estates of Sulpicius Severus and acquired a considerable literally culture. Vigilantius was ordained a presbyter Barcelona in 395. He travelled in the East and was repelled by the extreme asceticism there. He published an attack on Jeromes asceticism and labelled him an Origenist. He declared that honour paid at the tombs of martyrs was excessive, that hermit life was cowardice, and that presbyters should be married before ordination. Jerome replied to these views in a violent way in Against Vigilantius in 406. 407 408ALEXANDER Primate of Antioch [408-418] see also 404 and 418. SEVERIAN [d. c.408] He was an opponent of John Chrysostom [see 398]. Severian was the bishop of Gabala, Syria who came to Constantinople about 401. He was well received by Chrysostom but attempted to undermine the latter's authority during his absence in Asia. At the Synod of the Oak [see 403] he acted as accuser and judge of Chrysostom and finally affected his exile to Cuscusus demanding in 407 his removal to a more severe place of exile. THEODOSIUS II Roman emperor of the East [408450] succeeded Arcadius [see 395]. Theodosius was born in 401 and when his father died in 408 the seven-year-old boy became emperor of the Eastern parts of the Roman Empire. Government was at first by the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius, under whose supervision the land walls of Constantinople were constructed. By 416 he was capable of ruling himself, but his sister remained a strong influence on him. In 423 the Western Emperor Honorius died and Joannas proclaimed emperor. In 425, Theodosius founded the University of Constantinople. The Eastern Empire was also plagued by short raiding attacks by the Huns. The emperor chose to pay tribute which amounted to 350 Roman pounds or about 115 kg of gold until 435 and 700 Roman pounds after that. During a visit to Syria, Theodosius met Nestorius and appointed him patriarch of Constantinople in the same year. Nestorius quickly became involved in the disputes of two theological factions, which differed in their Christology. Nestorius tried to find a middle ground between those that, emphasising the fact that in Christ God had been born as a man, insisted on calling the Virgin Mary Theotokos ("birth-giver of God"), and those that rejected that title because God as an eternal being could not have been born. Nestorius suggested the title Christotokos ("birth-giver to Christ"), but did not find acceptance by either faction and was accused of detaching Christ's divine and human natures from each other, a heresy later called Nestorianism. Though initially supported by the emperor, Nestorius found a forceful opponent in Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria. With the consent of the emperor and the bishop of Rome Celestine I, an Ecumenical Council convened in Ephesus in 431, which affirmed the title Theotokos and condemned Nestorius, who was then exiled by the emperor. Almost twenty years later, the theological dispute broke out again, this time caused by the Constantinopolitan abbot Eutyches, whose Christology mingled Christ's divine and human nature into one. Eutyches was condemned by Patriarch Flavian of Constantinople but found a powerful friend in Cyril's nephew and successor Dioscurus of Alexandria. Another council convoked to Ephesus in 449, deemed "robber synod" because of its tumultuous circumstances, restored Eutyches and deposed Flavian, who was mistreated and died shortly afterwards. Bishop of Rome, Leo I, and many other bishops protested against the outcome, but the emperor supported it. Only after his death in 450 would the decisions be reversed at the Council of Chalcedon. Theodosius died in 450 as the result of a riding accident to be succeeded by Marcian who had married his sister Pulcheria. 409PAULINUS OF NOLA [353-431] Bishop of Nola who was a rich landholder who under the influence of Martin of Tours [see 372] and Ambrose [see 374], with the consent of his wife, renounced the world and settled in 395 in Campania by the Shrine of Felix of Nola. Here he lived a life of great austerity and built hospitals for monks and the poor as well as water works. He became bishop of Nola in 409 and was one of the foremost Christian Latin poets of his time. PELAGIANISM An ascetic movement with distinctive theological emphasis named after Pelagius a Christian moralist. Pelagius was a British theologian who affirmed the doctrine of free will starting the Pelagian struggle. He was active in Rome from 383 to 409 teaching Christian perfection to aristocratic circles associated with Rufinus of Aquileia and Paulinus of Nola [see above]. He attacked Jerome's denigration of marriage. He viewed the church as the community of baptised adults committed to perfectionist ideals and magnified mans incorruptible creative capacity for freedom from sin. Grace comprised this God given ability, the illumination of instruction and example, and forgiveness of sins. The Gothic attack on Rome dispersed these delegates and many passed via Sicily to Africa. After a time in Africa Pelagius arrived in Palestine where he was welcomed by John of Jerusalem, Jeromes old opponent. In 415 15 the Spanish heresy hunter Orosius brought charges against Pelagius but these were dismissed at the Jerusalem synod and he was again cleared at the Synod of Diospolis in 415. A raid on Jeromes monastery in Bethlehem was blamed on the Pelagians in 416. There continued controversy over the next eight years and after Pelagius was banned from Palestine by a synod at Antioch he disappeared from history. 410ALARIC Visigoth king sacks Rome. The Visigoths were German nomads who settled in Romania where they were evangelised by Arians. They were forced into Bulgaria by the Huns where they federated with the Roman Empire. Frustrated by the lack of good land Alaric sacked Rome in August 410 and died in Southern Italy shortly afterwards. This action was the impetus for Augustine [see 396] to write The City of God. Christianity tolerated in Persia. MARCELLA [325-410] Christian ascetic of a noble Roman family who devoted herself to charitable works and ascetic practices. Her palace became a centre of Christian influence and a retreat for Christian patrician women. Jerome was her guest for three years and under his direction she gave herself to Bible study, prayers, and good works. When Alaric sacked Rome in 410 the Goths ill-treated her, thinking she was concealing her wealth and she died as result. PAMMACHIUS [d.410] Aristocrat and senator who studied in Rome with Jerome [see 382]. When his wife died he took monastic vows while remaining in the Senate and gave to the poor and the church. He helped Fabiola [see 395] establish a hostel for sea travellers at Portus and left his home as a church. He encouraged bishop Anastasius to condemn Origenism. Jerome dedicated to him a number of his books. He died at the siege of Rome by Alaric. PRUDENTIUS, CLEMENS AURELIUS [348-410] Christian Latin poet who is best known for the hymn Of the Father's love begotten. Lawyer and civil servant he published his extensive collection of poems at the age of 57. He applied classical Latin verse forms to Christian teaching and although the educational and moral outweighs the imaginative and lyrical his poetry still has considerable artistic merit. 411-420 AD 411CARTHAGE Council condemns the Donatist movement which died out. RABBULA [c.350-435] Syrian theologian born near Aleppo who was converted about 400 and became a monk. In 411 he was elected bishop of Edessa and devoted himself to church reform strongly opposing Jewish, Pagan, and Gnostic influences in Syria. He supported Cyril of Alexandria at the Council of Ephesus in 431, and attacked Nestorianism especially the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia [see 392]. 412CYRIL I Patriarch of Alexandria [412-444] see 385 and 444 who assisted his uncle, Patriarch Theophilus, at the synod of the Oak [see 403] and contrived to succeed him in 412. He aggressively attacked many, especially the Nestorians of Constantinople. Armed with a condemnation from Celestine I [see 422] he secured the deposing of Nestorius at Ephesus in 431. His writing relies to a high degree on Athanasius [see 329] and the Church Fathers. Cyrils argument against Nestorius vindicated the hypostatic union of Christ; however he failed to gain a full appreciation of the role of Christs humanity.413 414OROSIUS, PAULUS Historian who in 414 fled the Vandal invasion of his home in Spain, going to Augustine of Hippo who was young but already a presbyter. He provided Augustine with a paper against the errors of both Priscillian and Origen. As a trusted messenger he was sent by Augustine to Jerome [see 382] in Palestine to assist in the indictment of the Pelagianists but in 415 the Council of Diospolis upheld Pelagius. On Augustines advice Orosius composed a Christian world history in seven books designed to explain Alarics sack of Rome in 410. Material from 378 takes on value since his sources have not survived. After the final date he deals with, which is 417, Orosius himself disappears. 415 416THEODORET [c.393-458] Bishop of Cyrrhus in Syria. He was born in Antioch and entered a nearby monastery in 416 and in 423 became bishop of Cyrrhus where he spent the rest of his life making himself a reputation not only as a theologian, historian, and a controversialist but as a faithful and diligent pastor. Theodoret opposed Cyril of Alexandria [see 444] and this led to his deposition at the Robber Synod of Ephesus in 449 but he was restored at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. He wrote a number of commentaries as well as a collection of 30 biographies of monks and a church history which continued the work of Eusebius down to 428. 417GALLA PLACIDA [c.390-450] Roman empress, the daughter of Theodosius I. She was captured by Alaric in 410 and married his successor Ataulf in 414. On her husband's death she returned to Italy and in 417 married Constantius. When he died in 421 she retired to Constantinople but when her brother Honorius died in 423 and Theodosius II recognised her son Valentinian III as his successor she returned to the West establishing a court at Ravenna. She was an uncompromising Catholic, her influence may be seen in numerous edicts against all the sects opposed to the Catholic faith. PRAULIUS Primate of Jerusalem [417-422] see 386 and 422. ZOSIMUS Bishop of Rome [417418]. He took a decisive part in the protracted dispute over the jurisdiction of the see of Arles over that of Vienne, favouring the former. His fractious temper coloured all the controversies in which he took part. His consecration took place on March 18, 417 and was attended by Patroclus, bishop of Arles, who had been raised to that see in place of Bishop Heros of Arles who had been forcibly and unjustly removed by the imperial general Constantine. Patroclus gained the confidence of the new bishop of Rome at once; as early as 22 March he received a letter which made him a kind of vicar for Rome for the whole of Gaul as no Gallic ecclesiastic was permitted to journey to Rome without bringing with him a certificate of identity from Patroclus. Not long after the election of Zosimus, the proponent of Pelagianism, Caelestius (who had been condemned by the preceding bishop of Rome, Innocent I), came to Rome to justify himself before the new bishop, having been expelled from Constantinople in the summer of 417. Shortly after this, Zosimus became involved in a dispute with the African bishops in regard to the right of appeal to the Roman See for clerics who had been condemned by their bishops. When the priest Apiarius of Sicca had been excommunicated by his bishop on account of his crimes, he appealed directly to Zosimus without regard to the regular course of appeal in Africa. Zosimus at once accepted the appeal, and sent legates with letters to Africa to investigate the matter. Zosimus also issued a decree forbidding clerics to visit taverns. He succeeded Innocent I [see 401] and was succeeded by Boniface I [see 418]. 418ALYPIUS Bishop of Thagaste and a friend of Jerome and Augustine who with others was a spokesman for the Catholic bishops in a conference between Catholics and Donatists at Carthage in 411. Again with Augustine he represented Numidia at the council of Carthage in 418 at which the Catholic view of original sin and grace was set forth in nine canons. BONIFACE I Bishop of Rome [418422]. He succeeded Zosimus [see 417]. He was a contemporary of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo" \o "Saint Augustine of Hippo" Saint Augustine of Hippo who dedicated to him some of his works. On the death of Zosimus, two parties were put forward as candidate for bishop; one was Boniface, the other HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulalius" \o "Eulalius" Eulalius. The emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavius_Augustus_Honorius" \o "Flavius Augustus Honorius" Honorius [see 395] was asked to intervene, and he sent an edict instructing both men to leave HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome. The following HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter" \o "Easter" Easter, Eulalius returned to the city to perform HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism" \o "Baptism" baptisms and celebrate the feast. When the emperor heard of this Eulalius was stripped of his rank and banished from Rome, and on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_28" \o "December 28" December 28, 418 Boniface became bishop. Boniface continued the opposition to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagianism" \o "Pelagianism" Pelagianism and persuaded Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_II" \o "Theodosius II" Theodosius II [see 408] to return HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Illyricum" \o "Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum" Illyricum to Western jurisdiction. He also defended the rights of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See" \o "Holy See" Holy See. EULALIUS Antipope (rival bishop) [418-419]. He was in opposition to Bishop Boniface I. He was an archdeacon and elected by a clerical faction. Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavius_Augustus_Honorius" \o "Flavius Augustus Honorius" Honorius called asynod,which was the first intervention by an emperor in an ecclesiastical election, to decide upon the matter. There being no clear result he ordered both claimants out of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome prior to a second synod. Eulalius returned early to perform the Holy Week services and for this defiance plus clashes involving his supporters he was expelled from Rome and Boniface declared bishop by the emperor. Eulalius made no further attempt to gain the see and died in 423. JULIAN OF ECLANUM [380-c.455] Pelagian theologian who was ordained on the death of his wife and succeeded his father as bishop of Eclanum. He was very learned in Latin, Greek, logic, and theology, and became a supporter of Pelagius [see 409]. In 418 Julian attacked the writings of Zosimus bishop of Rome who had condemned Pelagius and Celestius. He was deposed and expelled from Italy. He now travelled in the East and was received by Theodore of Mopsuestia and Nestorius [see 428]. Returning to Sicily he taught there until his death. Julian was Pelagianisms most systematic exponent. He defined freedom of the will as the possibility of committing sin or abstaining from it. He reduced grace to simple, protective divine assistance. He denied the responsibility of the human race in Adams sin. He defended marriage against asceticism. Augustine answered him in three works. THEODOTUS Primate of Antioch [418-428] see also 408 and 428. 419 420PHILOSTORGIUS [c.368-430] Historian. He was born in Cappadocia and wrote an ecclesiastical history from the Arian heresy of 300 to Valentinian IIs rise to the Western throne in 425. Like many of the histories of that time it tended to be inaccurate and biased. His work however has value for its accounts of several important Arians and as a corrective to the partisan views of the Orthodox church historians. 421-430 AD 421 422CELESTINE I Bishop of Rome [422432]. Soon after his accession he was in controversy with the African bishops. He opposed heresy and in 425 the emperor expelled heretics from Rome. Celestine sent Germanus of Auxere to England in 429 to counter Pelagianism [see 409] and closed Novatianist [see 249] churches in Rome. In 430 he empowered Cyril of Alexandria [see 444] to execute a ten day ultimatum to Nestorius. He approved of the decisions of the Council of Ephesus where Mary was first called Mother of God even though he was not represented. He succeeded Boniface I [see 418] and was succeeded by Sixtus III [see 432]. JUVENAL Patriarch of Jerusalem [422-458] see 417 and 458. It was during this period in 451 when the ruling bishop was upgraded to a Patriarch. 423JOANNES Roman emperor of the West [423425] On the death of the Emperor Honorius (August 27, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/423" \o "423" 423), Theodosius II, the remaining ruler of the House of Theodosius hesitated in announcing his uncle's death and Joannes a senior civil servant was made emperor. He was known for his mildness, intelligence, and general ability. Unlike the Theodosian emperors, he tolerated all HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" \o "Christianity" Christian sects. He had hoped that he could come to an agreement with the emperor Theodosius, but when Theodosius II elevated the young Valentinian III first to Caesar, then to co-emperor as an Augustus, he knew he could only expect war. Late in 424, he sent one of his younger but promising followers Atius to the Huns to seek military help. While Atius was away on his mission, the army of the Eastern Empire left Thessalonica for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy and soon made their base in Aquileia. Eventually his garrison of Ravenna was convinced to betray him to a force led by Aspar, the son of the Eastern commander. The fallen emperor was brought to Aquileia where first his hand was cut off and then he was paraded on a donkey in the Hippodrome to the insults of the populace, then after further insults and injuries he was decapitated in mid 425. 424APIARIUS African priest who was a test case of relations between Rome and the African churches. Excommunicated and deposed by the pro Augustine Urbanus he appealed to Zosimos of Rome [see 417] who demanded his reinstatement. Excommunicated again for offences at Tabraca he appealed to Celestine of Rome [see 422] who ordered him restored. At another council at Carthage in 424 he confessed and the African bishops asserted their right to judge their affairs exclusively while conceding that Rome had primacy of honour. 425CASSIAN, JOHN [360435] Writer on Asceticism was born probably in Rumania. He entered a Bethlehem monastery by 392. He admired Chrysostom [see 398] and due to his removal as bishop of Constantinople John Cassian moved to Rome. In reply to a request from Bishop Castor of Apt for advice on Egyptian asceticism he wrote Institutes which influenced the Benedictine Rule [see 529] and was considered an ascetic classic for centuries. He is recognised as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church. VALENTINIAN III Roman Emperor of the West [425455]. In 423, Honorius [see 395] died, and the usurper HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joannes" \o "Joannes" Joannes [see 423] took the power in Rome. To counter this menace, Theodosius nominated Valentinian Caesar of the west (October 23, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/424" \o "424" 424), and betrothed him to his own daughter. He was at that time five years of age. He would eventually marry her in 437. In 425, after Joannes had been executed, Valentinian was installed Western Emperor in Rome, on October 23, at the age of six. His reign is marked by the dismemberment of the Western Empire; the conquest of the province of Africa by the Vandals in 439; the loss of great portions of Spain and Gaul, in which the barbarians had established themselves. The burden of taxation became more and more intolerable as the power of Rome decreased. Valentinian not only lacked the ability to govern the empire in a time of crisis, but aggravated its dangers by his self-indulgence and vindictiveness. 426SISINNIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [426-427] succeeded Atticus [see 406]. There is no additional information readily available. 427 428HILARY OF ARLES [401-449] Bishop of Arles who was born of a noble family. He was persuaded to renounce secular society for that of solitude of Lerins by its founder Honoratus his kinsman. When Honoratus became bishop of Arles in 426 Hillary accompanied him there and succeeded him two years later. He tried to promote the position of bishop of Arles. He presided over the councils of Riez [439] Orange [441] and Vaison [442]. The canons of Reiz and Orange were concerned mainly with discipline. He came into conflict with Bishop Leo who was very energetic in furthering the rights of the bishop of Rome. Leo deprived Hillary of his rights in 444. Of his remaining years little is known. JOHN I Primate of Antioch [428-443] see also 418 and 443. NESTORIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [428-431] succeeded Sisinnius [see 426]. He was accused of heresy that later bore his name, Nestorianism, because he objected to the popular practice of calling the Virgin Mary the "Mother of God" (theotokos) instead preaching that "Mother of Christ" would be more fitting. He was condemned at the Council of Ephesus. Nestorius was born in 386 in Germanicia in the Roman province of Syria and gained a reputation for his sermons that led to his enthronement by Theodosius II as archbishop following the death ofSisinnius Iin 428. Shortly after his arrival in Constantinople, Nestorius became involved in the disputes of two theological factions, which differed in their Christology. Nestorius tried to find a middle ground between those that, emphasising the fact that in Christ God had been born as a man and insisted on calling the Virgin Mary theotokos, and those that rejected that title because God as an eternal being could not have been born. Nestorius suggested the title Christotokos "birth-giver to Christ", but did not find acceptance on either side. Nestorius believed that no union between the human and divine were possible. If such a union of human and divine occurred, Nestorius believed that Christ could not truly be con-substantial with God and con-substantial with us because he would grow, mature, suffer and die (which he said God cannot do) and also would possess the power of God that would separate him from being equal to humans. Eusebius, the bishop of the Dorylaeum was the first to accuse Nestorius of heresy but his most forceful opponent however was Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria [see 444]. Nestorius opponents charged him with detaching Christ's divinity and humanity into two persons existing in one body, thereby denying the reality of the Incarnation. This heresy came to be known as Nestorianism. The Emperor Theodosius II (401-450) was eventually induced to call a general church council at Ephesus, which itself was a centre for the veneration of Mary, where the theotokos concept was popular. The emperor gave his support to the archbishop of Constantinople, while the bishop of Rome, Celestine I, was in agreement with Cyril. Cyril took charge of the First Council of Ephesus in 431, opening debate before the long overdue contingent of Eastern bishops from Antioch arrived and the council deposed Nestorius and declared him a heretic before his supporters arrived. They convened their own synod, at which Cyril was deposed. Both sides then appealed to the emperor. Initially the imperial government ordered both Nestorius and Cyril deposed and exiled, however, Cyril was eventually allowed to return after bribing various courtiers. In the following months, 17 bishops who supported Nestorius' doctrine were removed from their sees. Eventually John I of Antioch was obliged to abandon Nestorius in March 433. On August 3, 435, Theodosius II issued an imperial edict that exiled Nestorius to amonastery in the Great Oasis of Hibis in Egypt, securely within the diocese of Cyril. Though Nestorius had been condemned by the church, including his fellow Syrians, ideas similar to his own remained strong in the area and eventually led to the formation of separate Nestorian churches, such as the Assyrian Church of the East. In 1895, a 16th century book manuscript containing a copy of a text written by Nestorius was discovered by American missionaries in the library of the Nestorian patriarch in the mountains at Konak, Hakkari. This book had suffered damage during Muslim raids, but was substantially intact. The original 16th century manuscript was destroyed in 1915 during the Turkish massacres of Assyrian Christians. In this book written towards the end of his life, Nestorius denies the heresy for which he was condemned and instead affirms of Christ "the same one is twofold", an expression that some consider similar to the formulation of the Council of Chalcedon. Nestorius' earlier surviving writings, however, including his letter written in response toCyril's charges against him, contain material that seems to support charges that he held Christ as two distinct persons in one body. The emperor exiled him to his monastery in Antioch and later to the great oasis in Egypt where he died. 429PALLADIUS Missionary to Ireland and native of Gaul who was a disciple of Germanus at Auxerre. He was sent to Rome in 429 and made an impression on Bishop Celestine and was commissioned by him to go to Ireland. His commission was Palladius ordained by Bishop Celestine is sent as the first bishop of the Scots who believe in Christ. The date of his commission [431] recorded in the Chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine indicates that there were Christians in Ireland before the days of Patrick. The hostility of the Irish discouraged him and Palladius left no enduring impression on Ireland or her church. He decided to return to Rome but died in Britain on the way. 430EUTYCHES [378-454] Early Monophysite. At the third ecumenical Council of Ephesus in 430, Cyril of Alexandria [see 444] worked out a compromise between the theologians who advocated two natures of Christ and those holding to one nature. However, on Cyril's death in 444, open opposition broke out against the compromise, with Cyrils successor leading the opposition along with Eutyches who was head of a monastery in Constantinople. Eutyches had come out of retirement to contest Nestorianism towards which he felt the compromise leaned but went to such an extreme in stressing the single nature of Christ that the supporters of orthodoxy in Constantinople began to become uneasy. The obstinacy of Eutyches in refusing to recognise the two natures brought about his condemnation by the patriarch of Constantinople, Flavian, who declared his views unorthodox. Eutyches refusal to accept this brought about the scandalous Robber Synod of Ephesus [see 449] to support his views. LEPORIUS Latin theologian from Gaul who was a monk in Marseille and flourished around 425-430. He issued a letter in which he taught the essential similarity between Christs moral experience and our own. When rebuked by several bishops he and his followers fled to Africa where he met Augustine and publicly recanted his error at Carthage. MARK THE HERMIT [d. c.430] He had been abbot of a monastery in Galatia and was a contemporary and possibly a disciple of John Chrysostom [see 398]. His writings show that Mark had an ethical and practical rather than the mystical approach to theology, an independence from tradition and his intention to base his arguments upon Scripture. He wrote opposing those who expect to gain grace by works, insisting like Paul that grace and justification are free gifts and that all good works are evidence of a prior work of grace. Like Chrysostom, Mark accepted the doctrine of original sin, but denied that it utterly destroyed free will, which he felt was perfectly restored at baptism. Persecution of Christians in Persia. POLYCHRONIUS [d. c.430] Bishop of Apamea in Syria and brother of Theodore of Mopsuesta [see 392]. He was one of the most prominent of the exegetes of the Antiochene School. He wrote commentaries on Job, Daniel and Ezekiel of which only fragments are preserved. Considered a heretic though never formally condemned, he criticised the Alexandrine method of biblical exegesis. 431-440 AD 431CAPREOLUS Bishop of Carthage who is known principally for his letter to the council of Ephesus [431] against the Nestorians. He also begged the council not to reopen the Pelagian controversy on the principle that once settled old problems should not be reconsidered. MAXIMIANUS Bishop of Constantinople [431-434] succeeded Nestorius [see 428]. Maximianuswas the archbishop of Constantinople from 25 October HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/431" 431 until his death on 12 April HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/434" 434. He had led a monastic life and had entered presbyteral orders; his action in building, at his own expense, tombs for the remains of holy men had obtained for him a reputation of sanctity. The action of the Ecumenical council of Ephesus had thrown the churches of Constantinople into direst confusion. A large proportion of the citizens held strongly to HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Nestorius" Nestorius; the HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Clergy" clergy, with one voice, agreed in the HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Anathema" anathema. In principles he followed the former HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Archbishop" archbishops, Chrysostom, HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Atticus" Atticus, and Sisinnius. The bishop of Rome, Celestine I, wrote to him in highly complimentary terms on his elevation. The appointment was made by the unanimous vote of clergy, HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Roman_Emperor" emperor, and people. It was the custom for occupants of the principal HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Episcopal_See" sees on election to send a HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Synod" synodical letter to the most considerable bishops of the HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Christian" Christianworld, asking for the assurance of their HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Communion_%28Christian%29" communion. Maximianus sent his synodical to the Eastern clergy as to the others. Communion was refused by a number of bishops. Harmony being restored, John of Antioch and the other Eastern bishops wrote Maximianus a letter of communion indicating their consent to his election and to the deposition of Nestorius. Cyril wrote to him, attributing the blessed result to the force of his prayers. Maximianus died in office. EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH [see also 1054 and 1612] This denomination consists of a federation of several self-governing churches. Orthodox comes from the Greek word meaning "right believing". Included in the church are four ancient patriarchs Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. It is usually estimated that the Orthodox Christians number about 150 million. The Orthodox Church claims to be a family of self-governing churches held together, not by centralised organisation or a single prelate, but by a bond of unity in the faith and communion in the sacraments. The patriarch of Constantinople is known as the Ecumenical or Universal Patriarch. The Eastern Orthodox claim to have an unbroken continuation of the Christian Church established by Christ and his apostles. There are three main stages of fragmentation of Christendom. The first occurred in the fifth and sixth centuries when the Nestorian Church of Persia and five Monophysite churches of Armenia, Assyria, Egypt, Ethiopia and India divided from the main body of Christianity. This was considered at the conference of Ephesus in 431 where the Nestorian Church was rejected. [See below] COUNCIL OF EPHESUS Summoned by Emperor Theodosius II in 431 to solve the problem raised by the Nestorian Controversy, it has become known as the third general council. With 60 bishops present, it was opened by Cyril, bishop of Alexandria. Neither the Syrian bishops who were expected to support Nestorius nor the representatives of the bishop of Rome were present. When the Syrian bishops arrived they held a rival meeting where Cyril, and Memnon, bishop of Ephesus were excommunicated. But it was Cyril's assembly that was eventually endorsed by the Roman legates when they arrived. The Nestorian schism gained momentum and led to the separate Nestorian Church although the emperor tried to prevent this. IRELAND [see also 1172] Ireland had escaped the ravages and the benefits of Roman invasion. There were in Ireland Christians from an early age such as Kieran of Cape Clear Island. Palladius [see 429] was sent in 431 to minister to the Irish who were believes in Christ; but the establishing and development of the Christian Church was largely due to the work of Patrick [see 461] and the church he founded, developed in isolation from the Western Church. Christians like Finnian of Clonard [d. c.589] and Comgall [see 558] of Bangor at home, and Columba [see 546] and Columbanus [see 580] abroad, made famous the name of the Irish Church. 432SIXTUS III Bishop of Rome [432440] whose name of Sixtus is often connected with a great building boom in Rome: Santa Sabina on the Aventine Hill was dedicated during his pontificate and he built Santa Maria Maggiore, whose dedication to Mary the Mother of God reflected his acceptance of the Ecumenical council of Ephesus which closed in 431. At that council the debate over Christ's human and divine natures turned on whether Mary could legitimately be called the "Mother of God" or only "Mother of Christ". The council gave her the Greek title Theotokos (literally "God-bearer", or "Mother of God"), and the dedication of the large church in Rome is a response to that. Prior to being made bishop of Rome, Sixtus was a patron of Pelagius [see 409], who was later condemned as a heretic. One of his main concerns was in restoring peace between Cyril of Alexandria [see 444] and the Syrians. He also maintained the rights of the bishop of Rome over Illyria and the position of the archbishop of Thessalonica as head of the Illyrian church. He succeeded Celestine I [see 422] and was succeeded by Leo I [see 440]. 433 434EUCHERIUS [d.449] Bishop of Lyons who engaged at first in public administration and was married with two sons. He retired in middle life to Lerins where he pursued an ascetic life of study and worship. His reputation for sanctity became widespread and about 434 he was elected as bishop of Lyons. He presided over the Synod of Orange jointly with Hilary of Arles [see 428]. His writings show extensive biblical knowledge and provided material used widely by mediaeval mystics and hymn writers. PROCLUS Patriarch of Constantinople [434-446] succeeded Maximianus [see 431]. The friend and disciple of John Chrysostom, he became secretary to Archbishop Atticus of Constantinople (406 - 425) who ordained him deacon and priest. Sisinnius I (see 426) consecrated him bishop of Cyzicus but the people there refused to receive him, so he remained at Constantinople. On the death of Sisinnius, the famous Nestorius succeeded as archbishop of Constantinople (428 - 431), and early in 429 on a festival of theTheotokos(Virgin Mary), Proclus preached his celebrated sermon on the Incarnation, which was later inserted in the beginning of the Acts of the Council of Ephesus. When Archbishop Maximianus (431-434) died, Proclus was immediately enthroned by the permission of Emperor Theodosius, and the bishops gathered at Constantinople. His first care was the funeral of his predecessor, and he then sent to both patriarchs, Cyril of Alexandria and John of Antioch, the usual synodical letters announcing his appointment, both of whom approved of it. In the time of Proclus, the Trisagion or hymns that have Holy, Holy Holy in it relating to God came into use. The occasion is said to have been at a time when violent earthquakes lasted for four months at Constantinople, so that the people were obliged to leave the city and encamp in the fields. Proclus appears to have been wise, moderate, and conciliatory, desirous, while strictly adhering to orthodoxy himself, to win over those who differed from him by persuasion rather than force. 435IBAS [d.457] Bishop of Edessa from 435 who is best known for the letter he sent in 433 to Bishop Mari in Persia. This reveals that he took a mediating position between the Nestorians and the views of Cyril of Alexandria. He also helped to translate into Syriac the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, the Antiochene theologian. Because of supposed Nestorianism Ibas was deposed at the Robber Synod of Ephesus in 449. 436 437FAUSTUS OF RIEZ [d. c.490] Semi-Pelagian bishop probably of British origin. Abbot of Lerins from 437 he became involved in a dispute with the bishop of Arles. The solution of the dispute helped to lay down the lines of demarcation between dioceses and monasteries in the future. He then became bishop of Riez, and as an ascetic, Bible scholar and preacher of very considerable skill. He was clearly the most outstanding prelate in Roman Gaul. Resistance to the Arian king of the Visigoths, Euric, led to his exile from 478-485. In one of his works he argued strongly for the operation of mans free will in obtaining salvation. NARSAI [399-502] Nestorian [see 428] theologian and poet. A monk who lived to a ripe old age he headed up the theological School in Edessa after 437. Exiled 20 years later he established a new school at Nisbis on plans laid by Bishop Barsumas [see 493] and at his request. The school became the teaching centre for Nestorian theology. 438 439ARNOBIUS THE YOUNGER Wrote a book in which he catalogues ninety heresies largely described in Augustines De Haeresibus including Pelagians [see 411], Nestorians [see 428], and the Praedestinati [see 432]. After 454 he refutes Sabellian, Arian, and Pelagian views, and defended the Leonine doctrine of the two natures. He gives the writings of Augustine [see 396] the respect reserved for the Scriptures. PHILIP SIDETES Historian who was ordained a deacon at Constantinople by his friend John Chrysostom [see 398] and was later three times unsuccessful in his candidacy for the position of patriarch of Constantinople. Between 434 and 439 he wrote Christian History comprising 36 books treating world history from the creation to about 426. Fragments of the work remained and are valuable to supplement Eusebius. One of the Sidetes fragments deals with his alleged assertion that the Jews had martyred both John the apostle and James. 440EMBER DAYS Fast days on the Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays after St Lucy's Day [13th December], the first Sunday in Lent, Whitsunday, and Holy Cross Day [14th September]. The Ember Days are peculiar to the Western Church. As Christian observances they were well established at Rome by Bishop Leo I [440-61] but not until the 11th century was the practice finally fixed. During the Middle Ages these fasts became associated with ordination. ISADORE OF PELUSIUM [c.360-440] Ascetic and theologian. He was for 40 years abbot of a monastery near Pelusium on the eastern estuary of the Nile. He took part in fifth century controversies supporting the memory of Chrysostom whose exegesis he followed, and warning Cyril of Alexandria to be moderate in his dealing with the Nestorians. Isadore left some 2000 letters which contain much of doctrinal, exegetical, and moral interest. He held that the Holy Spirit was equal with the Father and Son. LEO I Bishop of Rome [440461]. He was an Italian aristocrat, and is the earliest bishop of the Roman Catholic Church to have received the title "the Great". He is perhaps best known for having met Attila the Hun outside Rome in 452, persuading him to turn back from his invasion of Western Europe. He was chosen by the emperor to settle the dispute between Aetius and Albinus, the two highest officials inGaul. During his absence on this mission, Sixtus IIIdied and Leo was unanimously elected by the people to succeed him. An uncompromising foe of heresy, Leo found that in the diocese ofAquileia,Pelagianswere received into church communion without formal repudiation of their errors; he wrote to rebuke them, making accusations of culpable negligence, and required a solemnabjuration before asynod. Manicheans fleeing before the Vandals had come to Rome in 439 and secretly organised there; Leo learned of this around 443, and proceeded against them by holding a public debate with their representatives, burning their books, and warning the Roman Christians against them. His efforts led to the edict of Valentinian III against them in 445. Nor was his attitude less decided against thePriscillianists. BishopTurrubius of Astorga, astonished at the spread of this sect inSpain, had addressed the other Spanish bishops on the subject, sending a copy of his letter to Leo, who took the opportunity to exercise Roman policy in Spain. In 445, Leo disputed with Dioscorus, Cyril's successor as bishop of Alexandria insisting that their practice should follow that of Rome since their founder Mark was the disciple of Peter. This, of course, was not the position of theCopts, who saw the ancient patriarchates as equals. In a letter to the bishops ofCampania, Picenum, and Tuscany (443) Leo required the observance of all his precepts and those of his predecessors; and he sharply rebuked the bishops of Sicily (447) for their deviation from the Roman custom as to the time ofbaptism, requiring them to send delegates to the Roman synod to learn the proper practice. Leo wrote: "The care of the universal Church should converge towards Peter's one seat, and nothing anywhere should be separated from its Head. Not without serious opposition did he succeed in asserting his authority over Gaul. Feeling that his dominant idea of the Roman universal monarchy was threatened, Leo appealed to the civil power for support, and obtained from Valentinian III the famous decree of June 6, 445, which recognised the primacy of the bishop of Rome based on the merits of Peter, the dignity of the city, and the Nicene Creed, and provided for the forcible extradition by provincial governors of anyone who refused to answer a summons to Rome. At the Second Council of Ephesus in 449, Leo's representatives delivered his famous Tome in the form of a letter addressed to Flavian, which repeats the formulas of Western Christology. The council paid no attention to the protests of Leo's legates, but deposed Flavian and Eusebius, who appealed to Rome. In 450, with the death of Theodosius II and the sudden change in the Eastern situation, Anatolius, the new patriarch of Constantinople fulfilled Leo's requirements, and his Tome was everywhere read and recognised. At the Council of Chalcedon in 451, after Leo's Tome on the two natures of Christ was read out, the bishops participating in the Council cried out: "This is the faith of the fathers,Peterhas spoken thus through Leo. The approaching collapse of the Western Empire gave Leo a further opportunity to appear as the representative of lawful authority. When Attila invaded Italy in 452 and threatened Rome, it was Leo who, with two high civil functionaries, went to meet him and effected his withdrawal. However pragmatic concerns such as the large sum of gold that accompanied Leo, or logistical and strategic concerns, may have been the true reason for Attila's mercy. Attila's army being already quite stretched and full from booty from plunder, the bishops plea for mercy may well have merely served as an honourable reason for not continuing on and sacking the Roman capitol. Unfortunately Leo's intercession could not prevent thesack of the cityby theVandalsin 455, but murder and arson were repressed by his influence. He died probably in 461. He succeeded Sixtus III [see 432] and was succeeded by Hilarius [see 461]. POSSIDIUS [d. c.440] Biographer and friend of Augustine [see 413]. He was a member of the monastery of Hippo until he was made bishop of Calama about 400. He was active in supporting Augustine's opposition to Donatism and to the Pelagian heresy. PROPSER OF AQUITAINE [c.390-463] Scholar with a classical education background who was learned also in theology, and part of a monastic community in Marseilles at the outbreak of the semi-Pelagian controversy, all which he opposed. Together with his friend Hilary he wrote to Augustine in Africa in 428 concerning the opposition to his theology of grace and predestination especially among the disciples of John Cassian [see 425]. In 431 he went to Rome to gain support for Augustines doctrines. Finally he rejected Augustines position, instead believing God willed to save all men. As secretary to Leo I after 440 he aided him with correspondence and theological writings against the Nestorians. 441-450 AD 441ORANGE, COUNCILS OF Two synods held in Orange in southern France in 441 and 529. Hilary of Arles [see 428] presided at the first. It was attended by 16 bishops and 30 canons were issued on disciplinary matters. Caesarius of Arles [see 503] presided over the second championing Augustinian grace in the struggle against semi-Pelagianism. In a contest with Felix IV he triumphed, submitting to thirteen bishops in Orange declaration on grace and free will which they signed and which Boniface II approved in 531. These upheld much of the Augustinian doctrine on grace as the corrective to the views of John Cassian [see 425] and Faustus of Riez [see 437] stressing the need for grace and condemning predestination of man to evil. The 529 council ended the semi-Pegalian controversy in southern Gaul. 442VAISON, COUNCILS OF Two church councils were held at Vaison in France in the fifth and sixth centuries. The first in 442 enacted 10 canons most of which were aimed at strengthening the power the bishops. The second was held in 529 and enacted five canons one of which required regular prayers to be said for the bishop of Rome. 443DOMNUS II Primate of Antioch [443-450] see also 428 and 450. 444DIOSCORUS I Patriarch of Alexandria [444-451] see 412 and 452. He was the successor of Cyril and became a leading figure in the Monophysite controversy. In 444 he had accused Theodoret [see 416] of Nestorianism and when Eutyches was accused by Theodoret and others of the opposite error he came to his aid. He persuaded Theodosius II to call a Council at Ephesus in 449 which declared Eutyches orthodox and opposed Theodoret and the others. However following the death of Emperor Theodosius the new rulers leaned to the other side and another synod was held in Constantinople in 450 where Leo's Tome was read and received, and many of Dioscorus' victims were rehabilitated. A new council was called in Nicaea and Leo was excommunicated. However the following year at a council in Chalcedon Dioscorus himself was exiled, his deposition being permanent. This divided the Egyptian Christians with a majority continuing to venerate Dioscorus and to repudiate Chalcedon. This remains the position of the Coptic Church to this day. 445 446FLAVIAN Bishop of Constantinople [446-449] succeeded Proclus [see 434]. He was the guardian of the sacred vessels of the great Church of Constantinople when he was chosen to become archbishop of Constantinople. During hisconsecration, Roman emperor Theodosius II was staying at Chalcedon, and his eunuch Chrysaphiusinduced the emperor to require a gift (extort a present of gold) from the new archbishop but he was unsuccessful. From that moment Chrysaphius began to plot against the new archbishop by supporting the archimandrite Eutyches in his dispute with Flavian. Flavian presided at a council of forty HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Bishop" bishops at Constantinople on 8th November HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/448" 448, to resolve a dispute between the HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Metropolitan_bishop" metropolitan bishop of HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Sardis" Sardis and two bishops of his province. Eusebius, bishop of Dorylaeum, presented his HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Indictment" indictment against HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Eutyches" Eutyches. The speech of Flavian remains, concluding with this appeal to the bishop of Dorylaeum: "Let your reverence condescend to visit him and argue with him about the true faith, and if he shall be found in very truth to err, then he shall be called to our holy assembly, and shall answer for himself." Eventually the synod deposed Eutyches. However, as Eutyches protested against this verdict and received the support of Dioscorus I of Alexandria, the emperor convoked HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Second_Council_of_Ephesus" another council to Ephesus. At this council, which assembled on 8th August HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/449" 449, Eutyches and Dioscuros violently attacked the archbishop. The council reinstated Eutyches and Flavian died from the injuries he received from this attack on August 11, 449. The bishop of Rome, Leo I, whose legates had been ignored at the council, protested, first calling the council a "robber synod", and declared its decisions void. The Council of Chalcedon, called in 451, condemned Eutyches, confirmed Bishop Leo'sTomeand canonised Flavian as a HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Martyr" martyr. 447 448BASIL OF SELEUCIA [d 458] Bishop of Seleucia in Asia Minor [448-458] who was a friend of the pro Monophysite Dioscorus. He condemned Eutyches [see 430] at the Home Synod in Constantinople in 448 but the following year supported him as Dioscorus was present at the Ephesian Council. Almost deposed at Chalcedon because of this change he recalled his orthodoxy of 448 adding that he had already signed the Tome of Leo. 449ANATOLIUS Bishop of Constantinople [449-458] succeeded Flavian [see 446]. After his consecration, and being under suspicion of Eutychianism, Anatolius publicly condemned the teachings not only of Eutyches, but also those of HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Nestorius" Nestorius, subscribing to the letters of HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Cyril" Cyril against Nestorius and of Leo I against Eutyches. Unlike many of the prelates of that region it is said that Anatolius' faith in Christ remained always pure and his attitude towards the bishop of Rome most respectful. It was during his time that Constantinople was made equal in dignity with Rome so there arose the controversy between Anatolius and Leo I, bishop of Rome. Leo complained to the Eastern emperor, Marcian, that Anatolius had overstepped his jurisdiction by consecrating Maximinus II as HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Patriarch_of_Antioch" Patriarch of Antioch, but Anatolius had secured rights of jurisdiction and consecration over neighbouring metropolitans which Bishop Leo had refused to recognise. HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Edward_Gibbon" Edward Gibbon states that the crowning of the Eastern emperor Leo I on his accession by Anatolius in 457 is the first instance of the kind on record. Anatolius was credited for putting forward a Greek system of HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hymn" hymns. The followers of Dioscorus I, the bishop of Alexandria and supporter of Eutyches, are said to have killed him in 458. Peter CHRYSOLOGUS [d 449] Archbishop of Ravenna who was a renowned preacher and administrator. He tried to eliminate pagan customs, to regulate Lenten fast and to reduce the delay in baptising Christian converts. He was consecrated archbishop under Sixtus III [see 432]. EPHESUS, THE ROBBER SYNOD OF The purpose of this council, called by Theodosius II, was to consider the implications of the condemnation of Eutyches at the synod of Constantinople in 448. In fact under the influence of the Monophysite Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexandria, the synod reinstated Eutychus and opposed his opponents. The legates of the Roman see who carried the famous Tome of Bishop Leo I were insulted. The decisions of the robber synod were reversed at the Council of Chaldean in 451. Its unusual name is based on part of a letter that Leo sent to Empress Pulcheria describing his thoughts on the synod. EUSEBIUS Bishop of Doryleum from 448. A Constantinople lawyer, he posted a document there in 429 comparing excerpts from the sermons of Nestorius with the utterances of the third century heretic Paul of Samosata [see 260] thus directly accusing the Nestorians of denying the divinity of Christ. In 449, along with Patriarch Flavian, he was deposed and exiled by the Robber Synod held in Ephesus [see above]. He was restored to his see by the Roman bishop and by the emperor, Marcion, in 451, and subsequently took a prominent part in the Council of Chalcedon [see 451] later that year. TOME OF LEO A letter addressed by Leo I to Patriarch Flavian of Constantinople in 449 containing a lucid and systematic exposition of the Catholic doctrine of the Incarnation. The timing of the Tome was chiefly the appeal made to Leo by Eutyches [see 430] after he had been deposed for Monophysitism by Flavian. The Tome, which upheld Flavian's condemnation of Eutyches, was endorsed by the Council of Chalcedon two years later. 450CELTIC CHURCH Little is known about the introduction of Christianity into Britain but by the 4th century it was well enough organised to send representatives to the Synod of Arles in 314 and the Council of Arminum in 359. The Pegalian heresy [see 409] spread to the Celtic Church and Germanus of Auxerre visited England to try and combat it in 429. Saxon invasions about 450 which isolated the British Church from continental life resulted in the extermination of Christianity in England. It survived only in remote regions of the British Isles. Differences between the Celtic and Roman Church were resolved at the Synod of Whitby [see 663] resulting in a victory for Roman practices. The Celtic Church under the leadership of Ninian [see 400] and Patrick [see 461] featured a church organisation under a monastic abbot rather than a bishop. Each abbot served a single tribe with the abbot as the tribal leader. The Celts sent out men like Columbanus [585-615] who preached in France, Switzerland and North Italy. They encouraged scholarship and had a rich artistic tradition particularly in Sculpture and Illuminated Manuscripts such as the Book of Kells [see 850]. EZNICK An Armenian writer and bishop who also understood Persian, Greek and Syriac and was familiar with the theological literature of those languages. As a bishop he took part in the synod of Artashast in 450 which rejected the Persian demand that the Armenians adopt Zoroastrianism. He also took part in translating the Armenian version of the Bible and according to tradition wrote a number of homilies, all of which are now lost. His best-known work however is a Refutation of the Sects which is still preserved in the Armenian original. It consists of four books, the first dealing with the pagan idea of the eternity of matter, the second with Zoroastrianism, the third with Greek philosophy, and the fourth with a Gnostic sect of the Marcionites. MARCIAN Roman emperor of the East [450457] succeeded Theodosius II [see 408]. Upon becoming emperor, Marcian stopped the large payments of tribute to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila_the_Hun" \o "Attila the Hun" Attila the Hun (434453), which had been received from Theodosius II. Aware that he could never capture the eastern capital of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople, Attila turned to the west and waged his famous campaigns in Gaul (451) and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy (452) while leaving Marcian's dominions alone. Marcian reformed the finances, checked extravagance, and repopulated the devastated districts. He repelled attacks upon HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" \o "Syria (Roman province)" Syria and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" \o "Aegyptus" Egypt (452), and quelled disturbances on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia" \o "Armenia" Armenian frontier (456). The other notable event of his reign is the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" \o "Council of Chalcedon" Council of Chalcedon (see 451), in which Marcian endeavoured to mediate between the rival schools of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" theology. Marcian died in 457 of disease, possibly gangrene contracted during a long religious journey. Despite his short reign he is considered one of the best of the early Byzantine emperors. MAXIMUS II Patriarch of Antioch [450-455] see also 443 and 456. During this period the Council of Chalcedon in 451 upgraded the status of the head of the see from Primate to Patriarch. PULCHERIA [399-453] Eastern empress from 450 who was the daughter of Arcadius Eastern Roman emperor and was made regent at the age of 15 for her younger brother Theodosius II by the Senate in Constantinople in 414. She arranged the marriage of Theodosius to Athenais daughter of a pagan philosopher of Athens in 421. Assuming the name Eudocia, Athenais became a Christian and personal rival to Pulcheria. They differed in the Monophysite and Nestorian controversies Pulcheria supporting orthodoxy in both cases. We have Cyril [see 444] of Alexandrias letter to both women condemning the use of Nestorianism. In 438 Pulchreia healed the thirty year old religio-political schism in Constantinople by returning John Chrysostoms bones to be interned at the Church of the Apostles there. Upon Theodosius death in 450 she became empress. She founded three churches to Mary and left her possessions to the poor. 451-460 AD 451CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF Called by Emperors Marcian [see 450] and Valentinian III [see 423] and held in Euphemia. Attended by bishops from the East. The Western bishops and legates from Leo I [see 440] did not attend because they feared the Huns too much to travel. The emperors sought a common declaration from the Eastern bishops in accord with the creeds of Nicea and Constantinople, canonical epistles of Cyril, and the Tome of Leo. However, concord was not achieved although the majority agreed. The Nicene creed affirms that the Lord Jesus Christ is one, his two natures preserved in hypostatic union. Second it confirms that the two personalities God and man are perfect natures, pre existent and born of the Virgin. Thirdly that the distinct natures are fully God and fully man thus securing salvation by a saving God and a man identified with man. COPTIC CHURCH The Christian church of Egypt which traces itself to St Mia and counts among its theological ancestors Clement, Origen, and Athanasius. The Council of Chalcedon was a defeat for the Egyptian Church with the Greek culture of Constantinople seeing to triumph over the older Egyptian see. In the century after Chalcedon, Egypt was scarred by religious civil war between supporters of Constantinople and their opponents. [See 642] GENEVIEVE [422-500] She was born in Paris and is said to have attracted the attention of Germanus of Auxerre and at his instigation devoted herself to a life of asceticism from the age of 15 until 50 eating but twice a week, and then only barley bread. Thereafter at the command of the bishop, she added fish and milk to the diet. The diversion from Paris of the Huns under Attila in 451 was attributed to her prayers. HYPOSTATIC UNION The doctrine of the substantial union of the divine and human natures in the one person of Jesus Christ formulated by Cyril of Alexandria in opposition to the Nestorians. The doctrine was formally accepted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. JERUSALEM PATRIARCHATE It is evident that the first organised Christian ecclesiastical structure was brought into being in Jerusalem with James, the Lord's brother, as presiding officer. The honour of birthplace of Christianity was intensified when Constantines mother Helena made the city a place of pilgrimage which restored prestige to its diminished jurisdiction. By canon law the Council Nicaea in 325 recorded place of honour to Jerusalems episcopal structure as 4th, next after Alexandria, Rome and Antioch while at the council of Chalcedon in 451 Jerusalems seat was raised to patriarchal rank. However the Islamic conquest reduced the significance of that rank. From the time of the Crusaders the holders of the title of patriarch were often found in Constantinople. In 1099 a Latin patriarchate was formed at Acre which lasted to 1291. The patriarchate was reconstituted in 1847. The non-Roman Armenians also have a patriarch there. MAXIMUS [c.380-468] Bishop of Turin. Over 100 of his homilies have been preserved which show that he was influenced by Ambrose [see 374] with whose works many of Maximus's sermons are included. The only certain dates in his life include his attendance at the synod of Milan in 451 where he subscribed to the Tome of Leo [see 449] and that of Rome in 465 where his signature stands immediately after that of Hilarius on the decision regulating non-appointment by bishops of their successors. While trying to comfort his people in the face of the raiding Huns he also rebuked their readiness to profit from plunder or slaves as the Huns withdrew. MONOPHYSITISM This was a controversial issue in the eastern church causing lasting divisions both religious and political. The fourth ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451 was called into session in order to pacify the spirit of conflict which arose in regard to the nature and person of Jesus Christ. Bishop Leo in Rome had written his dogmatic Tome of Leo for the Ephesus meeting held two years prior to the Chalcedon Council. The text issued at Chalcedon presented both sides of the Incarnation clearly, without getting into the inner philosophical explanation as to how the two natures of Christ unite. Unfortunately unity did not proceed from the council. Instead of ending controversy it was the beginning of a dispute which would have an immediate effect on the Christian church over the next two centuries. The opposition to the two natures of Christ became known as Monophysitism. Their main emphasis was that there is but one nature in the Incarnation and not two. Monophysitism was also a reaction against Nestorianism [see 428]. Nestorius became patriarch of Constantinople in 428 and was opposed to the expression applied to Mary as the Mother of God. Mary he felt was the mother of Christ and not the mother of the eternal Logos. However, his followers pressed the distinction of the two natures of Jesus Christ to the extent of double personality. They said that Jesus was not the God-man but instead the God-bearing man. Monophysitism was extremely popular among the laity of the Eastern churches. SYRIAN CHURCHES Christianity was established in Syria by the end of the second century with the mode of life including a strong emphasis upon celibacy and asceticism. Its great teachers were Afrahat and Ephraem [see 338]. The centres of the Syrian church were Edessa and Nisibis. The doctrinal division of the church after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 left its mark very clearly upon Syrian Christianity and a number of Syrian churches still witness to this. After the Council of Ephesus in 431 the Syrian churches of East Syria and Persia followed the teaching of Nestorius. The Nestorian church flourished, conducting missions in Central Asia and reached China in the seventh century. During mediaeval times some part of Syria became Roman Catholic. Both churches still survive mainly in Iraq after dreadful persecution in the early 20th century. Most Christians in West Syria followed the Monophysite teaching after 451 due to the organisation by Jacob Baradaeus they prospered being called Jacobites [see 787] after him. They flourished, adopted Arabic at length as their language and are found in great numbers in the Near East. The links of some of them with Rome date from the 17th century. In South India Malabar Christians [see 1958] use Syrian liturgy. THEOTOKOS The Greek word for God bearer. This was the title of Mary, the mother of Jesus, which was favoured by the Alexandrian School of theologians from the time of Origen onwards. This title helped to preserve for them the Word-flesh Christology. In the fifth century this was attacked by the Nestorians who wanted to emphasise the humanity of Christ and proposed the compromise of Christotokos Christ bearer. Theotokos however had the strong support of Cyril of Alexandria in his Paschal Letter of 429 and this was approved by the Council of Ephesus in 431 and Chalcedon [see above] The usual Latin equivalent Dei Genetrix is Mother of God. 452ATTILA [d.453] the Hun swept westwards after victories in the east but was halted in Gaul in 451. The following year he invaded Northern Italy and was halted only when Leo I [see 440] convinced Attila of the wisdom of staying beyond the Danube. The invasions eroded the Christian influence in central Europe. PROTERIUS Patriarch of Alexandria [452-457] see 444 and 457. He was made Archbishop of Alexandria through the intervention of Florus, Commander of the city, provoking the displeasure of some people, who, lead astray by the Monophysites, elected as Archbishop of Alexandria Timotheos Ailuros, who was later exiled by Emperor Leon I. Bloody encounters ensued between the followers of the two Hierarchs, during which Proterius was murdered. He is honoured as a Saint of the Church. 453 454 455AVITUS [385-456] Roman Emperor of the West [455456]. Avitus was sent on a diplomatic mission by the emperor to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_II" \o "Theodoric II" Theodoric II king of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigoths" \o "Visigoths" Visigoths, and was at Theodoric's court in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulouse" \o "Toulouse" Toulouse when HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaiseric" \o "Gaiseric" Gaiseric invaded HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome, bringing Petronius Maximus's rule to a sudden end. Theodoric seized the opportunity and urged Avitus to assume the imperial throne, and with the acclamation of a gathering of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Roman" \o "Gallo-Roman" Gallo-Roman senators, allowed himself to be persuaded. On HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_9" \o "July 9" July 9, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/455" \o "455" 455, he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers, and reached Rome that September. The complete populace never fully accepted his rule, so when his campaign against the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals" \o "Vandals" Vandals failed in 456 and they pressed their blockade against Rome, his position became tenuous. Famine in Rome forced him to disband his Gothic bodyguard. But they needed to be paid, and he did not improve his standing with the Roman citizenry when he melted down a number of bronze statues to pay their outstanding wages. There was a general revolt. Avitus fled to safety in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arles" \o "Arles" Arles. A plea for help to Theodoric went unanswered as the Gothic king was away in Spain campaigning against the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suevi" \o "Suevi" Suevians. Avitus raised the best force he could and returned to Italy but was defeated near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piacenza" \o "Piacenza" Placentia and captured. His life was spared, and was allowed to become bishop of Placentia on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_18" \o "October 18" October 18th 456; however, he still feared for his life and attempted to escape to safety in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" \o "Gaul" Gaul. According to Gregory of Tours, he died on the way there. Other sources have him murdered, either being strangled or trapped in his house and starved to death. MAXIMUS Roman emperor of the West [455]. Following Valentinian IIIs [see 425] death, there was no one obvious successor to the throne. Maximus had managed to defeat his rivals by gaining control of the palace and forced Empress Eudoxia to marry him. Within two months of Maximus gaining the throne, word came that Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, had arrived in Italy. This news panicked the inhabitants of Rome. In the disorder Maximus was killed. 456BASIL Patriarch of Antioch [456-459] see also 450 and 459. MAJORAN Roman emperor of the West [456461] succeeded Maximus [see 455]. He was the first of four Western emperors appointed by Ricimer the Arian Christian regent of the West. Majoran was the author of a number of remarkable laws. He reduced all areas of taxes, the collection of which was for the future placed in the hands of the local officials. He revived the institution of administrators of cities, whose duty it was to protect the poor and inform the emperor of abuses committed in his name. The practice of pulling down the ancient monuments to be used as building material was strictly prohibited. He also passed laws against compulsory HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Orders" \o "Holy Orders" ordination and premature vows of celibacy. 457LEO I Roman Emperor of the East [457474] succeeded Marcian [see 450]. Ruling the Eastern Empire for nearly 20 years from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/457" \o "457" 457 to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/474" \o "474" 474, Leo proved to be a capable ruler, overseeing many ambitious political and military plans, aimed mostly for the aid of the faltering Western Roman Empire and recovering its former territories. Leo's HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation" \o "Coronation" coronation as emperor on 7 February, 457, was the first known to involve the patriarch of Constantinople. Leo I made an alliance with the Isaurians. The price of the alliance was the marriage of Leo's daughter to Tarasicodissa, leader of the Isaurians who, as Zeno, became emperor in 474. During Leo's reign, the Balkans were ravaged time and again by the Ostrogoths and the Huns. However, these attackers were unable to take Constantinople thanks to the walls which had been rebuilt and reinforced in the reign of Theodosius II and against which they possessed no suitable siege engines. Leo died of dysentery at the age of 73 on 18 January, 474. TIMOTHY AELURUS [d.477] Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria. [457-460, 475-477] see 452 and 477. His nickname Aelurus means weasel and was given by opponents because of his small stature. He became patriarch in 457, after Proterius had been lynched by a mob, but being unacceptable to the majority of bishops, Timothy was banished by Leo I in 460. In exile he wrote much to propagate Monophysitism. Following the above-mentioned events, the division between the Orthodox and the Copts became unstable and reached its climax and the Copts finally broke away from the Church forming their own Church under their own Patriarch.He is venerated as a saint in the Coptic Church. 458ANASTASIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [458-478] see 442 and 478. BARSUMAS [d 458] Monophysite leader who promoted in Syria the one nature heresy of Eutyches [see 430] whose cause he supported at the Council of Constantinople in 448 and with 1000 of his militant monks at the robber synod of Ephesus the following year. At Chalcedon in 451 still loyal to Eutychus he was condemned and exiled having earned the reputation of upsetting all Syria. GENNADIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [458-471] succeeded Anatolius [see 449]. His first public writing was against Cyril of Alexandria in two works, probably in 431 or 432, including a passage to show that his work was very violent. The anathemas of Cyril and Two Books to Parthenios were criticised. In the latter he exclaims, "How many times have I heard blasphemies from Cyril of Egypt? Woe to the scourge of Alexandria!" In 433 Gennadius probably reconciled with Cyril. If Cyril's letter of 434 is to the same Gennadius, they were friends in that year. Gennadius was a presbyter at Constantinople when he succeeded Anatolius in 458 as the bishop of Constantinople. From the beginning of his episcopate Gennadius proved his zeal for the Christian faith and the maintenance of discipline. Timotheos Aeluros, the Monophysite who made himself the patriarch of Alexandria and was later chased from the patriarchate by order of the Roman emperor, had obtained leave to come to Constantinople, intending, by pretence of ecumenism, to re-establish himself on his throne. On 17th June 460, Bishop Leo I warned Gennadius against Timotheos Aeluros and urged him to secure the immediate consecration of an Orthodoxprelate for Alexandria. All happened as Leo desired; Timotheos Aeluros was banished to the Chersonese, and Timotheos Solofakiolos was chosen bishop of Alexandria in his stead. About the same time, Daniel the Stylite began to live on a column of Pharos near Constantinople, apparently without the patriarch's permission and certainly without the permission of Gelasius, the owner of the property where the pillar stood, who strongly objected to this strange invasion of his land. Emperor Leo I protected the ascetic, and some time later sent Gennadius to ordain him priest, which he is said to have done standing at the foot of the column, because Daniel objected to being ordained and refused to let the bishop mount the ladder. At the end of ceremony however, the patriarch ascended to give Holy Communion to the stylite and to receive it from him. Whether he then laid his hands on him is not said. The buying and selling of holy orders was a crying scandal of the age. Measures had been taken against simony by the Council of Chalcedon. Gennadius is said to have died in Cyprus at the village of Moro Nero. He stands out as an able and successful administrator whom historians have roundly praised. JUVENAL [d.458] Bishop of Jerusalem who some ten years after his appointment came to prominence at the Council of Ephesus [431] where he supported the anti-Nestorian side. At the Robber Synod of Ephesus 449 his voice was raised for Dioscorus [see 444] but the political opportunities so characteristic of Juvenals career led to his voting for his condemnation at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 which body also confirmed the diocese of Jerusalem's jurisdiction over all Palestine. 459ACACIUS Patriarch of Antioch [459-461] see also 456 and 461. DANIEL THE STYLITE [409-493] A Syrian ascetic, born near Samosata who began his religious life as a monk not far from his home. Twice he visited Simeon the Stylite in 459 on his pillar. When Simeon died Daniel decided to emulate him so he built a small platform on two pillars where he lived for the rest of his life. Only once in 33 years did he descend and that was to reprimand the emperor. He was consulted by the patriarch of Constantinople and the Emperors Leo I and Zeno. He died at the age of 84 and was buried at the foot of his pillars. SIMEON THE STYLITE [c.390-459] Pillar ascetic who was a son of a shepherd and moved to Antioch when he was a teenager where he became an anchorite. For 20 years he lived in various monasteries in North Syria. About 423 he started to live on a pillar and for the next 36 years he lived in great austerity on a platform on top of the pillar which reached a height of 20 metres from the ground. His influence was extensive as thousands came to hear him preach. A famous disciple of his was Daniel the Stylite. 460TIMOTHEOS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (460-475, 477-482) see 457 and 482. He was distanced from and returned to the Archbishops Throne of Alexandria twice, during the intense ecclesiastical clashes between the Orthodox and the Monophysites. He remained true to Orthodox teachings. 461-470 AD 461HILARY Bishop of Rome [461468] As archdeacon under Leo I he fought vigorously for the rights of the Roman See. He continued the policy of his predecessor in continuing to strengthen the bishop of Romes control over episcopal discipline. To resolve disputes in Gaul, Hilary declared that a synod was to be convened yearly by the bishop of Arles but all important matters were to be submitted to Rome, and church property could not be sold until a synod had examined into the cause of sale. In upholding the primacy of the see of Arles in Gaul, Hilary warned a number of bishops to keep in line, and at the same time that the bishops were admonished not to overstep their boundaries, they were told to assemble in a yearly synod presided over by the bishop of Arles. Hilary also gave decisions to the churches ofHispania, which tended to operate outside the Church of Romes orbit in the 5th century. Silvanus,bishop of Calahorra, had violated the church laws by his episcopal ordinations, and the bishop of Rome was asked for his decision. Before an answer came to their petition, the same bishops had recourse to the see of Rome for an entirely different matter. Before his death, Nundinarius, bishop of Barcelona, expressed a wish that Irenaeus might be chosen his successor, and he had himself made Irenaeus bishop of another see. The request was granted, the Synod of Tarragona confirming the nomination of Irenaeus, after which the bishops sought Romes approval. The Roman synod of 19 November 465, held in the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, which settled the matter, is the oldest Roman synod whose original records have survived. In Rome, Hilary worked zealously to counter the new emperor's edict of toleration for schismatic sects (467), inspired (according to a letter of Bishop Gelasius) by a favourite of Emperor Anthemius named Philotheus, who promoted the Macedonian heresy. Hilary succeeded Leo I [see 440] and was succeeded by Simplicius [see 468]. MARTYRIUS Patriarch of Antioch [461-465] see also 459 and 465. PATRICK OF IRELAND [c.392-461] Of his dates, origin, and career the only reliable source of information are his short writings. These have been supplemented by many mediaeval traditions which are largely valueless. His father was a deacon and Roman magistrate. Patrick was born in Dumbarton Scotland, and at 16 was taken captive by marauders from Ireland and he became a slave in East Antrim to a farmer called Milchu. His conversion dates from this period and after six years he escaped from captivity and sailed back to Scotland. However he did not remain there long as a night vision called him back to Ireland. He returned about 432. His ministry and wanderings in Ireland for the next 30 years are obscure although the subject of many legends however there is no doubt that he broke the power of heathenism in Ireland and that his teaching was scriptural and evangelical and that the church which he founded was independent of Rome. SEVERUS Roman emperor of the West [461465]. Ricimer elevated Libius Severus to the rank of emperor, after the death of Marjorian, in November 461 at Ravenna. However, the Eastern Roman Emperor Leo I refused to acknowledge him even though he was consul in 462 alongside the Leo I. It was during his reign that Narbone in southern Gaul was lost to the Visigoths. He died on August 15, 465. After his death there was a period of twenty months during which there was no Western Emperor until Anthemius [see 467] was installed by Emperor Leo I. Until then Ricimer ruled the west under his reign of terror further leading to the decay of the once glorious Western Roman Empire. Because of the violence and hardships of the time, historical details about Severus are small in number. Edward Gibbon said of him, "History has scarcely deigned to notice his birth, his elevation, his character or his death. 462 463 464 465DIADOCHUS Bishop of Photike who belonged to a generation immediately after the great Greek fathers Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus. He wrote against the Arian's and on the Ascension but he is best known for his work on Christian perfection. This work comprises a forward with 10 definitions of virtue and 100 items under which he attempts to analyse what is meant to be Christ-like and how to live such a life. He finds its place is in the three theological virtues especially love. His work on Christian perfection enjoyed great popularity in the generations after him and is quoted by Maximus the Confessor and by Photius. PETER THE FULLER Patriarch of Antioch [465-466, 474-475] see also 461 and 466. 466JULIAN Patriarch of Antioch [466-474] see also 465 and 475. 467ANTHEMIUS Roman Emperor of the West [420472]. Western Roman emperor from 12 April 467 until his death in 472. Perhaps the last able emperor, Anthemius attempted to solve the two primary military challenges facing the remains of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" \o "Western Roman Empire" Western Roman Empire: the resurgent Visigoths, under Euric, whose domain straddled the Pyrenees; and the unvanquished Vandals, under Geiseric, in undisputed control of North Africa. The kingdom of the Vandals had presented a constant threat to Roman seafaring in the Mediterranean, and Anthemius and his Eastern Roman colleague Leo I undertook a concerted effort to dislodge them from North Africa (468). Although the campaign against Gaiseric initially made significant gains the eastern general, Basiliscus allowed his fleet to be destroyed before Carthage by Gaiseric. Thus the expedition ended in utter failure. In 470, following all of this misfortune, Anthemius fell into a serious sickness, and believing that it was caused by sorcery, exacted vengeance on numerous prominent men. Armed opposition arose in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan" \o "Milan" Milan with this conflict between emperor and military strongman ending with the conquest of Rome, and the capture and execution of Anthemius. CLAUDIANUS MAMERTUS [d 474] Archbishop of Vienne, priest and poet who trained for monastic life and educated in Roman, Greek and Christian literature. Of his writings De Statu Animae alone is considered to have theological value. 468SIDONIUS APOLLINARIS [c.431-482] French Latin poet and Bishop of Clermont. He was well educated and reluctantly accepted the See of Clermont though not a cleric in 468. Sidonius was naturally weak in Scripture and dogma but was always faithful to his religious duties. He wrote 147 epistles which are valuable source of the history of this era and reflect the life of urbane Roman gentleman. SIMPLICIUS Bishop of Rome [468483]. He defended the action of the Council of Chalcedon against the Eutychian heresy, and its confirmation of the equality to the bishop of Rome of the eastern patriarchs. He laboured to help the people of Italy against the marauding raids of barbarian invaders, and saw the Heruli mercenaries revolt and proclaim Odovacar king of Italy in 476, having deposed Romulus Augustus, the last Western Roman Emperor. Odovacar made few changes in the administration in Rome and worked to maintain the authority of Rome in the West. Simplicius succeeded Hiliary [see 461] and was succeeded by Felix II [see 483]. 469CHRYSIPPUS [d.479] According to Cyril of Scythopolis, Juvenal of Jerusalem made Chrysippus superior of the monastery and then of the Church of the Resurrection. In 469 he was made guardian of the Holy Cross at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. 470SALVIAN [c.400-470] Christian writer of a noble family who was probably born near Cologne. He married a young woman of pagan background with whom, by mutual consent the ascetic life had been chosen to the frustration of her family. He joined a community at Lerins and later transferred to Marseilles as a presbyter. Salvian was critical of the moral standing of the day and saw the barbarian people as agents of divine retribution because of the greater perversion of the Romans in their sexual attitudes, addiction to games, and oppression of the poor. 471-480 AD 471ACACIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [471-488] succeeded Gennadius I [see 458]. He was practically the first prelate throughout the Eastern Orthodoxy and renowned for ambitious participation in the Monophysitism controversy. Acacius advised the Byzantine emperor Zeno to issue the Henotikon edict in 482, in which Nestorius and Eutyches were condemned, the twelve chapters of Cyril of Alexandria accepted, and the Chalcedon Definition ignored. 472OLYBRIUS Roman emperor of the West [472]. He was sent to Italy by Emperor Leo I to assist Emperor Anthema against his son-in-law Racier, but, having entered into negotiations with the latter, was himself proclaimed emperor against his will, and on the murder of his rival ascended the throne unopposed. Because of his marriage to Placidia, Olybrius can be considered the last member of the House of Theodosius. His reign was otherwise as uneventful as it was brief. He died later in 472, being the only emperor of his time to die of natural causes. 473GLYCERIUS Roman emperor of the West [473474] Following the death of Olybrius on November 2, 472, there was a period of about four months during which there was no emperor in the West. The sole legitimacy therefore fell to Leo, emperor of the East who struggled to find a suitable candidate, thus the new Master of Soldiers the Burgundian Gundobad, simply appointed an emperor, Glycerius, who was the commander of the imperial bodyguard. Leo was unwilling to tolerate Glycerius on the western throne, and appointed his relative Julius Nepos to that position. Nepos, with a powerful force given to him by Leo, sailed from Dalmatia to the port city of Ostia, near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome, in June 474. Glycerius simply surrendered to Julius Nepos without a fight, resigned his title and accepted from Nepos ordination as the bishop of Salona. It is said Glycerius in 480 had a leading role in the assassination of Julius Nepos. Accounts of his later life are mixed, some claiming that he died before he could even begin his new role as bishop. His date of death is unknown. 474LEO II Roman emperor of the East [474] succeeded Leo I [see 457]. He served as Byzantine emperor only from January 18 to November 17, 474. He was the son of Zeno and Ariadne, the daughter of Leo I and Verina. As Leo's closest male relative, he was named successor upon his grandfather's death. After taking his father Zeno as co-ruler he died of an unknown disease about 10 months into his reign in November, 474. It was widely rumoured that he might have been poisoned by his mother Ariadne in order to bring her husband Zeno to the throne who succeeded his son [see below]. NEPOS Roman emperor of the West [474475]. Julius Nepos was nominated Emperor of the West in 474 by the Eastern Roman Emperor, Leo I. He was married to Leo's niece, earning him the nickname "Nepos" (nephew). Nepos was appointed to replace the Western Emperor Glycerius, who was regarded as a usurper. After Glycerius' surrender, in June 474, Nepos briefly ruled over the whole of the remaining Western Empire, including Italy; still the empire's heartland, although its administrative capital had been moved in and out of Rome repeatedly, and was at that time located in Ravenna. Nepos' rule in Italy ended when he was deposed by one of his military commanders, Flavius Orestes, in 475. After Nepos fled from Italy and Orestes, without opposition, he resumed his rule only over Dalmatia, where he took up residence, and the remainder of Roman Gaul. Following Nepos' departure, Orestes enthroned his own teenage son as the new Western Emperor in the same year, with the name Romulus Augustus. ZENO Roman Emperor of the East [474491] succeeded Leo II [see above]. To make himself more acceptable to the Roman hierarchy and the population of Constantinople, Tarasicodissa adopted the name of Zeno and used it for the rest of his life after his marriage to Leo's daughter Ariadne in 468. Since Leo II was seven, too young to rule himself, Ariadne and her mother Verina prevailed upon Leo II to crown Zeno, his father, as co-emperor, which he did on February 9, 474. When Leo II became ill and died on November 17, Zeno became sole emperor. Zeno continued to be unpopular with the people and senate because of his barbarian origins. As a result of a conspiracy hatched by his mother-in-law Basiliscus was made emperor, however the growing misgovernment and unpopularity of Basiliscus ultimately enabled Zeno to re-enter Constantinople unopposed in 476 after an army led by General Illus defected to Zeno. Basiliscus was banished to Phrygia, where he soon afterwards died. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC_3657cf.jpg" \o "Enlarge" Restored to rule of the Eastern Empire, Zeno was within two months forced to make a momentous decision when Romulus Augustus, the last emperor of the west was deposed by the Chieftain of the Heruli, Odoacer. Zeno was able to hammer out a peace which ended the Vandal attacks in the east, brought freedom of religion to the Catholics under Vandal rule, and lasted for more than 50 years. He died on April 9, 491, after ruling for 17 years and 2 months. Because he and Ariadne had no other children, his widow chose a favoured member of the imperial court, Anastasius, to succeed him. Popular legend has it that a voice was heard coming from his grave for three days after he died, suggesting that he was buried alive, but that he was too unpopular with the people for anyone to open the grave and try to rescue him. In church history, Zeno is associated with the Henoticon or "instrument of union", promulgated by him and signed by all the Eastern bishops, with the design of solving the monophysite controversy. 475JOHN II Patriarch of Antioch [475-490] see also 466 and 490. ROMULUS AUGUSTUS Roman emperor of the West [475476]. He was the last Western Roman emperor, reigning from the 31 October 475 until his deposition on the 4 September 476. This is used to mark the end of the Western Roman Empire, the fall of ancient Rome, and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Western Europe. He was installed as emperor by his father Orestes, the master of soldiers of the Roman army after deposing the previous emperor Julius Nepos. Romulus, little more than a child, acted as a figurehead for his father's rule. Reigning for only ten months, Romulus was then deposed by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer and sent to live in the Campania region where he disappears from the historical record. 476 477PETER III MONGUS [Peter the Hoarse] Coptic Monophysite Patriarch of Alexandria [477,482-489] see 457 and 489. He assisted as a deacon at the Robber Synod at Ephesus in 449 and was a reported collaborator with others in the death of Flavian bishop of Constantinople. Theodore of Antinoe consecrated him bishop of Alexandria with the support of the Emperor Zeno, promising that he would remain firm in the Orthodox faith, for conciliation of ecclesiastical quarrels. However, he proved to be untrustworthy both towards the Monophysites of Egypt by condemning the 4th Ecumenical Council, as well as to the Eastern Orthodox by supporting it. He trod a delicate line over Christology and claimed to regard with horror Bishop Leo I and Chalcedon but avoided terms that would startle officials which eventually gave monks in the area confidence regarding him. 478MARTYRIUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [478-486] see 458 and 486. 479 480 481-490 AD 481CLOVIS [d.511] Clovis became king of the Salian Franks in 481. In 492 he married the Christian Clotilda but became a Christian only after being convinced of the intervention of Christ in a battle. His baptism on Christmas Day 496 led to the support of the Catholic bishops and Roman officials in governing the country. In waging war against the Visigoths he invoked Gods help and killed their king, Alaric II, with his own hands at the battle of Vouille in 507. He made Paris the capital of his country. 482HENOTICON A decree of union issued by Zeno in 482 where he tried to conciliate between the Orthodox and the Monophysites [see 451]. It took the form of a letter addressed to the emperor, the bishops, clergy, monks and faithful of Alexandria, Libya and Pentapolis declaring the sufficiency of the creeds of Nicaea and Constantinople [381] and the 12 Anathemas of Cyril. It denounced any counter doctrine. This document made an important concession to the Monophysites which the Western church could not accept. After an angry controversy Bishop Simplicus excommunicated Acacius, Peter of Alexandria and Zeno himself. Thus began the first ecclesiastical schism between East and West. JOHN I, TALAIAS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [482] see 462. His struggle to maintain his episcopal office and preserve the ascendancy of the orthodox party against the incursion of Acacius, the semi-Arian patriarch of Constantinople occasioned a temporary schism between Eastern and Western churches. When a presbyter, John was recommended to Emperor Zeno [see 474] at Constantinople by Bishop Timothy of Alexandria to succeed him and thus continue orthodox rule. At the death of Timothy, John was duly elected [April 482] but was soon denounced by Patriarch Acacius as a heretic. John's denial resulted in a charge of perjury. Emperor Zeno put pressure on the Governor of Egypt Pergamius to banish John from the church of Alexandria and he was replaced by one of Acacius' supporters, Peter III Mongus [see 477]. SEVERINUS [d.482] "Apostle to Austria" who was an Eastern monk of Latin origin and after Attila's death in 453 he came to Noricum Riponse which at that time was occupied by barbarian invaders. For 30 years he evangelised the area and founded two monasteries. Severinus established a kind of theocracy when the district was left unprotected by Rome, caring for the populace especially for the poor. He won the friendship and respect of all including that of Odoacer the barbarian leader. 483FELIX II Bishop of Rome [483492]. He was born into a Roman senatorial family and said to have been a great-great-grandfather of Gregory the Great. Nothing certain is known of Felix until he became bishop of Rome. His first act was to repudiate the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henoticon" \o "Henoticon" Henoticon, a deed of union originating with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch" \o "Patriarch" Patriarch HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Acacius_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople" Acacius of Constantinople [see 471] and published by Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" \o "Zeno (emperor)" Zeno with the view of reducing the strife between the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miaphysite" \o "Miaphysite" Miaphysite Christians and Chalcedonian Christians. In his first synod, Felix excommunicated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Fuller" \o "Peter the Fuller" Peter the Fuller who had assumed the see of Antiochagainst papal wishes. In 484, Felix also excommunicated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_III_of_Alexandria" \o "Peter III of Alexandria" Peter Mongus who had taken the see of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria,_Egypt" \o "Alexandria, Egypt" Alexandria. This was an act which brought about a schism between East and West that was not healed until 519. Felix is often quoted as saying Not to oppose error is to approve it; and not to defend truth is to suppress it, and, indeed, to neglect to confound evil men when we can do it is no less a sin than to encourage them. He succeeded Simplicius [see 468] and was succeeded by Gelasius I [see 492]. Note on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnal_number" \o "Regnal number" numbering: When numbering of the popes began to be used, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Felix_II" \o "Antipope Felix II" Antipope Felix II was counted as one of the popes of that name. The second true HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Felix_III" \o "Pope Felix III" Pope Felix is thus known by the number III, and the true third Pope Felix was given the number IV. It also affected the name taken by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Felix_V" \o "Antipope Felix V" Antipope Felix V, who would have been the fourth Pope Felix. 484ACACIAN A schism until 519 between the Eastern Church and Rome over the character of Jesus Christ during which Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople [471489], was excommunicated by Felix II. The schism was eventually settled during the reign of Hormisdas and John of Constantinople. 485PHILOXENUS [c.450-523] Monophysite bishop of Hierapolis who was born in Persia and studied at Edessa and went to Antioch where controversy led to his expulsion by patriarch Kalanaion. Peter the Fuller [see 488] appointed him bishop of Hierapolis in 485. One of the most learned Syrian theologians Philoxenus was spokesman for the Monophysites in the Antioch patriarchy. He wrote extensively including 13 books on discourses on the Christian life. He was exiled first to Thrace around 518 and then to Gangra where he died violently. 486SALLUST Patriarch of Jerusalem [486-493] see 478 and 494. 487PETROS III MONGE Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [477, 482-489] see 457 and 489. 488FRAVITAS Patriarch of Constantinople [488-489] succeeded Acacius [see 471]. On the death of Acacius, the emperor Zeno placed on the altar of the great church of Constantinople two sheets of paper. On one was written a prayer that God would send an angel to inscribe on the blank sheet the name of him whom He wished to be the patriarch. A fast of 40 days with prayer was ordered. The church was given into the custody of a confidential HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch" \o "Eunuch" eunuch, the imperial chamberlain, and the imperial seal set on the casket containing the papers. Fravitas was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyter" \o "Presbyter" presbyter in charge of the suburban church of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Thecla" \o "Saint Thecla" Saint Thecla. Fuelled with ambition, he paid the eunuch large sums, and promised him more, to write his name on the blank sheet. At the end of the 40 days the casket was opened; the name of Fravitas was found, and he was enthroned amid universal acclamations. Within 4 months he died, and the powerful eunuch was pressing his executors for the promised gold. They revealed the odious tale to the emperor. The forger was turned out of all his employments and driven from the city. The emperor Zeno, ashamed of his failure, entrusted the election of the new patriarch to the clergy. Fravitas simultaneously wrote letters to Peter Mongus patriarch of Alexandria asking for his communion, and a letter to Felix bishop of Rome for his sanction and co-operation. This document was carried to Rome by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monks of Constantinople who had always kept separate from Acacius and his friend Mongus. An accompanying letter of Emperor Zeno showed great affection for Fravitas; Zeno had only worked for his appointment because he thought him worthy and to restore peace and unity to the churches. Bishop Felix, delighted with the letters, had Zeno's read aloud to the deputation and all the clergy of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome, who expressed loud approval. When Felix, however, wished the monks from Constantinople to undertake that the names of Acacius and Mongus should be rejected from the diptychs, they replied that they had no instructions on that point. The joy of the bishop was destroyed by the arrival at Rome of a copy of the letter which Fravitas had sent to Mongus, denying all communion with Rome. Bishop Felix would not hear a word more from the monks. Fravitas stands disgraced by this duplicity. 489ATHANASIOS II KELETES Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [489-496] see 477 and 496. He was the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Coptic_Popes" \o "List of Coptic Popes" Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria from 490 until his death. He was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miaphysitism" \o "Miaphysitism" Monophysite. He succeededPeter III Mongus as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope of Alexandria" Patriarch of Alexandria and reigned for seven years. His reign was relatively uneventful. EUPHEMIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [489-495] succeeded Fravitas [see 488]. Prior to his appointment he was a presbyter of Constantinople, administrator of a hospital for the poor at Neapolis, unsuspected of any Eutychian leanings, and is described as learned and very virtuous. In 482, Emperor Zeno had published a decree called theHenotikon, which forbade, in the current theological discussions, any other criterion but those of the councils of First Council of Nicaea and First Council of Constantinople (ignoring the decrees ofChalcedon), carefully avoided speaking of Christ's two natures, and used ambiguous formulae that were meant to conciliate the Monophysites. Despite his efforts, the Henotikon really satisfied no one: Monophysites disliked it as much as Catholics. However, Acacius at Constantinople, Peter MongusPatriarch of Alexandria, andPeter the FullerPatriarch of Antiochhad all signed it.The bishop of Rome, Felix III,convened in 484 a Romansynodof sixty-seven bishops that condemned the emperor's decree, deposed and excommunicated Acacius, Peter Mongus, and Peter Fuller. Acacius retorted by striking the bishop of Romes name from his diptychs and persecuted Catholics at Constantinople. When he died, Fravitta, his successor, applied for recognition at Rome, but in vain, since he would not give up communion with Peter Mongus. Euphemius immediately recognised the Council of Chalcedon, restored the Roman bishops name to his diptychs, and broke with Peter Mongus, who died in October of the year of Euphemius's accession (490). By these acts, he showed his desire to heal the rift with Rome. Theodoric the Great had become master of Italy, and in 493 sent Faustus and Irenaeus to the emperor, Anastasius I, to ask for peace. During their sojourn at Constantinople the envoys received complaints from the Greeks against the Roman church, which they reported to the bishop. Euphemius urged that the condemnation of Acacius by one prelate only was invalid; to excommunicate a metropolitan of Constantinople a general council was necessary. Before the accession of Emperor Anastasius I [see 491], Euphemius had made him sign a profession of faith. However he eventually fell foul of the emperor. A war against the Isaurians was then under way, and Euphemius was accused of treason by revealing the emperor's plans to his enemies. A soldier, either by Anastasius's own order or to gain his favour, drew his sword on Euphemius at the door of the sacristy, but was struck down by an attendant. The emperor wanted back his written profession of faith, which Euphemius refused to give up, so the emperor assembled the bishops who were in the capital and preferred charges against their patriarch, whom they excommunicated and deposed (496). The people loyally refused to surrender him, but inevitably yielded to the emperor. Meanwhile Euphemius, fearing for his life, sought sanctuary in the baptistery, and refused to go out until Macedonius II his successor [see 495] had promised on the word of the emperor that no violence should be done to him when they conducted him to exile. With a proper feeling of respect for the dignity of his fallen predecessor, Macedonius made the attendant deacon take off the newly-given pallium and clothed himself in the dress of a simple presbyter, "not daring to wear" his insignia before their canonical owner. After some conversation, Macedonius, who would himself follow Euphemius to the very same place of exile under the same emperor, handed to him the proceeds of a loan he had raised for his expenses. Euphemius was exiled to Asia Minor and died in 515 at Ancyra. He was recognised to the end as lawful patriarch by his peers in the East who included Patriarch Elias of Jerusalem, and Patriarch Flavian II of Antioch. 490AVITUS Became bishop of Vienne in Gaul on the death of his father Isychius in 490. He was a strong contender against Arianism winning King Sigismund to orthodoxy. He ardently defended the primacy of Rome and sought greater ties between Rome and Gaul. He was a prolific writer and poet with five of his poems based on Genesis surviving as well as about a hundred epistles. STEPHEN II Patriarch of Antioch [490-493] see also 475 and 493. 491-500 AD 491ANASTASIUS I Byzantium Emperor [491518] succeeded Zeno [see 474]. He was a convinced Miaphysite, following the teachings of Cyril of Alexandria and Severus of Antioch who taught "One Incarnate Nature of Christ" in an undivided union of the Divine and human natures, but his ecclesiastical policy was moderate. He endeavoured to maintain the principle of peace in the church. It was the rebellious demonstrations of the Byzantine populace that drove him in 512 to abandon this policy and adopt a miaphysitic programme. His consequent unpopularity in the European provinces was used by an ambitious man, named Vitalian, to organise a dangerous rebellion, in which he was assisted by a horde of "Huns" (514-515). The uprising was finally suppressed by a naval victory won by the general Marinus. 492GELASIUS I Bishop of Rome [492496]. He was the third and last bishop of Rome of African origin in the Roman Catholic Church. His reign was characterised by his call for strict orthodoxy, a more assertive push for papal authority, and increasing tension between the churches in the West and the East as he had inherited Felix's struggles with Eastern Roman Emperor Anastasius I [see 491] and the patriarch of Constantinople and aggravated them by insisting on the removal of the name of the late Acacius [see 471], patriarch of Constantinople, from the records. The split with the emperor and the patriarch of Constantinople was inevitable from the western point of view because the East had embraced a view of a single, Divine ('Monophysite') nature ofChrist, which was a Christian heresy. During the Acacian schism, Gelasius went further than his predecessors in asserting the primacy of Rome over the entire Church, East and West, and he presented this doctrine in terms that set the model for subsequent bishops of Rome asserting the claims of supremacy. In 494, Gelasius wrote a very influential letter that would underlie all Western European political thought for almost a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium" \o "Millennium" millennium expressing a distinction between "two powers", which he called the "holy authority of bishops" and the "royal power" with the two powers expected to work together in harmony. Gelasius successfully suppressed the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaean" \o "Manichaean" Manichaeans. He decreed that the Eucharist had to be received " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communion_under_both_kinds" \o "Communion under both kinds" under both kinds", with wine as well as bread. As the Manichaeans held wine to be impure and essentially sinful, they would refuse the chalice and thus be recognised. Later, with the Manichaeans suppressed, the old method of receiving communion under one kind the bread was restored. Gelasius was the most prolific writer of the early Roman bishops. He succeeded Felix II [see 483] and was succeeded by Anastasius II [see 496]. GELASIAN DECREE Early Latin document comprising five sections dealing with Christ and the Holy Spirit, the canonical books of the Bible, the Roman Church, the Orthodox councils and fathers, and the works of the fathers to be accepted and those to be rejected. Hincmar of Reims in the seventh century was the first to assign the work to the Gelasius [492-496] but it may include earlier material. ZACHARIAS SCHOLASTICUS [c.465-536] Church historian and bishop of Mytilene. He was educated in Gaza and in 492 went to Constantinople to practice law. His name Scholasticus means advocate and refers to his legal career. Later in life he took up a career in the church and although little is known of his activities it is clear that he was bishop of Mytilene. He is best known for his church history which is a valuable source for events in Egypt and Palestine from 450 to 491. 493BARSUMAS [d.493] Bishop of Nisbis, Persia. A Nestorian who fled to Persia after the council of Ephesus [431] where the Monophysites [see 451] had purged the Nestorians [see 428]. Under his influence the Monophysite monks in Nisbis were massacred. Here he founded a Nestorian theological college. Barsumas was eventually murdered by Persian monks. STEPHEN III Patriarch of Antioch [493-495] see also 490 and 495. 494ELIAS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [494-516] see 486 and 516. 495CALLANDION Patriarch of Antioch [495] see also 493 and below. JOHN CODONATUS Patriarch of Antioch [495-497] see also above and 497. MACEDONIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [495-511] succeeded Euphemius [see 489]. Within a year or two of his accession he assembled a council, in which he confirmed in writing the acts of the Council of Chalcedon [see 451]. In 507 Elias, patriarch of Jerusalem, who had been unwilling to sanction the deposition of Euphemius, united himself in communion with Macedonius. Emperor Anastasius employed all means to oblige Macedonius to declare against the Council of Chalcedon, but flattery and threats were alike unavailing. An assassin named Eucolus was even hired to kill him but the patriarch avoided the blow, and ordered a fixed amount of provisions to be given monthly to the criminal. The people ofConstantinoplewere equally zealous for the Council of Chalcedon, even, more than once, to the point of sedition. To prevent unfavourable consequences, Emperor Anastasius ordered the prefect of the city to follow in the processions and attend the assemblies of the church. In 510, Anastasius made a new effort. Macedonius would do nothing without an ecumenical council at which the bishop of Rome should preside. Anastasius, annoyed at this answer, and irritated because Macedonius would never release him from the engagement he had made at his coronation to maintain the faith of the church and the authority of the council of Chalcedon, sought to drive him from his chair. He sent Eutychian monks and clergy, and sometimes the magistrates of the city, to load him with public outrage and insult. This caused such a tumult amongst the citizens that the emperor was obliged to shut himself up in his palace and to have ships prepared in case flight should be necessary. He sent to Macedonius, asking him to come and speak with him. Macedonius went and reproached him with the sufferings his persecutions caused the church. Anastasius stated his willingness to this, but at the same time made a third attempt to tamper with the beliefs of the patriarch. One of his instruments was Xenaas, a Eutychian bishop. He demanded of Macedonius a declaration of his faith in writing; Macedonius addressed a memorandum to the emperor insisting that he knew no other faith than that of the Fathers of Nicaea and Constantinople and that he anathematised Nestorius, Eutyches, and those who admitted two Sons or two Christs, or who divided the two natures. Xenaas, seeing the failure of his first attempt, found two individuals who accused Macedonius of an abominable crime, avowing themselves his accomplices. They then charged him with Nestorianism, and with having falsified a passage in an epistle of Paul, in support of that sect. At last the emperor commanded him to send the authentic copy of the Acts of the Council of Chalcedon signed with the autographs of the bishops. Macedonius refused, and hid it under the altar of the great church. Thereupon Anastasius had him carried off by night and taken to Chalcedon, to be conducted thence to Eucata in Pontus, the place of the exile of his predecessor. In 515 Hormisdas, bishop of Rome, worked for the restitution of Macedonius, whom he considered unjustly deposed; it had been a stipulation in the treaty of peace between Vitalian and Anastasius that the patriarch and all the deposed bishops should be restored to their sees. But Anastasius never kept his promises, and Macedonius died in exile. His death occurred around 517 at Gangra where he had retired for fear of the Huns, who ravaged all Cappadocia, Galatia, and Pontus. 496ANASTASIUS II Bishop of Rome [496498]. He was the bishop of Rome from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_24" \o "November 24" November 24, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/496" \o "496" 496 to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_19" \o "November 19" November 19, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/498" \o "498" 498 in the time of the schism of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Acacius_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople" Acacius [see 484]. He showed some tendency towards conciliation, and thus brought upon himself the lively reproaches of the author of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liber_Pontificalis" \o "Liber Pontificalis" Liber Pontificalis. On the strength of this tradition, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" \o "Dante Alighieri" Dante placed this bishop in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell" \o "Hell" Hell. He entered in communion with a supporter of Acacius [see 471], bringing condemnation from some of the clergy of Rome, who denounced him. His death in 498 at the height of the crisis was seen as divine retribution. He is the second bishop not to be recognised by the Catholic Church as a saint with the first being HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Liberius" \o "Pope Liberius" Liberius [see 352]. He succeeded Gelasius I [see 492] and was succeeded by Symmachus [see 498]. FRANCE [see also 250 and 732] A turning point in the history of French Christianity came in 496 when Clovis [see 481] king of the Franks, was baptised. Genuine or not, his conversion made the task of further evangelisation of his people a much easier task for missionaries. During the early centuries, Gaelic Christianity produced a number of famous notable people such as Martin of Tours [see 372], Hilary of Poitiers [see 353], Paulinus of Bordeaux [d.431], Germanus of Auxerre [d.448], and Genevieve [see 451]. The work of Gregory of Tours [see 573] adds lustre to the history of Christianity in Gaul in this period. By about 500 Frankish Gaul had been divided into dioceses. GENNADIUS OF MARSEILLES [d.496] Church historian. He is best known for his work on the history of the church called de Viris Illustribus which contains 101 short but useful and generally accurate biographies of those involved in the church between 392 and 495 and thus provided a continuation of Jeromes work of the same name. REMIGIUS [c.438-533] Archbishop of Reims and Apostle to the Franks who was the son of a count. He was proclaimed archbishop of Reims at the age of 22. In 496 he had his greatest achievement which was the baptism of Clovis [see 481] king of the Franks and 3000 of his subjects after battle of Tolbiac. Remigius was very active in founding a number of bishoprics and sent missionaries to the Arians in Burgundy. YOANNIS I [John II] Patriarch of Alexandria [496-505] see 489 and 505. He followed in the footsteps of his predecessors Petros III and Athansios II. 497PALLADIUS Patriarch of Antioch [497-505] see also 495 and 505. SABAS [439-532] Founder of the Order of Sabaites. Sabas entered a monastery aged eight and in 457 went to Jerusalem and lived as a hermit in the desert and became renowned for his holiness and founded a number of monasteries. He was ordained into the priesthood in 490 and in the later years of his life was an active defender of the orthodox faith against Origenism [see 225] and Monophysitism [see 451]. 498LAURENTIUS Antipope [498-499, 501-506]. He was in opposition to the Roman bishop Symmachus. Archpriest Laurentius was elected bishop on 22nd November 498, against Symmachus by a dissenting faction with Byzantine sympathies and was in fact, supported by Emperor Anastasius. With the support of Gothic king Theodoric the Great he was installed in the Lateran Palace as bishop of Rome starting a schism called the Laurentian schism that lasted four years. Symmachus tried to resolve the problem by offering Laurentius the diocese of Nuceria in Campania but Laurentius' supporters sustained the schism. It was Theodoric, fearing a Byzantine influence on Laurentius, who eventually withdrew his support from the rival bishop by removing him from Rome. SYMMACHUS Bishop of Rome [498514]. He became archdeacon of the church under Bishop Anastasius II. Symmachus was elected bishop on November 22, 498 and archpriest Laurentius was also elected bishop that same day by a dissenting minority faction with Byzantine sympathies. Laurentius was supported by Emperor Anastasius, but the Gothic king Theodoric the Great, in the end, ruled against him and in favour of Symmachus. At a synod held at Rome in 499, Symmachus bestowed on Laurentius the dioceses of Nuceria in Campania. The synod also ordained that any cleric who sought to gain votes for a successor during the lifetime of the incumbent should be deposed. In 501, senator Festus, a supporter of Laurentius, accused Symmachus of various crimes. The bishop refused to appear before the king to answer the charges, asserting that the secular ruler had no jurisdiction over the supreme bishop. This was confirmed at a further synod in 502 declaring that the decision must be left to the judgement of God" and that Symmachus was to be regarded "as free from all the crimes of which he was accused". The synod also confirmed Symmachus' right to the Roman See. The schism however continued for four years until Theodoric, deciding that the adherents of Laurentius were too pro-Byzantine, withdrew his support of Laurentius and had him removed from Rome, and opposition to Symmachus eventually was stilled. Symmachus contributed large sums for the support of the bishops of Africa who were persecuted by the rulers of the Arian Vandals. He also aided the inhabitants of upper Italy who suffered from the invasions of barbarians. He also introduced the tradition of the priest's dress to be different to laymen. He succeeded Anastasius II [see 496] and was succeeded by Hormisdas [see 514]. 499ASSYRIAN CHURCH was born out of controversy regarding the Incarnation. The Assyrian Syriac speaking Nestorian Church carried its particular version of the Bible from Mesopotamia to the ends of the known earth such as China and India making a tremendous impact. By a decree in 499 clergy including bishops received permission to marry and some did so, much to the annoyance of the Roman Catholic church. Over the centuries they have been a very persecuted church. 500CLOVIS king of the Franks accepts Christianity. "CODEX BEZAE" a New Testament with Greek on the left hand page and Latin on the right completed. 501-510 AD 501 502 503CAESARIUS of Arles [470543] Bishop of Arles [503543] whose life epitomised the virtuous monk bishop. He was a great preacher of short sermons and encouraged daily attendance at worship, congregational singing, memorising of Scripture and deacons. At the second Council of Orange [529] his representative countered the Semi Pelagians [see 409] with his statement concerning baptismal regeneration and his denial of predestination to condemnation. 504 505FLAVIAN II Patriarch of Antioch [505-513] see also 497 and 513. YOANNIS II [John III] Patriarch of Alexandria [505-516] see 496 and 516. He sought the unity of the two Churches, working particularly on behalf of the Monophysites. 506AGDE council in France dealt with guidelines for church officers as to their age of ordination, twenty five for deacons, thirty for priests and bishops and the relationships between church officers and other Christians. 507ARMENIAN CHURCH The independent national church repudiating Chalcedon began about this time and suffered two main splits: the Romanising Armenian Uniat Society founded in 1335 with its renowned monastery of Mechitarists at St Lazars Island Venice and the lively evangelical Protestant church fruit of the American mission after 1831 and speedily anathematised by the parent body. Previous to becoming independent, Armenians had consistently rejected both Nestorianism upholding the councils of Ephesus in 431 and 449 and Cyril of Alexandria who encouraged Monophysitism. The 1895 Turkish massacres shocked the world, Gregorian nationals together with the hated Protestants being marked victims while the Uniat group were protected by Rome. There was also the Armenian genocide from 1915 where up to 1.5 million Armenians perished. 508FULGENTIUS [468-533] Bishop of Ruspe. As a monk he visited Rome in 500 and on his return to Byzacene founded his own monastery, from which he soon retired to practice a more ascetic life on an island. He was ordained presbyter, and in 508 was consecrated bishop of Ruspe by Victor of Byzacene. His first task was to build a monastery. Soon after he was banished to Sardinia with 60 other Catholic bishops but was recalled to Carthage in 515 to answer objections to the Catholic faith. He returned into exile in 517 and remained there until 523. He was a devotee of Augustine, as seen in his letters, sermons, and treaties against the Arian's and Pelagians. 509 510 511-520 AD 511TIMOTHY I Patriarch of Constantinople [511-518] succeeded Macedonius II [see 495]. He was appointed in 511 as patriarch by the emperor Anastasius I [see 491] the day after Macedonius was deposed as patriarch. Timothy was a priest of the Eastern Orthodox communion and keeper of the ornaments of the cathedral. Two liturgical innovations are attributed to him, the prayers on Good Friday at the church of the Virgin and the recital of the Nicene Creed at every service, although the last is also ascribed to Peter the Fuller. Some people considered him to be a man of bad character and he is said to have adopted the Monophysite doctrines out of ambition rather than conviction. As patriarch he sent circular letters to all the bishops, which he requested them to subscribe and assent to the deposition ofMacedonius. Some assented to both, others neither, while others subscribed to the letters but refused to assent to the deposition. The extreme Monophysites, headed by John Niciota, patriarch of Alexandria, whose name he had inserted in the diptychs, at first stood aloof from him, because, though he accepted the Henoticon, he did not reject the Council of Chalcedon, and for the same reason Flavian II of Antioch and Elias of Jerusalem at first communicated with him. When Severus of Antioch became patriarch of Antioch, he assembled a synod which condemned that council, after which act Severus communicated with him. Timothy sent the decrees of his synod to Jerusalem, where Elias refused to receive them. Timothy then incited Emperor Anastasius to depose him. He also induced the emperor to persecute the clergy, monks, and laity who adhered to Macedonius, many of whom were banished to the Oasis in the Thebaid. His emissaries to Alexandria anathematised from the pulpit the Council of Chalcedon. Within a year of his accession Timothy directed that the Ter Sanctus should be recited with the Monophysite addition of "Who was crucified for us", which led to disturbances in two churches, in which many were slain over November 4 and 5, and to a terrible riot the following day which nearly caused the deposition of Emperor Anastasius. Timothy died in 523. 512SEVERUS OF ANTIOCH [c.460-538] Patriarch of Antioch [513-518] see also 505 and 518. Leading Monophysite theologian who studied at Beirut and Alexandria and showed a keen interest in theology at an early age although he was not baptised until the age of 28. Severus became a monk in Egypt and then went to Constantinople to represent the Monophysites. He was created patriarch of Antioch in 512 and this brought complete control of Antioch to the Monophysites. Soon after his consecration he condemned the Council of Chalcedon [see 451] and the Tome of Leo [see 449]. He encountered great difficulty with bishops and clergy hostile to his position, and perhaps use violence to retain his position. The rest of his life was involved with religious debate and controversy. His theology was widely accepted in Syria and he retained his position of primacy among Monophysites until his death. From 544 the Syrian lineage was different. 513 514ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX [473-521] Bishop of Pavia who was born in Arles but with the invasion of the Visigoths was brought up in Pavia or Milan. He married in 489 but when he was ordained deacon he renounced the marriage. He became bishop of Pavia in 514 and in subsequent years was sent by the bishop of Rome, Hormisdas ll [see below], as an ambassador to Emperor Anastasia I to oppose the Monophysite heresy and to effect a reconciliation between Rome and the East necessitated by the Acacian Schism [see 484]. Neither visit was successful and the schism continued until the succession and Justin in 518. HORMISDAS Bishop of Rome [514523]. He was a widower and a Roman deacon at the time of his accession to the see. His son became bishop of Rome under the name ofSilverius [see 536]. One of the new bishop's first cares was to remove the last vestiges of the Laurentian schism in Rome, receiving back into the Church those adherents who had not already been reconciled. Most of his reign was concerned with healing the schism that had existed since 484 between East and West brought about by the Acacian schism. The schism was the result of Acacius of Constantinople's attempt to placate the Monophysites. The church of Constantinople was reunited with Rome in 519 by means of the confession of faith that is called The Formula of Hormisdas. He succeeded Symmachus [see 498] and was succeeded by John I [see 523]. 515 516DIOSCOROS II Patriarch of Alexandria [516-517] see 505 and 517. He maintained the attitude of his predecessors Petros III and Athanasius II towards the Monophysites and the Orthodox. JOHN III Patriarch of Jerusalem [516-524] see 494 and 524. 517TIMOTHEOS III [IV] Patriarch of Alexandria [517-535] see 516 and 535. Emulating his predecessors he essentially continued the fight against the 4th Ecumenical Council. He sent missionaries to Arabia. 518JOHN II Patriarch of Constantinople [518-520] succeeded Timothy I [see 511]. He is also known as John the Cappadocian and was appointed by Emperor Anastasius I. His short patriarchate is memorable for the celebrated Acclamations of Constantinople and the reunion of East and West after a schism of 34 years. John, at the death of Timothy, whom Timothy had designated as his successor, was presbyter and chancellor of the church of Constantinople. On 9th July 518, the reign of Anastasius came to an end and he was succeeded as emperor by the orthodox Justin [see below]. On Sunday 15th the new emperor entered the cathedral with John who was accompanied by twelve prelates and they made their way through the large crowds. As he came near the raised dais where the pulpit stood, shouts arose, "Long live the patriarch! Long live the emperor! This instant proclaim the synod of Chalcedon! And they demanded that opponents be cast out. The crowd outside shouted that they would not be allowed to come out unless this was done, especially deposing Severus the heretical patriarch of Antioch. The patriarch John then came out and mounted the pulpit, saying, "There is no need of disturbance or tumult; nothing has been done against the faith; we recognise for orthodox all the councils which have confirmed the decrees of Nicaea, and principally these three -Constantinople,Ephesus, and the great council of Chalcedon." To which the crowd replied "Fix a day for a festival in honour of Chalcedon and depose Severus!" The patriarch, seeing that something must be done consulted with the twelve attendant prelates, who agreed to the curse on Severus which was then made. The domes of St. Sophia rang with shouts of triumph and the crowd dispersed. It was a day long remembered in Constantinople. The next day the promised commemoration of Chalcedon took place. The patriarch after more pressure from the reassembled crowd was at last obliged to have inserted in the diptychs [records] the four councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon, and the names of Euphemius and Macedonius, patriarchs of Constantinople, and Leo, bishop of Rome. Then the multitude chanted for more than an hour, "Blessed be the Lord God of Israel, for He hath visited and redeemed His people!" The choir assembled on the raised platform, and, turning eastwards, sang the Trisagion, [hymn with three Holys] the whole people listening in silence. When the moment arrived for the recitation of the names of the deposed bishops from the diptychs, the multitude closed in silence about the holy table; and when the deacon had read the new insertions, a mighty shout arose, "Glory be to Thee, O Lord!" To authenticate what had been done, John assembled on July 20 a council of 40 bishops, who happened to be at the capital. The four general councils and the name of Bishop Leo were inscribed in the diptychs. John wrote toJohn III of Jerusalemand to Epiphanius of Tyre, telling them the good news of the acclamations and the synod. His letters were accompanied by orders from Justin to restore all who had been banished by Anastasius, and to inscribe the council of Chalcedon in the diptychs. At Jerusalem and at Tyre there was great joy. Many other churches declared for Chalcedon, and during the reign of Justin 2,500 bishops gave their adhesion and approval. Now came the reconciliation with Rome. The emperor Justin wrote to the bishop of Rome a fortnight after the scene of the acclamations, begging him to further the desires of the patriarch John for the reunion of the churches. John wrote saying that he received the four general councils, and that the names of Leo and of Hormisdas himself had been put in the diptychs. A deputation was sent to Constantinople with instructions that Acacius was to be anathematised by name, but that Euphemius and Macedonius might be passed over in silence. The deputies arrived at Constantinople on March 25, 519. Justin received the Roman bishops letters with great respect, and told the ambassadors to come to an explanation with the patriarch, who at first wished to express his adherence in the form of a letter, but agreed to write a little preface and place after it the words of Hormisdas, which he copied out in his own handwriting. Two copies were sent by the legates to Rome, one in Greek, the other in Latin. Emperor, senate, and all present were overjoyed at this ratification of peace. All the bishops at Constantinople gave their consent in writing; so did all the abbots, after some discussion. On Easter Day the pacification was promulgated. The court and people, equally enthusiastic, surged into St. Sophia. The vaults resounded with acclamations in praise of God, the emperor, St. Peter, and the bishop of Rome. Opponents, who had prophesied sedition and tumult, were disappointed. Never within memory had so vast a number communicated. The emperor sent an account of the proceedings throughout the provinces and the ambassadors forwarded their report to Rome, saying that there only remained the negotiations with thepatriarch of Antioch. John wrote toHormisdas, bishop of Rome,to congratulate him on the great work, and to offer him the credit of its success. Soon after on 19th January 520, John died. JUSTIN I Byzantium emperor [518527] succeeded Anastasius I [see 491]. He rose through the ranks of the Byzantine army and ultimately became its emperor, in spite of the fact he was illiterate and almost 70 years old at the time of accession. His reign is significant for the founding of the Justinian Dynasty that included his eminent nephew Justinian I [see 527] and for the enactment of laws that de-emphasised the influence of the old Byzantine nobility. His HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_consort" \o "Queen consort" consort was Empress Euphemia. PAUL II Patriarch of Antioch [518-521] see also 513 and 521. THEODORE THE LECTOR Church historian who was a reader of the Hagia Sophia Church in Constantinople. He wrote two major historical books, the first being a history compiled from the histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret [see 416]. The second was his own carrying the history from 438 to the accession of Justin I in 518. 519JACOB OF SARUG [451-521] Bishop of Batnae and Syriac theological writer. Born near the Euphrates he was educated at Edessa, the centre of Syriac theology and Bible translation. During the Persian dominance of his country he achieved fame for his care of his people. In 519 became bishop of Batnae but died two years later. His principal work was a series of homilies, one on the Passion of Christ. Many of his writings remain unpublished. 520EPIPHANIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [520-535] succeeded John II [see 518]. The eastern empire was now rising to great splendour through the victories of its generals, Belisarius and Narses. Idolatry was universally suppressed, pagan books were burnt and images destroyed, the professors of the old religion imprisoned and flogged. At Constantinople the zeal of Justin I for a church policy was shown during the patriarchate of Epiphanius by laws (e.g. in 528 and 529) regulating church elections and duties. These enactments, and the passivity of Epiphanius and his clergy, show that church law was still the prerogative of the emperor and really lacked spiritual content. On 25 February520, he was elected bishop by the Byzantine emperorJustin I, with the consent of bishops, monks, and people. He is described in the letter of the synod of Constantinople to the Roman bishop, Hormisdas,as "holding the right faith, and maintaining a fatherly care for orphans". He accepted the conditions of peace between East and West concluded by his predecessor, Patriarch John II withBishop Hormisdas; ratifying them at a council at Constantinople, where he accepted also the decrees ofChalcedon. Epiphanius adopted the symbol ofNicaea, the decrees ofEphesus,Constantinople, and Chalcedon, and the letters ofBishop Leo I in defence of the faith. His second letter was accompanied by a chalice of gold surrounded with precious stones, apatinaof gold, a chalice of silver, and two veils of silk, which he presented to the Roman church. In order to make the peace general, he advised the bishop of Rome not to be too active in removing of the names of former bishops fromdiptychs. His excuse for the bishops ofPontus, Asia, and the East is composed in very beautiful language. The severe measures by which Justin was establishing the supremacy of the Catholics in the East were arousingTheodoric the Great, the Ostrogothic and Arian master of Italy, to retaliation in the West. John I, bishop of Rome [see 523], the successor of Hormisdas, became alarmed; and in 525, at the demand of Theodoric, proceeded to Constantinople to obtain the revocation of the edict against the Arians and get their churches restored to them. Great honour was paid to Bishop John in the eastern capital. The people went out twelve miles to receive him, bearing ceremonial tapers and crosses. The emperor Justin prostrated himself before him, and wished to be crowned by his hand. The patriarch Epiphanius invited him to perform mass; but the bishop, mindful of the traditional policy of encroachment, refused to do so until they had offered him the first seat. With high solemnity he said the office in Latin on Easter Day, communicating with all the bishops of the East except Patriarch Timothy of Alexandria, the declared enemy of Chalcedon. In 531 the dispute between Rome and Constantinople was revived by the appeal of Stephen, metropolitan of Larissa, to Bishop Boniface II, against the sentence of Epiphanius. Stephen was eventually deposed, notwithstanding his appeal. LEONTIUS OF BYZANTIUM Anti-Monophysite theologian. In his early years he lived among Nestorians. He entered a monastery in Palestine called New Laura about 520 and accompanied Sabas to Constantinople in 530, where he defended Chalcedon against the Monophysites [531-536]. Back in Palestine in 537 he defended the teachings of Origen against orthodox attacks and returned to Constantinople about 540. 521-530 AD 521EUPHRASIUS Patriarch of Antioch [521-526] see also 518 and 526. 522 523BOETHUS, ANICIUS [c.480-524] Roman Christian who was educated at Athens and Alexandria and was accused of treason and imprisoned where he wrote his best known work "Consolation of Philosophy". In his writings he summarised central doctrines and rejects the doctrines of Arius [see 325], Sabellians [see 194], and Manichaeans [see 240]. His work was taken seriously throughout the Middle Ages. JOHN I Bishop of Rome [523526]. He was very old and frail by the time he was elected to the see. Despite his protests, he was sent by the Arian king, Theodoric the Great of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogoths" \o "Ostrogoths" Ostrogoths, to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople to secure a moderation of Emperor Justin's decree of 523 against the Arians. Theodoric threatened that if John should fail in his mission, there would be reprisals against the orthodox Catholics in the West. When Bishop John returned to Ravenna, Theodoric's capital, Theodoric had John arrested on the suspicion of having conspired with Emperor Justin. He was imprisoned at Ravenna, where he died of neglect and ill treatment. His body was transported to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome,_Italy" \o "Rome, Italy" Rome and buried in the Basilica of St. Peter. He succeeded Hormisdas [see 514] and was succeeded by Felix IV [see 526]. THEODORA I [c.500-548] Wife of Byzantine emperor Justinian I [see 527]. After a rather tawdry career as an actress she became a Christian and married Justinian in 523 after he had persuaded his uncle Justin I to repeal the law forbidding the marriage of senators with actresses. Justinian and Theodora were crowned together in 527 and thereafter she exercised great influence over his policy and took the side of the Monophysites whom she had known in Egypt and so caused the reactionary policy of Justinian which led to the Three Chapters Controversy [see 553]. She showed great bravery during the insurrection at Nika in 532, and she opened homes for the rehabilitation of prostitutes. 524PETER Patriarch of Jerusalem [524-544] see 516 and 544. 525BONIFACE Bishop of Carthage. As Vandal control of Africa ended councils under Boniface and later Bishop Reparatus [c. 534] discussed the readmission of Arian converts. DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS Writer and chronologist. He was called Exiguus because of his humility and is best known for his early 6th century edition of the first influential decretal collection. It comprised 41 decretals from Siricius in 384 to 398 and Anastasius II 496 to 498. He translated into Latin the work of early Greek fathers especially those concerning the Nestorian heresy. Dionysius helped to establish the accepted Roman method of dating Easter. His work on calendars is the basis for our present AD system. 526EPHRAIM OF AMID Patriarch of Antioch [526-546] see also 521 and 546. FELIX IV Bishop of Rome [526530]. Following the death ofBishop John I at the hands of the Ostrogoth king, Theodoric the Great, the voters gave in to the king's demands and chose archdeacon Felix as the next bishop. He was elected after a gap of nearly two months after the death of John I. Felix's favour in the eyes of the king caused him to push for greater benefits for the Church. An imperial edict passed granting that cases against clergy should be dealt with by the bishop. He defined church teaching on grace and free will in response to a request on opposingSemi-Pelagianism in Gaul. Felix attempted to designate his own successor: Boniface. The reaction of the Senate was to forbid the discussion of a bishops successor during his lifetime, or the acceptance of such a nomination. The majority of the clergy reacted to Felix's activity by nominating Dioscorus leaving a minority for Boniface. He introduced the tradition of extreme unction to the church. He succeeded John I [see 523] and was succeeded by Boniface II [see 530]. 527JUSTINIAN I Byzantium Emperor [527565] succeeded Justin 1 [see 518]. He built on a grand scale, the church of Hagia Sophia being his greatest monument. Justinian closed the schools of philosophy in Athens and forced pagans to accept Christian baptism. He also legally regulated the archimandrite who headed up a monastery or series of monasteries. Though the archimandrite was usually a presbyter he could be a deacon or a monk who had been elected by majority vote in his community. The bishop would appoint the archimandrite whose name is derived from the Greek word head of the fold. 528 529BENEDICT OF NURSIA Founder of the Benedictine order who was born in Umbria and sent to Rome to study. The degenerate lifestyle he found in the city caused him to flee the city and live in a cave as a hermit in Subiaco where he set up twelve small monastic communities. In 529 he was forced to move and set up the monastery at Monte Casino where he remained until his death. He based much of his order on the teachings of Basil of Caesarea [see 370] and John Cassian [see 425]. BENEDICTINES Under the Benedictine Order each monastery was to be economically self supporting, autonomous and united only by the spiritual bond of allegiance to the same Rule. There is no general or common superior over the whole order other than the bishop of Rome himself although each monastery is to have an abbot elected for life. CYPRIAN [476-549] Bishop of Toulon who was a disciple of Caesarius of Arles [see 503]. As a bishop he took place in several councils: Arles [524], Carpentras [527], Orange and Vaison [529], Marseille [533]. After the council of Orange the bishops of the neighbouring province of Vienne met to criticise the decisions of the council regarding grace, and Cyprian was sent to plead the case for orthodoxy. JUSTINIAN CODE Consolidation of Roman law promulgated by Emperor Justinian [see 527] in 529. Justinian found the laws of the empire in great disarray and appointed a commission of ten legal experts including the great jurist Trebonianus to enlarge and rearrange the existing laws eliminating any useless constitutions. The code was influential in the development of canon law in the West. Today it is a valuable for its historic and legal interest. 530BONIFACE II Bishop of Rome [530533] was by birth an Ostrogoth, the first Germanic bishop of Rome, and he owed his appointment to the influence of the Gothic king Athalaric. Boniface was chosen by his predecessor who had been a strong adherent of the Arian king, and was never elected. Boniface had for some time a rival bishop, Dioscurus (later called an antipope), who had been elected by most of the priests of Rome. Boniface and Dioscorus were both consecrated in Rome on 22 September HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/530" \o "530" 530, but Dioscurus died only twenty-two days later. He succeeded Felix II [see 526] and was succeeded by John II [see 533]. DIOSCORUS Antipope [530]. He was in opposition to Bishop Boniface II. Bishop Felix IV wished Boniface to succeed him, partially to avoid the riots that had occurred on his own accession. However, on Felix' death a majority of the electors voted for Dioscorus. The matter was resolved when Dioscorus died three weeks later, and Felixs wishes were acceded to with his chosen candidate becoming Boniface II. Boniface forced the clergy who had nominated Dioscorus to sign a retraction and condemn his memory. This document was subsequently destroyed on Agapetus I's orders. 531-540 AD 531 532 533AFRICA, ROMAN The century of Vandal Rule in North Africa [429-533] brought renewed persecution under three kings Geiseric [429-477], Huneric [477-484] and Thrasamund [496-523]. Organised church life was overthrown, monasteries dissolved, bishops exiled, new appointments barred and Arian re-baptism imposed. The Byzantine re-conquest in 533 enabled some recovery but hardly peace. The Moors were repeatedly disruptive, and bishops and monks who defended the Three Chapters against the condemnation of Justinian [see 527], the Council of Constantinople, and the Roman bishop Vigilius [see 537] whom they excommunicated, experienced imperial repression. Gregory the Great [see 590] frequently rebuked the North African bishops especially for tolerating resurgent Donatism but they continued to thwart the Roman see attempts of more direct control [continued see 709]. JOHN II Bishop of Rome [533535]. He was a priest of the Basilica di San Clement and still retains several memorials of Johannes surnamed Mercurius. At this period simony in the election of bishops was rife among clergy and laity. During the vacancy of over two months, "shameless trafficking in sacred things was indulged in. Even sacred vessels were exposed for sale". The matter had been brought before theSenate, and laid before the Arian Ostrogothic Court at Ravenna. The last decree which the Roman Senate is known to have issued, passed under Boniface II, was directed against simony in such elections. The decree was confirmed by Athalaric, king of the Ostrogoths who ordered it to be engraved on marble and to be placed in the atrium of St. Peter's in 533. . It is recorded that in 534 John II obtained valuable gifts as well as a profession of orthodox faith from the Byzantine emperor Justinian I the Great which was a significant accomplishment in light of the strength of Monophysitism in the Byzantine Empire at that time. The notorious adulterous behaviour of Contumeliosus, bishop of Riez in Provence, caused John to order the bishops of Gaul to confine him in a monastery until a new bishop should be appointed; John made the clergy of Riez obey the bishop of Arles. Two hundred and seventeen bishops who assembled in a council at Carthage in 535 asked John II whether bishops, who had lapsed into Arianism, should on repentance keep their rank or be admitted only to lay communion. The question of re-admittance to the lapsed had troubled north Africa for quite some time, however, the answer to their question was given by Agapetus as John II died on May 8th 535. He succeeded Boniface II [see 530] and was succeeded by Agapetus I [see 535]. 534ACOEMETAE or the sleepless ones who were a monastic group founded by the abbot Alexander of Constantinople. In their monasteries they were divided into choirs who sang psalms without intermission both day and night throughout the year. They were orthodox in theology but were accused of Nestorainism for which they were excommunicated by Bishop John II [see 533] in 534.535AGAPETUS I Bishop of Rome [535536]. He collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding at Rome a library of ecclesiastical authors in Greek and Latin and was elevated from archdeacon to bishop in 535. His first official act as bishop of Rome was to burn, in the presence of the assembled clergy, the anathema which Boniface II had pronounced against the latter's deceased rival Dioscurus, on a false charge of Simony. He confirmed the decrees of the council of Carthage, after the retaking of North Africa from the Vandals, according to which converts from Arianism were declared ineligible to Holy Orders and those already ordained were merely admitted to lay communion. He also went to Constantinople to plead with Justinian I to stop the Byzantine army invading Italy after their success in Sicily against the Normans. While this was unsuccessful he was able to assist in the deposing of Anthimus I from the see of Constantinople. He died there on 22nd April 536 and his remains were transported to Rome in a lead coffin for internment in St Peters. He succeeded John II [see 533] and was succeeded by Silverius [see 536]. ANTHIMUS Patriarch of Constantinople [535-536] succeeded Epiphanius [see 520]. He was a Monophysite and archbishop of Trebizond before accession to the Constantinople see. He was deposed by Bishop Agapetus I [see above] before March 13 536 and later hidden by Theodora in her quarters for 12 years, until her death. THEODOSIOS I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [535-566] see 517 and 565. He was the lastPatriarch of Alexandria recognised by both Copts and Melchites. As successor toTimothy III (IV), he was at first recognised by the EmperorJustinian I and the Eastern Orthodox Church. However, because of his Monophysite theology, he was rejected by the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria and exiled by the EmperorJustinian I in 536. In his place, Paul was elected Patriarch. As the Copts continued to recognise Theodosius, the lineage between the Coptic Melchite split. This split endures until today. Theodosius spent the last 28 years of his life imprisoned inConstantinopleand after his death the Coptic Church elected Peter IV as his successor. 536GAINAS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (536-537) see 517 and 537. He was exiled to Sardinia following a Government order after a short tenure as patriarch. MENAS Patriarch of Constantinople [536-552] succeeded Anthimus [see 535]. He was appointed by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. The bishop of Rome Agapetus I consecrated him to succeed Anthimus who was a monophysite. Menas was unwavering in his condemnation of that heresy and also subscribed to the emperors edict against the Origenists. Menas was excommunicated in 547 and in 551 for taking positions counter to those held by Vigilius bishop of Rome. However, in both cases the sentence of excommunication was lifted quickly. The Patriarchy of Menas represents the greatest extent of Roman bishops influence inConstantinople. SILVERIUS Bishop of Rome [536537]. He was a son of Hormisdas [see 514] and was born before his father entered the priesthood. He opposed the restoration of the Monophysite heretic, former patriarch of Constantinople Anthimus, who Agapetus had deposed, and thus brought upon himself the hatred of Empress Theodora. Theodora then sought to haveVigiliusmade bishop. During Silverius' reign it was alleged that he had purchased his elevation to the See of Rome from King Theodahad of the Ostrogoths. On December 9th 536, the Byzantine general Belisarius entered Rome and besieged the city for several months subjecting the city to privation and starvation. Silverius was deposed accordingly by General Belisarius in March 537 on a charge of treasonable correspondence with the Goths and degraded to the rank of a simple monk. He found his way to Constantinople, and Justinian I, who heard his complaint, sent him back to Rome but Vigilius was eventually able to banish his rival to a prison island where the rest of his life was spent in obscurity. The date of his death is unknown. He succeeded Agapetus I [see 535] and was succeeded by Vigilius [see 537]. 537PAUL Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (537-542) see 536 and 542. He was judicially condemned, and was therefore deposed by the Synod of Gaza. He was reinstated to the archbishops throne through empirical mediation. VIGILIUS Bishop of Rome [537556]. He belonged to a distinguished Roman family; his father Johannes being identified as a consul and a brother was a senator. He was ordained a deacon in 531 in which year the Roman clergy agreed to a decree empowering the bishop to determine the succession to the Roman See. Vigilius was chosen by Boniface II [see 530] as his successor and presented to the clergy assembled inSt. Peter's Basilica. However opposition to such a procedure led Boniface the following year to withdraw the name of his successor and to burn the decree respecting it. Agapetus I [see 535] appointed Vigilius as his representative at Constantinople where Empress Theodora sought to win him as an ally to revenge the deposition of the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople by Agapetus and also to gain aid for her efforts in behalf of the Monophysites. Vigilius is said to have agreed to the plans of the intriguing empress who promised him the Roman See and 700 pounds of gold. It was however Silverius who became the next bishop [see details 536]. Empress Theodora however saw that she had been deceived as after he had attained the see he maintained the same position as his predecessor against the Monophysites and the deposed Anthimus. It was not until the year 540 that Vigilius felt himself obliged to take a stand in regard to Monophysitism which he did in two letters sent to Constantinople. One of the letters is addressed to Emperor Justinian, the other to the Patriarch Menas. In both letters the bishop of Rome supports positively the Synods of Ephesus and Chalcedon and also the decisions of his predecessorBishop Leo I and throughout approves of the deposition of the Patriarch Anthimus. In the meantime new dogmatic difficulties had been developing at Constantinople. In 543 Emperor Justinian issued a decree which condemned the various heresies ofOrigen; this decree was sent for signature to the Oriental patriarchs and to Vigilius, bishop of Rome. The emperor had laid much stress upon winning over the Monophysites issued a new edict condemning the Three Chapters. The Oriental patriarchs and bishops signed the condemnation of these Three Chapters. In Western Europe, however, the procedure was considered unjustifiable and dangerous, because it was feared that it would detract from the importance of the Council of Chalcedon. Vigilius refused to acknowledge the imperial edict and was called to Constantinople by Justinian, in order to settle the matter there with a synod. Vigilius sought to persuade the emperor to send aid to the inhabitants of Rome and Italy who were so hard pressed by the Goths. Justinian's chief interest, however, was in the matter of the Three Chapters, and as Vigilius was not ready to make concessions of this point and wavered frequently in his measures, he had much to suffer. It was in fact at the end of a sorrowful residence of eight years at Constantinople that he was able, after coming to an understanding with the emperor, to start on his return to Rome in the spring of 555. However while on the journey he died at Syracuse. He succeeded Silverius [see 536] and was succeeded by Pelagasius [see 556]. 538PROCOPIUS OF GAZA [c.475-538] Man of Letters and Christian exegete who lived in Constantinople during the reign of Justin I. He wrote poetry in the pagan tradition and was one of the foremost members of the School of Gaza, a group of Christian exegetes. His commentaries on Isaiah, Kings, and Chronicles were constructed out of extensive extracts from the older commentaries such as Philo, Basil, Theodoret, and Cyril of Alexandria. 539VEDAST [d.539] Bishop of Arras [499-539] who came into contact with Clovis, the first Christian king of the Franks. Vedast accompanied Clovis to Reims for the latter's baptism after his legendary conversion in a battle against the Alemanni. On the way it is reputed that Vedast cured a blind beggar by prayer and the sign of the cross. The miracle is reported to have confirmed Clovis in the Christian faith. 540ABA I The Great Patriarch of the East [540549]. He was of Persian origin and spent much of his time taking steps to end schisms and restore Christian morals and church discipline. He fled to Ctesiphon in 549 and having been imprisoned died in 552. DOROTHEUS Ascetic monastic founder. He founded a monastery near Gaza in Palestine about 540 and became its leader. He placed great emphasis on humility maintaining its supremacy over love and its basic relationship to all other virtues. FINNIAN OF MOVILLE [c.495-579] Irish monk who trained at the monastery founded by Ninian [see 400] in Galloway. He went to Rome and was ordained a priest, before returning to Ulster where he formed a religious community at Moville about 540. From Italy he brought back to Ireland a copy of the Vulgate New Testament and Pentateuch. 541-550 AD 541 542JACOB BARADAEUS [d.578] The Monophysite bishop from whom the Jacobites [see 787] take their name. He was educated at a monastery and then went to Constantinople to plead the cause of the Monophysites with a sympathetic Theodora and afterwards he stayed in the city as a monk. About 542 he was consecrated bishop of Edessa. He had a nickname Baradai because in order to avoid arrest by the Imperial forces he travelled around clad in rags. For nearly 40 years he ministered around the Middle East and established monasteries, ordained clergy, consecrated bishops, and even created patriarchs. ZOILOS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (542 -551) see 537 and 551. He signed the Resolutions of the Local Synod of Constantinople. 543 544MACARIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [544-552] see 524 and 552. 545 546COLUMBA [521-597] Irish churchman who was the most illustrious of the 6th century came to Derry in 546 and built a church and later founded a notable monastery at Durrow. His hasty departure from Ireland in 563 is a mystery. It may have been due to excommunication from the Irish church due to his activity in the civil war or his desire to spread the gospel. After a perilous journey to Iona, Columba established a college for the training of young men to evangelise the North Picts. A man of outstanding gifts as a scholar and preacher he commanded attention for courageous leadership and set a noble example in prayerfulness self discipline and pastoral concern. DOMNUS III Patriarch of Antioch [546-561] see also 526 and 561. 547WALES [see also 1323] Welsh Christianity traces its ancestry back to the period of the Roman occupation although nothing is known about its first introduction to Britain. Christianity survived the withdrawal of the Romans and it was given a new unity and sense of purpose by Illtud and Dubricius between 500 and 547. Their work culminated in an upsurge of spiritual vigour in the period commonly known as The Age of Saints when men of the calibre of Deiniol, Padarn, Cybi, Seiriol, Teilo, and David, left an indelible imprint not only on the minds of the Welsh people but on their place-names. The period of isolation in the history of the Welsh Church lasted until 750 when they belatedly accepted the Roman method of calculating Easter. 548 549 550 551-560 AD 551APOLLINARIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (551-569) see 542 and 569). He was Archbishop of Alexandria and Commander of the city by order of Emperor Justinian. His political peculiarity provoked a reaction by the fullness of the Church. He participated in the 5th Ecumenical Council. 552EUSTATHIUS Patriarch of Jerusalem[552-564] see 544 and 564. EUTYCHIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [552-565, 577-582] succeeded Menas [see 536]. His terms of office, occurring during the reign of Emperor Justinian the Great, were marked by controversies with both imperial authority and the Roman see. Eutychius was born in Phrygia into a military family and became a monk at Amasea at the age of 30. As an archimandrite at Constantinople, Eutychius was well respected by Mennas. Eventually, on the day Mennas died, Eutychius was nominated by Justinian the Great to replace the position Mennas had held. The bishop of Rome, Vigilius was in Constantinople when Eutychius became patriarch. Eutychius sent him the usual announcement of his own appointment and a completely orthodox profession of the then-united Catholic faith. At the same time, the bishop urged him to summon and preside over the Church Council to deal with the Three Chapters Controversy. Vigilius first gave, and then withdrew, his consent to the council. In spite of Bishop Vigilius refusal to attend, the council met on 5th May 553 at Constantinople, and Eutychius shared the first place in the assembly with the patriarchs Apollinarius of Alexandria and Domninus, called Domnus III of Antioch. At the second session, the bishop excused himself again on the grounds of ill health. The agreement of Eutychius to the Acts of this synod, which was later recognised as the Fifth General Council and which concluded on 2nd June 553, is a summary of the decrees against the Three Chapters [see 553]. Eutychius had so far stood by the emperor throughout. He composed the decree of the Council against The Chapters. In 562, he consecrated the new church of Hagia Sophia. However, Eutychius came into violent collision with Justinian in 564, when the emperor adopted the tenets of the Aphthartodocetae, a sect of Egyptian Monophysites who believed thatChrist's body on earth was incorruptible and subject to no pain. Eutychius, in a long address, argued the incompatibility of the Aphthartodocetic beliefs with Scripture. Emperor Justinian insisted that he agree to it anyway. When Eutychius refused to compromise, Justinian ordered his arrest. On 22nd January 565, Eutychius was celebrating the feast day of St. Timotheus in the church adjoining the Hormisdas palace when soldiers broke into the patriarchal residence, entered the church, and carried him away. Eutychius was first removed to a monastery called Choracudis and the next day to the monastery of St. Osias near Chalcedon. Eight days later Justinian called an assembly of princes and prelates, to which he summoned Eutychius. The charges against him were trivial: that he used ointments, ate "delicate meats", and prayed for long periods. After being summoned three times, Eutychius replied that he would only come if he were to be judged canonically, in his own dignity, and in command of his clergy. Condemned by default, he was sent to an island in the Propontis named Principus ("Prince's Island"), and later to his old monastery at Amasea, where he spent 12 years and 5 months. Upon the death of Patriarch John III [see 565] whom Justinian had put in the patriarchal chair, the people of Constantinople demanded the return of Eutychius. Justin II had succeeded Justinian in 565 and had associated with himself the young Tiberius. In October 577 the emperors sent a delegation to Amasea to bring Eutychius back to Constantinople. Contemporary reports claim that as he entered the city, a large group of people met him, shouting aloud, "Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord," and "Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace." In imitation of the entrance of Jesus into Jerusalem (recorded in Matthew 21:1-11 and John 12;12-18), he entered the city on an ass's colt, over garments spread on the ground, the crowd carrying palms, dancing, and singing. The whole city was lit, public banquets were held, and new buildings were inaugurated. The next day he met with the two emperors and was given "conspicuous honour" at theChurch of the VirgininBlachernae. He then proceeded to the great church, mounted the pulpit, and blessed the many people. It took him six hours to distribute the communion because all of the people wished to receive it from his own hands. Toward the end of his life, Eutychius maintained an opinion that after the resurrection the body will be "more subtle than air" and no longer a tangible thing. This was considered heretical, because it was taken as a denial of the doctrine of physical, corporeal resurrection. The future Bishop Gregory the Great, then residing at Constantinople asApocrisiarius, opposed this opinion, citing Luke 24:39. Emperor Tiberius talked to the disputants separately, and tried to reconcile them, but the breach was persistent. Eutychius died quietly on the Sunday after Easter, at the age of 70. Some of his friends later told Bishop Gregory that a few minutes before his death he touched the skin of his hand and said, "I confess that in this flesh we shall rise again", a rough quote of Job 19:26. 553CONSTANTINOPLE, SECOND COUNCIL OF [see 1st council 381 and 3rd council 680] was called by Emperor Justinian to try and compromise with the Monophysites probably due to his wife Theodora who secretly held to their viewpoint. The group had been condemned by the edict of 536 but in 543 he allowed them to re-establish their church in Constantinople. This brought conflict with the Nestorians and the Three Chapters Controversy [see 543] with whom they were associated. The western church however had cleared the three leaders involved in the controversy of heresy thus from this council one can begin speaking about the distinctiveness of the Eastern and Western Church. This council also bestowed on Mary the title of ever virgin thus fixing in church dogma the perpetual virginity of Mary and considered the brothers of Jesus in Mark 3:31,32 as near relatives or cousins. FACUNDUS Bishop of Hermiane in Byzacena [c. 546-571]. When Emperor Justinian published an edict in 534 condemning the Three Chapters [see 553], Bishop Vigilius [see 537] at first refused to approve, but later in Constantinople he published his findings in which he also condemned the Three Chapters, but explicitly upheld the Council of Chalcedon [see 451]. Facundus who was also in Constantinople refused communion with the bishop of Rome and published his own defence of the Three Chapters in which he defended the orthodoxy of the three men concerned and argued that to deny this was to deny the orthodoxy of the Chalcedon Christology. When the Three Chapters were condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 553 Vigilius excommunicated Facundus. THREE CHAPTERS CONTROVERSY The three chapters were three subjects condemned by Emperor Justinian in an edict of 543/4. His purpose was to conciliate the powerful Monophysite group and retain their allegiance to church and crown. The three chapters were [1] the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia [see 392]; [2] the writings of Theodoret of Cyrrhus [see 416] against Cyril of Alexandria and in defence of the Nestorius; and [3] the letter of Ibas of Edessa [see 435] to Bishop Mari of Hardascir. Although the edict did in fact undermine the authority and teaching of the Council of Chalcedon, the Eastern patriarchs accepted it without opposition. When the fifth ecumenical Council met in May 553 at Constantinople it decided in favour of the condemnation of the chapters against the efforts of the Western bishops to have the condemnations withdrawn. Vigilius, the bishop of Rome, declared his submission to the decision but the churches of North Italy led by the clergy of Aquileia and Milan broke off communion with Rome and caused a schism which lasted half a century. 554 555GERMANUS [496-576] Bishop of Paris. He was ordained a priest in 530 and later became an abbot of a monastery. In 555 he succeeded Eusebius as bishop of Paris and influenced the edict against pagan revelries on holy days. He was present at the third Council of Paris in 555, the second Council of Tours in 566 and the fourth Council of Paris in 573. 556PELAGIUS I Bishop of Rome [556561]. He came from a Roman noble family and had accompanied Agapetus I [see 535] to Constantinople and was appointed by him nuncio of the Roman Church to that city. When Vigilius [see 537] went to Constantinople on the orders of Emperor Justinian I, Pelagius stayed in Rome as his representative. Totila, king of the Goths, had begun to blockade the city. Pelagius poured out his own fortune for the benefit of the famine-stricken people, and tried to induce the king to grant a truce. Though he failed, he afterwards induced Totila to spare the lives of the people when he captured Rome in December, 546. Totila sent Pelagius to Constantinople in order to arrange a peace with Justinian I, but the emperor sent him back to say that his general Belisarius was in command in Italy. Pelagius was elected bishop as Justinian's candidate. While before his ordination he opposed Justinian's efforts to condemn the "Three Chapters" he decided in order to reconcile theological factions in the church he would adopt Justinian's position. As a result, the reputation of the bishop of Romes supremacy in the West was damaged in northern Italy, Gaul, and elsewhere in Western Europe, and his successors over the next 50 years spent much effort undoing the damage. He succeeded Vigilius [see 537] and was succeeded by John III [see 561]. 557 558COMGALL [517-601] Irish monk who in 558 founded a monastery in Bangor County Down which became an outstanding seat of learning with at one period a reputed enrolment of 3000 students. He and Colomba [see 546] were close friends and had his support when Columba went to Inverness to seek for permission from King Brude to settle at Iona. 559 560 561-570 AD 561ANASTASIUS THE SINAITE Patriarch of Antioch [561-571, 594-599] see also 546 and 571. JOHN III Bishop of Rome [561574]. He was of a distinguished family background being the son of Anastasius who bore the title of illustris. Although John was bishop for nearly thirteen years very little is known of his reign. It fell during the stormy times of the Lombard invasion, and practically all the records of his reign have been destroyed. He died onJuly 13,574. He succeeded Pelagius [see 566] and was succeeded by Benedict I [see 575]. 562PROCOPIUS OF CAESAREA [d.565] Byzantine historian who was born in Palestine and went to Constantinople at the accession of Justinian and in 527 was appointed secretary to the military commander Belisarius in whose company he went campaigning for the next 15 years, details of which served as the basis of his history. He became a senator in Constantinople and probably city prefect from 562. His main work was Wars in seven books, the whole series showing a valuable objectivity. 563COLUMBA [d.597] went to Iona and began the conversion of the Picts. He founded a monastery on Iona. IONA. A small Scottish island of the south-west coast of Mull from which Columba [see 546], who arrived there in 563, evangelised Western Scotland and Northern England. His monastery became a famous ecclesiastical centre but was repeatedly ravaged by Norseman. A Benedictine house was established on Iona in the early 13th century but the buildings were pulled down at the Reformation in 1561. 46 Scottish kings are said to have been buried on the island. Iona forms part of the Church of Scotland parish which embraces also a section of Mull. OECUMENIUS Author and an adherent and contemporary of Severus of Antioch [see 512]. He wrote the oldest existing Greek commentary on the book of the Revelation which was discovered early in the 20th century. The work in twelve parts approaches the biblical text historically. A commentary on the same book by Archbishop Andrew of Caesarea, written sometime between 563 and 614 referred to this work repeatedly. 564MACARIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem restored [564-575] see [544-552] and 575. 565PETER IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [565-580] see 535 and 578. As a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miaphysitism" \o "Miaphysitism" Miaphysite, Peter IV was forced to stay out of Alexandria. JOHN III Patriarch of Constantinople [565-577] succeeded Eutychius [see 522]. He was born at Sirimis, in the region of Cynegia, near Antioch. There was a flourishing college of lawyers at Antioch, where he entered and did himself credit. The college was suppressed in 533 by Justinian I. John was ordained and became agent and secretary of his church which would bring him into touch with the court at Constantinople. When Justinian, towards the close of his life, tried to raise the sect of the Aphthartodocetae to the rank of orthodoxy, and determined to expel the blameless Eutychius for his opposition, the able lawyer-ecclesiastic of Antioch, who had already distinguished himself by his great edition of the canons, was chosen to carry out the imperial will. He was also credited for methodical classification ofcanon law, the Digest of Canon Law. Following some older work which he mentions in his preface, he abandoned the historical plan of giving the decrees of each council in order and arranged them according to their subject matter. The older writers had sixty heads, but he reduced them to fifty. To the canons of the councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Ephesus, and Constantinople, which had already been collected and received in the church, John added 89 "Apostolical Canons," the 21 of Sardica, and the 68 of the canonical letter of Basil. When John came to Constantinople, he edited the Nomocanon, an abridgment of his former work, with the addition of a comparison of the imperial rescripts and civil laws (especially the Novels of Justinian) under each head. Little is known of his career as a bishop. Seven months after his appointment Justinian died. The new emperor, Justin II, was crowned by the patriarch, November 14, 565. John organised a compromise between the Chalcedonians andMonophysitesin 567, and temporarily reunited the two sects in 571 until the Monophysites rejected the doctrines of the Council of Chalcedon once more later that year. John died shortly before Justin in 577. JUSTIN II Byzantium emperor [565578] succeeded Justinian I [see 527]. When Justinian died on November 14, 565, Justin, his nephew was elevated to the imperial throne by a group of court officials claiming that Justinian had named him as his successor on his deathbed, thus passing by another possible candidate for imperial succession, a nephew of Justinian also called Justin, who was not present in the capital at the time of the emperor's death. In the first few days of his reign Justin paid his uncle's debts, administered justice in person, and proclaimed universal religious toleration. Contrary to his uncle, Justin relied completely on the support of the aristocratic party. Proud of character, and faced with an empty treasury, he discontinued Justinian's practice of buying off potential enemies. Towards the end of his life Justin sank into growing insanity. When he died in 578, Tiberius II Constantinus succeeded him. 566 567 568 569JOHN IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (569- 579) see 551 and 581. The see was vacant between 579 to 581. 570 571-580 AD 571GREGORY I Patriarch of Antioch [571-594] see also 561 and 594. 572MARTIN OF BRAGA [c.510-579] Archbishop of Braga and writer. Born in Hungary he became a monk in Palestine and moved to Spain around 550. He established a monastery in Dumio and became its abbot and then was named bishop in 561. In 572 he was elevated to be metropolitan of Bracara where he worked successfully to convert Arian's including the king whom he baptised in 556. Well-respected outside of Spain he also composed works on canon law, liturgy and the church calendar. 573GREGORY of Tours [538-594] Frankish bishop and historian. Who was appointed bishop of Tours in 573 and carried out his tasks very thoroughly. He saw to the administration of his diocese, disciplined unruly clergy and members of religious orders, defended Catholicism against Arianism, kept order in Tours the site of a pilgrimage centre, and attended to secular and judicial duties. Except a short period of antagonism by King Chilperic 576-84, Gregory was on very amiable terms with the four rulers of Tours during the time when he was bishop, and often advised them on matters of state. His writings and life revealed him to be a sincere and eloquent spokesman for the developing early church. 574 575BENEDICT I Bishop of Rome [575579]. He succeeded John III [see 561] and was succeeded by Pelagius II [see 579]. The ravages of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards" \o "Lombards" Lombards made it very difficult to communicate with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_emperor" \o "Byzantine emperor" Byzantine emperor at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople, who claimed the privilege of confirming the election of the bishops of Rome. Hence there was a vacancy of nearly eleven months between the death of Bishop John III and the arrival of the imperial confirmation of Benedict's election on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2" \o "June 2" June 2, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/575" \o "575" 575. Benedict granted an estate, the Massa Veneris, in the territory of Minturnae, to Abbot Stephen of St. Mark's "near the walls of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoleto" \o "Spoleto" Spoleto". Famine followed the devastating Lombards, and he died in the midst of his efforts to cope with these difficulties. JOHN IV Patriarch of Jerusalem [575-594] see 564 and 594. 576 577LEANDER [c.550-600] Bishop of Seville. Leander assumed the bishopric about 577 and as Spain's leading churchman led the country's Visigoth rulers from Arianism to Catholicism. By converting Prince Hermengild, Leander initially incurred the wrath of King Leovigild and was forced to flee to Constantinople. Here he befriended Gregory the Great before returning to Seville where he presided over the Synod of Toledo in 589. 578DAMIANOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [578-607] see 565 and 607. Damian became a monk in his early years in the desert of Scete. He continued to fight and to devote himself to God for sixteen years. He was ordained a deacon in the monastery of St. John the Short. Then he went to the monastery of the fathers which is to the west of Alexandria, and there he increased his asceticism. When Patriarch Peter was enthroned on the see of St. Mark, he brought and appointed Damianos a private secretary. Damianos pursued a good course of life and everyone loved him. When Patriarch Peter departed, the bishop unanimously agreed to ordain him a patriarch. He cared for his flock well and he wrote many epistles and discourses. In the wilderness of Scete, there were some followers of Melitius El-Assyuty, who drank wine a few times during the night before they intended to partake of the Holy Communion. They claimed that the Lord Christ gave to His disciples two cups: the first He did not say, "This is My Blood" but when he gave them the second cup he said, "This is My Blood." St. Damianos showed them their error. He clarified to them that the first cup was the cup of the Jewish passover, and He nullified it with the second cup. He also told them that the canons of the church ban those that eat before communion from partaking of the Holy Eucharist. Some of them turned from their evil, but those that did not turn from their evil council were driven out of the wilderness. When Anba Theophanius, the Antiochian Patriarch departed, they ordained a successor to him called Peter, who sent a letter to Patriarch Damianos which said, "There is no need for us to say that God is the three Persons." When Patriarch Damianos read this letter he became enkindled with zeal. He wrote him a letter which explained that God is, in no doubt, one in His Godhead, one in essence, but He is Three persons, God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit, One God. He wrote to him many testimonies from the Holy Scriptures and from the sayings of the holy fathers. Nevertheless, Peter refused to return to the truth, and insisted on his error. Patriarch Damianos ordered that his name not be mentioned in the Divine Liturgy for twenty years until the heretic died. TIBERIUS II Byzantium Emperor [578582] succeeded Justin II [see 565]. 579 PELAGIUS II Bishop of Rome [579590]. He was a native of Rome, but probably of Ostrogothic descent, as his father's name was Winigild. Pelagius appealed for help from Emperor Maurice against the Lombards but the Byzantines were of little help forcing Pelagius to "buy" a truce and turn to the Franks, who invaded Italy, but left after being bribed by the Lombards. Pelagius laboured to promote the celibacy of the clergy and issued such stringent regulations on this matter that his successor Gregory I thought them too strict, and modified them to some extent. During the reign of Pelagius II, the bishop ofMilan, who had broken communion with Rome since the Three Chapter Controversy, returned to full communion around 581, while other bishops in Northern Italy remained separated. Also during his reign he faced conflict with the See of Constantinople over the adoption of the title of "Ecumenical Patriarch," which Pelagius believed to undermine the authority of the bishop of Rome. Pelagius fell victim to the plague that devastated Rome at the end of 589. He succeeded Benedict I [see 575] and was succeeded by Gregory I [see 590]. 580COLUMBANUS [543-615] Irish scholar who had a passion for learning and had the unusual distinction in his day of being able to study the Scriptures in both Hebrew and Greek. He went to France where he established a school in Burgundy. The discipline in the school was severe and while the people approved, the clergy were bitterly opposed to it. Expelled from France he worked for a while near Lake Constance in Switzerland before founding a notable monastery in Italy where he died. His correspondence with the bishops of Rome shows the purity and independence of the Celtic church and challenges Romes claim for supremacy. 581-589 AD 581EULOGIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (581 -609) see 569 and 608. A learned author of many homilies and theological and treatises. He convoked a Synod in Alexandria against the disputes of the Samaritans and the Judeans. He is honoured as a Saint of the Church. 582JOHN IV Patriarch of Constantinople [582-595] succeeded Eutychius [see 552]. He is also known as John Nesteutes or John the Faster (because of his meagre use of food) and was the first to assume the titleecumenical patriarch. He was born at Constantinople of artisan parents, and worked as a sculptor. In 587 or 588, he summoned the bishops of the East in the name of "the ecumenical patriarch" to decide the cause of Gregory, patriarch of Antioch, who was acquitted and returned to his see. The bishop of Rome, Pelagius II, solemnly annulled the acts of this council. In 593, John was severely blamed by the succeeding Roman bishop Gregory the Great for having allowed anIsaurianpresbyternamed Anastasius, who had been accused of heresy, to be beaten with ropes in the church of Constantinople. In 595, the controversy was again rife about the title of ecumenical patriarch. Gregory wrote to his legate Sabinianus forbidding him to communicate with John. In the case of a presbyter named Athanasius, accused of being to some extent aManichean, and condemned as such, Gregory tried to show that the accuser was himself aPelagian, and that by the carelessness, ignorance, or fault of John IV, the Nestorian council of Ephesus had actually been mistaken for the OrthodoxCouncil of Ephesus. MAURICE Byzantium emperor [582602] succeeded Tiberius II [see 578]. 583584585586RECARED Visigoth king who ruled Spain from 586 to 601. He succeeded his father Leovigild in 586 and set to work at once crushing several Arian revolts. The Lusitanian peninsular in Portugal was officially Arian until converted to Roman Catholic 586 although the Arian kings had been extraordinarily tolerant. In 589 the Third Council of Toledo proclaimed Catholicism as the kingdom's official religion. The king ordered the Arian books to be burnt and no Gothic text from Spain has survived. 587588589DAVID [520-589] Ascetic monk and patron saint of Wales. He was from a southern Welsh princely family and was a great founder of the monasteries including one in Pembrokeshire at which he lived. Here he built up a fine library which was later destroyed by Scandinavian raiders. The Council of Brefi chose him as primate of Wales, but he accepted only on condition that the seat was moved from Caerleon to St Davids. He was a popular saint in South Wales, Devon, Cornwall, and Brittany. CHAPTER 4. CHURCH: THYATIRA UNIVERSAL CHURCH 5901510 ad THYATIRA REVELATION 2: 18-29 18 And unto the angel of the church in Thyatira write; These things saith the Son of God, who hath his eyes like unto a flame of fire, and his feet are like fine brass; 19 I know thy works, and charity, and service, and faith, and thy patience, and thy works; and the last to be more than the first. 20 Notwithstanding I have a few things against thee, because thou sufferest that woman Jezebel, which calleth herself a prophetess, to teach and to seduce my servants to commit fornication, and to eat things sacrificed unto idols. 21 And I gave her space to repent of her fornication; and she repented not. 22 Behold, I will cast her into a bed, and them that commit adultery with her into great tribulation, except they repent of their deeds. 23 And I will kill her children with death; and all the churches shall know that I am he which searcheth the reins and hearts: and I will give unto every one of you according to your works. 24 But unto you I say, and unto the rest in Thyatira, as many as have not this doctrine, and which have not known the depths of Satan, as they speak; I will put upon you none other burden. 25 But that which ye have already hold fast till I come. 26 And he that overcometh, and keepeth my works unto the end, to him will I give power over the nations: 27 And he shall rule them with a rod of iron; as the vessels of a potter shall they be broken to shivers: even as I received of my Father. 28 And I will give him the morning star.:29 He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches. INTRODUCTION The Son of God greets this church with flaming eyes and feet of judgement. Though there is some approval given the church in verse 19, the church has become a haven for "Jezebel," an actual woman who became prominent as a teacher and led people into idolatry and immorality. Though God gave her time to repent she would not. However even in Thyatira some remained faithful (verses 24-29). They were instructed to hold fast to truth and were promised great authority in Christ's kingdom for standing against the usurped authority of this Jezebel. They will be decorated with the "Morning Star," the reflected glory of Jesus Christ (c.f. Daniel 12:3; 2 Peter 1:19). Historically, Thyatira speaks of the age of the Roman Catholic Church (500 to 1500 A.D.). In that church the once for all sufficiency of the cross is denied for a continual offering of works, penance, and sacraments as a means of salvation. Just as Jezebel will not repent, neither will this system of idolatry as the Babylon of the future (cf. Jeremiah. 51:8-9; Revelation. 18:4).The "deep things of Satan" are the Babylonian teachings which infiltrated and were perpetuated by the Roman church. The destination in verse 18 is the church at Thyatira which means continual or perpetual sacrifice. This is a good illustration of the Roman Catholic church where the Mass perpetuated the sacrifice of Christ believing the bread and wine were changed by the priest into the true body and blood of the Lord Jesus Christ. Eventually, because of the fear of spilling the "blood of Christ" the laity was only given the bread. The wine was reserved for the clergy and this also perpetuated the division of laity and clergy. The picture of Christ comes from Revelation 1:14-15 and is one of judgement. Fire and brass picture the brazen altar in the Tabernacle, the altar of judgement. Christ is the son of God and it is Him only that we must worship. The evaluation of the works of this church gives praise for their works of love, faith and ministry and that these works are increasing. The word patience in verse 19 should be translated endurance. Are our works of love, faith and other Christian graces increasing or decreasing? Have we exhibited endurance under pressure? The condemnation covers verses 20-23 with verses 20-21 concerning a woman called Jezebel. It is possible that there was a person called Jezebel in the church at Thyatira but it is perhaps more likely that the name was used to describe the situation actually that the church was in as was the case of using Balaam in connection with the church at Pergamos. Jezebel was a princess from Sidon who became the wife of Ahab the king of Israel [1 Kings 16:29-33]. She brought gross corruption into the northern kingdom with her introduction of the worship of Baal. She was seen as a very attractive and beautiful woman but one steeped in evil. Corruption had started in the northern kingdom under its first king Jereboam I after the dividing of the kingdom after the death of Solomon. He had perverted the true worship of God and set up a golden calf in Dan and Bethel [1 Kings 12:25-33] but she brought in a new god in the form of Baal to worship with its total immorality in the rituals of worship. By application we have to be careful that we do not compromise the truth on the basis of corruption brought into the church by attractive people whose intentions are evil. We should not allow our judgement to be perverted because the person who is proposing it is physically attractive. All practices need to be tested against the Scriptures to see if they are in accordance with what the Holy Spirit once and for all gave to the church. Jezebel became a very real picture of what the Roman Catholic Church evolved into during the medieval times. It introduced a new paganism that resulted in idolatry and spiritual fornication, and became a new religious system bearing little resemblance to the New Testament church. ROMAN CATHOLIC TRADITIONS OF THIS PERIOD Over the thousand years covered by this period the increasing number of traditions were enacted which enslaved the people to the Church. The most important ones are listed below. [1] Title of Pope [universal bishop] BONIFACE III 607 [2] Kissing the Pope's foot CONSTANTINE 709 [3] Temporal power of Popes given by Pepin STEPHEN III 755 [4] Worship of cross, images and relics HADRIAN I 786 [5] Holy water blessed by a priest LEO IV 850 [6] Worship of St. Joseph STEPHEN VI 890 [7] College of Cardinals established JOHN X 927 [8] Baptism of bells JOHN XIII 965 [9] Canonisation of dead saints JOHN XV 995 [10] Fasting on Fridays during Lent GREGORY V 998 [11] Celibacy of the priesthood GREGORY VII 1079 [12] The Rosary Peter the Hermit URBAN II 1090 [13] The Inquisition LUCIUS III 1184 [14] Sale of Indulgencies CLEMENT III 1190 [15] Transubstantiation INNOCENT III 1215 [16] Confession to a priest not God INNOCENT III 1215 [17] Adoration of the wafer [host] HONORIUS III 1220 [18] Bible forbidden to laymen GREGORY IX 1239 [19] The scapular invented by Simon Stock INNOCENT IV 1251 [20] Cup forbidden to the people at communion GREGORY XII 1414 [21] Purgatory proclaimed as a dogma EUGENE IV 1439 [22] Ave Maria JULIUS II 1508 Repent here is again metanoeo - "meta" - to change, "noeo" - the mind This is in contrast with the word metamelamai which indicates feeling sorry for oneself which is also translated repent in the King James Version. It is noted that God gave Jezebel a time to change her mind about the false prophetic doctrines. This may indicate that Jezebel was a believer who had gone into serious error and was given time to repent before judgement was applied by God. We need to judge ourselves so that we will not be judged. In verse 22 the word cast in the -Greek is " ballo" which means to throw. The source of their judgement symbolically is also the source of their sin with the bed of adultery the place of judgement. Here we see the woman cast into great tribulation which could indicate that the Roman Catholic Church will play a significant role in the Great Tribulation. Again we see that the Lord does not want to discipline those who are out of line but wishes for them to repent. [Jeremiah 23:22-23] The children of Jezebel will suffer physical violence and death as part of Gods judgement on Jezebel. The Lord will reward people for their works. The purpose for the judgement on the children of Jezebel is that the glory of God and his All Knowing characteristic can be seen. The Lord knows our motivation. God will use the unbeliever to show His glory - c.f. The Pharaoh of Egypt, the battle of Armageddon. In Revelation 17 the judgement of this system is graphically shown. If we are associated with gross distortions of the truth we will be disciplined. In verses 24 and 25 the exhortation involves those who have no part in the Jezebel system and do not know the depths of Satan - mystery cults with deep secrets shared only among the initiates. The doctrine of Jezebel is seen as very serious as it separates those who will and will not be disciplined. There is a promise of no further pressures coming on the believers - Acts 15:28-29. The Lord will not tolerate people having other gods Exodus 20:3. They are told to hold fast to what is pure and true. They are told to hold to the New Testament truth rather than the false and counterfeit doctrine. The Lord restates that he is coming back for his church, this will occur at the Rapture. We should eagerly await the return of the Lord for His bride. The truth and reality of His return should be of great comfort. 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18, Titus 2:13. The promise for the overcomer occurs in verses 26 to 28. The overcomer will have a part in the Messianic Kingdom and will share in rulership over the nations. The word translated power can be rendered privilege or authority. It is of interest that the Millennial Kingdom will consist of nations and not be an international conglomerate. True power to do the will of God comes from God. We have no authority other than what is given to us from the Lord. John quotes from an enthronement Psalm - Psalm 2:8-9. This celebrated the promise to David and pointed to his seed who would rule over the nations that sought to rebel against him. It is noted that word translated rod rhabdos can be translated sceptre indicating rulership by a king. Revelation declares that Jesus Christ is greater than the most powerful emperor the world has ever known. The promise is that the overcomer will have the morning star. In Revelation 22:16 Christ Himself is declared to be the Morning Star. As Christians we have and will continue to have the reality of the morning star. The possession of the true faith presupposes a possession of the person of Christ. CHRONOLOGY 590-600 AD 590ABJURATION Gregory I [see below] had occasion to set out this practice which denotes the renunciation of heresy made when a penitent is reconciled with the church, when he dealt with such heretics as the Montanists and others. The procedure was further elaborated during the Inquisition [see 1231] according to the degree of heresy. In modern times it refers to reconciliation between Roman Catholic and Greek Churches. [See also Oath Of Abjuration 1690] EVAGRIUS [536-600] Eastern church historian whose history of the church begins where Eusebius finishes, with the Council of Ephesus in 431, and brings the account of the church to his own life time, about 590. He generally reflects the speculative theology of the period and especially the curious interest in the miraculous. GREGORY I (the Great) [540604] Bishop of Rome [590-604]. He was been born into a wealthy noble Roman family with close connections to the church. He was well educated with Gregory of Tours reporting that in grammar, dialectic and rhetoric he was second to none. He wrote correct Latin but did not read or write Greek. His father's three sisters were nuns. Eventually, Pelagius ordained him a deacon and asked for his help in trying to heal the schism of the Three Chapters in northern Italy. He is regarded by some as the first mediaeval pope although Boniface III was the first to officially bear the title. Gregory is well-known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors. He standardised plainsong in church music adding 4 Gregorian modes to existing musical scales. Having served six years as the bishop of Romes ambassador to Constantinople he returned to Rome to become an abbot of his monastery. Chosen to succeed Pelagius II he had problems with the Lombards but was able to bring peace to Italy. He also sent Augustine to England, and protected the Jews against persecution. He was the first to come from a monastic background. He succeeded Pelagius II [see 579] and was succeeded by Sabinian [see 604]. 591 592MOLUAG [d 592]. He was an Irish missionary trained by Comgall in Bangor. He traveled to Scotland in 562, becoming a friendly rival to St. Columba after both men tried to claim Lismore in the Inner Hebrides as their base. Lismore proved to be an ideal centre from which to evangelize Scotland, and Moluag did good work across much of the North-West of the country, including the islands of the Outer Hebrides. On the Black Isle, he founded a second community at Rosemarkie, with lesser houses in Banffshire at Mortlach and Clatt. Moluag died at Rosemarkie on 4th August 592. 593 594AMOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [594-601] see 575 and 601. 595 596CYRIACUS Patriarch of Constantinople [596-606] succeeded John IV [see 582]. He was previously presbyter and steward, oikonomos, of the great church at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_the_Great" \o "Gregory the Great" Gregory the Great [see 590] received the legates bearing the synodal letters which announced his consecration, and in his reply (partly from a desire not to disturb the peace of the church) he warned him against the sin of causing divisions in the church, clearly alluding to the use of the term ecumenical bishop which indicated Constantinoples superiority in the east. The personal feelings of Gregory towards Cyriacus appear most friendly. Boniface III of Rome [see 606] however was the first to use the title Pope which could have been in reaction to the ascendency of Constantinople. Cyriacus or Cyriac as he is also known died in 606. 597AUGUSTINE Archbishop of Canterbury [597-604]. Augustine of Canterbury was a Benedictine HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk who became the firstarchbishop of Canterbury. He is considered the Apostle to the English and a founder of the English Church. Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when the bishop, Gregory the Great, chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission, to Britain to evangelise the pagan king, Ethelbert of Kent. Kent was probably chosen because it was near the Christian kingdoms inGauland because the king had married a Christian princess,Bertha, daughter of Charibert I the king of Paris. While still on the continent the missionaries had considered turning back but Gregory urged them on and they crossed the Channel in 597. Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury, his eventual successor to the archbishopric, and a group of about 40 companions, some of whom were monks. Soon after leaving Rome, the missionaries halted, daunted by the nature of the task before them. They sent Augustine back to Rome to request the bishops permission to return. Gregory refused and sent Augustine back with letters encouraging the missionaries to persevere. Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanetand proceeded to Kents main town of Canterbury. Ethelbert converted to Christianity and also allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls. Augustine therefore established his episcopate at Canterbury. In a letter Gregory wrote to thepatriarch of Alexandriain 598, he claimed that more than 10,000 Christians had been baptised; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place, however, there were probably some Christians already in Kent before Augustine arrived, remnants of the Christians who lived in Britain in the later Roman Empire. After these conversions, Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success along with questions about the mission. Augustine asked for Gregory's advice on a number of issues, including how to organise the church, the punishment for church robbers, guidance on who was allowed to marry whom, and the consecration of bishops. Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul, childbirth and baptism, and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass. Gregory's plan was that there would be two metropolitans, one at York and one at London, with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop. As part of this plan, Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury. The move from Canterbury to London never happened. In 604, Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain. Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated,Mellitusasbishop of London,andJustusasbishop of Rochester. Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him, apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organisation survived in the Britain than was actually the case. Some historians believe that Augustine had no real understanding of the history and traditions of the British Church, damaging his relations with their bishops. Also, there were political dimensions involved, as Augustine's efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king, and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west, into areas held by the Britons. Easier to implement were Rome's mandates concerning pagan temples and celebrations. Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use, and feasts, if possible, moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs. One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus, whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr's life or death. They may have been native Christians, but Augustine did not treat them as such. When Gregory was informed, he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the RomanSt Sixtus. Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy. He placed the new mission directly under the authority of the Roman see and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts or vice versa. Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries' conduct. Before his death, Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric, probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office. Although at the time of Augustine's death, 26th May 604 the mission barely extended beyond Kent, his undertaking introduced a more active missionary style into the British Isles. Despite the earlier presence of Christians in Ireland and Wales, no efforts had been made to try to convert the Saxon invaders. Augustine was sent to convert the descendants of those invaders, and eventually became the decisive influence in Christianity in the British Isles. Augustine was consecrated bishop of the English and converted many of the king's subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597. Gregory the Great sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native Celtic bishops to submit to Augustine's authority failed. Roman Catholic bishops were established at London and Rochester in 604, and a school was founded to train Anglo-Saxonpriests and missionaries. Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor, Laurence of Canterbury. Augustine died in 604. CHURCH OF ENGLAND [see also 1066] The origins of English Christianity are unknown, but it is noted that there were British bishops at the council of Arles in 314 indicating the existence of an organised church. Following the Roman withdrawal Christianity retreated to the Celtic lands, but at the end of the sixth century a Roman mission under Augustine [see 597]and the Celtic mission under Aidan [see 640] began the reconversion of England. The two sides disagreed over several minor customs but the Synod of Whitby in 663-4 secured observance of Roman custom. Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury [see 668] united and organised the church on the diocese basis. Under Dunstan [see 960] the English Church was largely isolated from continental ecclesiastical affairs until the Norman invasion of 1066. 598 599ANASTASIUS II Patriarch of Antioch [599-610] see also 561 and 610. 600ASAPH [d.600] Welsh bishop who was possibly related to St Deiniol and St Tysilio who became bishop and abbot of Llanalwy and later established a monastery at Llanasa which was renamed St Asaph by the Normans when they created a diocese in the area. 601-610 AD 601ISAAC Patriarch of Jerusalem [601-609] see 594 and 609. 602 603KENTIGERN [d.603] One of the early Christian leaders and missionaries in Scotland. He worked in the south of the country where he became the bishop of the local church in the Glasgow area. With the rise of an anti-Christian party in the kingdom of Strathclyde however he was forced to retire the Wales. Here he is reported to have founded a monastery at Llanelwy. About 590 he and Columba [see 546] met, probably in the Tay Valley, where they agreed to delimit the areas of their work. 604LAURENCE Archbishop of Canterbury [604-619]. Laurence landed at Thanet, Kent, with Augustine in 597, as part of the Gregorian mission which was dispatched from Rome in 595 to evangelise the Anglo-Saxons. He had been a monk in Rome before his travels to England but nothing else is known of his history or background. Augustine sent Laurence back to Bishop Gregory Ito report on the success of converting King Ethelberht of Kent and to carry a letter with questions for the bishop of Rome. Accompanied by Peter of Canterbury, another missionary, he set off some time after July 598, and had returned by June 601. He brought back with him Gregory's replies to Augustine's questions, a document that Bede reprinted. Laurence is probably the Laurence referred to in the letter from Gregory toBertha, queen of Kent. In that letter, Gregory praises Bertha for her part in the conversion of her husband, details of which Gregory says he received from Laurence the priest. Laurence succeeded Augustine to the see of Canterburyin 604, and ruled until his death on 2nd February 619. To secure the succession, Augustine had consecrated Laurence before he died, even though that was prohibited to do so by canon law. Augustine was afraid though that if someone did not step into the office immediately it would damage the missionary efforts in Britain. Laurence never received apalliumfrom Rome, so he may have been considered as uncanonical. However in 610 Laurence received letters from Pope Boniface IV, addressed to him as archbishop and Augustine's successor. The correspondence was in response to Laurence having sent Mellitus to Rome earlier in 610, to solicit advice from the papacy on matters concerning the English Church. While in Rome Mellitus attended asynod, and brought the decrees from the synod back with him to Laurence. Laurence wrote to the bishops in the lands held by the Scots and by theBritons, urging them to hold Easter on the day that the Roman church celebrated it, instead of their traditional date, however Laurence in 609 stated that Bishop Dagan, a Scottishbishop, would not eat with Laurence or share a roof with the archbishop due to the differences between the two Churches. All efforts to extend the church beyond Kent encountered difficulties due to the attitude of King Raedwald of East Anglia who had become the leading king in the south after Ethelberhts death. Raedwald was affected by Christianity only to the extent of placing a Christian altar in his pagan temple. Laurence died on 2February 619, and was buried in the abbey in Canterbury. He succeeded Augustine [see 597] and was succeeded by Mellitus [see 619]. SABINIAN Bishop of Rome [604-606]. He had been sent by Gregory I as an ambassador to Constantinople but he apparently was not entirely satisfactory in that office. He returned to Rome in 597. He was consecrated probably onSeptember 13th 604. He distributed grain during a famine at Rome under his reign and sources attribute to him the introduction of the custom of ringing bells at the canonical hours and the celebration of the Eucharist. During his reign, Sabinian was seen as a contrast to Gregory as while Gregory distributed grain to the Roman populace as invasion loomed, Sabinian sold it for high prices, and filled the church with clergy," in contrast to Gregory who rose rapidly from simple monk to become bishop of Rome. He succeeded Gregory I [see 590] and was succeeded by Boniface I [see 607]. 605 606BONIFACE III Pope [606-607]. Became the first to officially bear the title Pope. He was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Roman by birth although of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece" \o "Greece" Greek extraction. As a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deacon" \o "Deacon" deacon, Boniface had impressed, Gregory the Great [see 590] who described him as a man "of tried faith and character" and, in 603, selected him to as legate to the court of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople where he was able to settle a dispute between two bishops. This was to be a significant time in his life and helped to shape his short but eventful papacy. On the death of Sabinian in February 606, Boniface was elected his successor although his return from Constantinople to Rome was delayed by almost a year. There is much debate over why there was such a long HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnum" \o "Interregnum" interregnum. This is thought to have occurred as Boniface had insisted on the elections being free and fair and may have refused to take up the papacy until convinced that they had been. This view is given credence by his actions on being consecrated to the office of pope. He made two significant changes to papal selections; the first was the enacting of a decree forbidding anyone during the lifetime of a pope to discuss the appointment of his successor. The second established that no steps could to be taken to provide for a papal successor until three days after a pope's burial. This suggests that he was serious in his desire to keep papal elections free. His other notable act resulted from his close relationship with Emperor Phocas, where he obtained a decree from Phocas restating that the title of "Universal Bishop" belonged exclusively to the bishop of Rome, and effectively ended the attempt by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Cyriacus_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch Cyriacus of Constantinople" Patriarch Cyriacus of Constantinople, to establish himself in that role. This was restating the much earlier view held by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I" \o "Justinian I" Justinian I who had given legal recognition to the primacy of the Roman bishop. He succeeded Sabinian [see 604] and was succeeded by Boniface IV [see 608]. 607ANASTASIOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [607-619] see 578 and 619. During his reign, despite being personally barred from the city of Alexandria, he met with the Patriarch of Antioch as they worked to arrange the unification of their two churches. He was a priest of Alexandria when he was unanimously selected by the bishops and clergy of the Coptic Church to succeed Pope Damian of Alexandria as Patriarch of Alexandria. His name does not appear in the standard biographical dictionaries of the Christian church. One possible reason for this omission is the fact that the influence of the Council of Chalcedon's decisions was very strong at the time, both in Alexandria and in the court of Constantinople. Not only were Coptic bishops of this time not officially recognized, they were also forbidden to enter Alexandria. With the increasing difficulties his church was facing domestically, Anastasios turned more of his attention toward improving relations with other churches. This led to closer contacts with the Church of Antioch. Anastasios spent the remaining years of his patriarchate attending to the affairs of his church, including its now closer relationship with Antioch. He also wrote prolifically on matters of theology. He is said to have written enough to have one book put out every year of his reign. Over the years, however, many of these writings have been lost. BONIFACE IV Pope [608-615] Boniface obtained leave from Emperor Phocas to convert the Pantheon in Rome into a Christian church. It was the first instance at Rome of the transformation of a pagan temple into a place of Christian worship. Twenty-eight cartloads of sacred bones were said to have been removed from the Catacombs and placed in a porphyry basin beneath the high altar. During the pontificate of Boniface, Mellitus (the first bishop of London) went to Rome and on his departure took with him to England the decree of the council together with letters from the pope to Lawrence, Archbishop of Canterbury, and to all the clergy, to King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethelbert_of_Kent" \o "Ethelbert of Kent" Ethelbert, and to all the English people concerning what was to be observed by the Church of England. During the pontificate of Boniface there was much distress in Rome owing to famine, pestilence, and inundations, and the pope, since he was considered to be the closest link between God and man, was often blamed by proxy for these misfortunes. The pontiff, who had converted his own house into a monastery died there in monastic retirement. He succeeded Boniface III [see 606] and was succeeded by Deusdedit [see 615]. During Boniface's reign, Muhammad began to preach in Mecca, forming the basis of Islam. THOMAS I Patriarch of Constantinople [607-610], succeeded Cyriacus [see 596]. There is no additional information readily available. 608THEODOROS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (608-610) see 581 and 610. He endured a martyrs death at the hands of his adversaries. His is honoured as a Saint of the Church. 609ZACHARIAS Patriarch of Jerusalem [609-632] see 601 and 632. It was during the reign of Zacharias that Jerusalem was under the control of the Persians from 614 to 628. 610GREGORY II Patriarch of Antioch [610-620] see also 599 and 620. HERACLIUS [575-641] Byzanitine emperor from 610 whose reign marked the revival of the Eastern Empire. He fought the Persians throughout his reign reorganising his army as a basic military and administrative unit. Antioch was his headquarters until about 636, the centre of the empire surviving despite the loss of Syria and Egypt to the Arabs. He attempted to reconcile Monophysite and Chalcedonian views on Christology by proposing a Monothelite solution in 633 i.e. with Christ having one divine human will. Strong opposition to the plan focused in a monk named Sophronius later patriarch of Jerusalem, and in Honorius of Rome. JOHN V the MERCIFUL Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (610-619), see 608 and 619. He came from Amathus in Cyprus. He became known as the benefactor of Alexandria, establishing many hospitals and homes for the poor. After Egypt had been conquered by the Persians he took refuge in his birthplace of Cyprus. SERGIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [610-638]. In 626 during the absence of Emperor Heraclius on campaign against Sassanid Persia, the Avars laid siege to Constantinople. Along with the magister militum Bonus, he was in charge of the city's defence. He lead a litany to PanagiaHodegetriajust before the final attack of the Avars, and right after completing it a huge storm crushed the invading fleet, saving Constantinople. The storm was credited as a miracle of the Virgin Mary. Sergius I promulgated the belief that Jesus Christ had two natures but one will (Monothelitism). To this end, Sergius sent his archdeacon Peter to a synod in Cyprus in 634, hosted by Archbishop Arkadios II and with additional representatives from Pope Honorius. The anti-Monothelite side in Jerusalem, championed by Maximus the Confessor and Sophronius, sent to this synod Anastasius pupil of Maximus, George of Reshaina pupil of Sophronius, two of George's own pupils, and also eight bishops from Palestine. When the two sides were presented to the emperor, the emperor persisted with Monothelitism and so with Sergius. Monothelitism was declared a heresy at the Third Council of Constantinople or the Sixth Ecumenical Council [680-681]. Sergius I succeeded Thomas I [see 607]. 611-620 AD 611 612GALL [550-640] Irish monk and missionary. He was one of 12 monks who accompanied Columbanus from Ireland to Gaul, remaining there with him until 612. Then he settled with a few friends in a waste place to the west of Bregenz in Austria near Lake Constance. 613 614 615DEUSDEDIT Pope [615-618]. Born in Rome, the son of a subdeacon. He was the first pope to use lead seals (bullae) on papal documents, which in time came to be called papal bulls. He is the first priest to be elected pope since John II in 533 and had been a priest for 40 years prior and represents the second wave of anti-Gregorian challenge to the papacy, the first being that of Sabinian. He reversed the practice of his predecessor, Boniface IV, of filling the papal administrative ranks with monks by recalling the clergy to such positions and by ordaining some 14 priests which were the first ordinations in Rome since Gregory I. He was appointed pope 13th November 615, and was known for his charity and zeal. He encouraged and supported the clergy, who were impoverished in consequence of the political troubles of the time; and when his diocese suffered a violent earthquake and leprosy he set an excellent example by his efforts to relieve the suffering. One bullae dating from his reign is still preserved, the obverse of which represents the Good Shepherd in the midst of His sheep, with the letters Alpha and Omega underneath, while the reverse bears the inscription: Deusdedit Pap or Pope Deusdedit. He succeeded Boniface IV [see 606] and was succeeded by Boniface V [see 619]. MAXIMUS THE CONFESSOR [c.580-662] Byzantine theologian and writer from an aristocrat family. He was appointed chief secretary to Emperor Heraclius I. About 615 he renounced his civil career for monasticism, becoming an abbot. Having fled North Africa during the Persian invasion of 626 he became famous in his disputation at Carthage in 645 which marked the Triumph of orthodox Chalcedonian Christology at several local synod's and the Lateran Council of 649 in which he participated at the invitation of Pope Martin I. Because of his theology, his sympathy with the claims of Roman hierarchy, and opposition to Emperor Constans II, he was tried for treason and exiled to Thrace. His tongue and right hand were cut off for his rebellion and he was banished to the Black Sea where he died 18 years later. Ninety of his produced works remain including commentaries on Scripture and the Church Fathers. 616 617 618 619ANDRONIKOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [619-622] see 607 and 665. BONIFACE V Pope [619-625]. He was consecrated as pope on December 23, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/619" \o "619" 619 after a vacancy of about a year. He did much for the Christianising of England and enacted the decree by which churches became places of refuge for criminals as well as clarification of the roles of various groups within the church. Boniface is described as "the mildest of men" whose chief distinction was his great love for the clergy. The Venerable Bede [see 700] writes of the pope's affectionate concern for the English Church. The letters which he is said to have addressed to Mellitus, archbishop of Canterbury [see below] and to Justus, bishop of Rochester, no longer exist but certain other letters of his have been preserved. One is written to Justus, after he had succeeded Mellitus as archbishop of Canterbury in 624, conferring the pallium upon him and directing him to "ordain bishops as occasion should require." According to Bede, Pope Boniface also sent letters to Edwin, king of Northumbria urging him to embrace the Christian faith; and to the Christian Princess Aethelburg of Kent, Edwin's wife, exhorting her to use her best endeavours for his conversion. During the time of Boniface and his successors the three ancient patriarchs of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria capitulated to the rule of Islam. He succeeded Deusdidit [see 615] and was succeeded by Honorius I [see 625]. ISADORE OF SEVILLE [c.560-636] Archbishop of Seville and encyclopaedist. He was educated at a monastery and showed great aptitude in learning with his studies covering virtually all areas of contemporary knowledge. About 600 he became archbishop of Seville and as such founded schools, laid plans for the conversion of the Jews and also presided over church councils at Seville in 619 and Toledo in 633. Without any doubt his chief importance lies in his writings in which he provided the first manual of Christian doctrine in the Latin Church. The first book dealt with dogma and the second and third with ethics. He wrote a 20-volume encyclopaedia concentrating all the knowledge of his time in all fields. He virtually became the schoolmaster of the Middle Ages. On the Bible he wrote a general introduction and biographical sketches of biblical characters. He was formally accepted as a Doctor of the Church in 1722. GEORGE I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (619-631) see 610 and 631. He was elected Archbishop of Alexandria after Egypt was recaptured by Emperor Heraclius. At the imminent invasion of the Arabs into Egypt, George abandoned Alexandria. MELLITUS Archbishop of Canterbury [619-624]. He was a member of the Gregorian mission sent to England to evangelise the Anglo-Saxons. Accompanying the group of new missionaries was a present of books and "all things which were needed for worship and the ministry of the Church." A 15th-century Canterbury chronicler,Thomas of Elmham, claimed that there were a number of books brought to England by Mellitus still at Canterbury in his day, but examination of the remaining manuscripts has determined that only one possible survivor of Mellitus' books is theSt. Augustine Gospels, now in Cambridge, Corpus Christi College. Along with the letter to Augustine, the missionaries brought a letter to Ethelberht urging the king to act like the Roman emperor, Constantine I, and force the conversion of his followers to Christianity. The king was also urged to destroy all pagan shrines. He was the first bishop of London and was one of a group who arrived in England in 601 to augment the missionaries already in the country. In 604 Augustine consecrated him as bishop in the province of the East Saxons, making Mellitus the first bishop of London, which was the East Saxons' capital. The city was a logical choice for a new bishopric, as it was a hub for the southern road network. It was also a former Roman town, and many of the Gregorian mission's efforts were centred in such locations. Although Gregory had originally intended that London become the southern archbishopric for the island, Augustine never moved his see to London, instead consecrating Mellitus as a plain bishop there. After Augustine's death in 604, Canterbury continued to be the site of the southern archbishopric, and London remained a plain bishopric. It may have been that the Kentish king did not wish that greater episcopal authority be exercised outside his own kingdom. In 616, after the death of his patron, Mellitus fled first to Canterbury, but Ethelberhts successor Eadbaldalso was a pagan, so Mellitus fled to Gaul, along with Justus. Mellitus was recalled to Britain by Laurence of Canterbury, the second archbishop of Canterbury, when he had converted Eadbald. Mellitus did not return to London, because the East Saxons remained pagan. Although Mellitus fled, there does not seem to have been any serious persecution of Christians in the East Saxon kingdom but the East Saxon see was not occupied again until Cedd was consecrated as bishop in 653. After Laurence's death in 619, Mellitus succeeded him as the third archbishop of Canterbury. It was while he was archbishop that he supposedly performed a miracle in 623 by diverting a fire that had started in Canterbury and was threatening the church. Mellitus was carried into the flames, which caused the winds to change direction, saving the church. Other than this, little happened during his time as archbishop, with Bede praising his sane mind and also mentioned that he suffered from gout. While archbishop, he received letters from Boniface encouraging him in the mission. These letters were probably connected with the marriage of Ethelburg of Kent to King Edwin of Northumbria. Mellitus died on 24 April 624. He succeeded Laurence [see 604] and was succeeded by Justus [see 624]. 620ANASTASIUS III Patriarch of Antioch [620-628] see also 610 and 628. 621-630 AD 621 622BENJAMIN I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [622-665] see 619 and 622. Benjamin is considered one of the greatest patriarchs of the Coptic Church. During his tenure, he guided his followers through the Persian invasion of Egypt from 619 to 629, and the Byzantine-Arab Wars, and led the church to a renewed beginning side-by-side with the then growing power of Islam. His papacy witnessed three ruling systems in Egypt, beginning with the Sassanid Empire, followed by the Byzantines, under whose rule Benjamin went into exile, and finally by the Arabs upon their conquest. After the Arab conquest Pope Benjamin was allowed by the Arab rulers to come back to Alexandria and resume his work, after a period he had to go into hiding from the Byzantines. Mennas his brother is known for having been tortured with fire and, eventually drowned in the Nile by the Byzantine Patriarch Cyrus of Alexandria for refusing to take the Chalcedonian profession of faith and refusing to reveal the whereabouts of Benjamin, who was himself a fugitive at that time. Cyrus also confiscated the property of all clerics who followed the fugitive Benjmain, and many churches in Egypt were turned over to the Melkites by force. As a monk he was instructed in the virtues of the monastic life, including holiness, patience, and self-control, and instructed him in the study of the Bible. He also issued encyclicals regarding when the observance of when Easter would take place and instructing the clergy in doctrinal matters in protecting the Coptic interests and the rebuilding of churches. 623 624JUSTUS Archbishop of Canterbury [624-627]. He was a missionary sent to England in 601 in response to a request from Augustine to evangelise the Anglo-Saxons; he became the first bishop of Rochester in 604. He was forced to flee to Gaul in 616 after the death of King Ethelbert but was reinstated in his diocese the next year. In 624 he became archbishop of Canterbury, and during his term of office oversaw the despatch of missionaries toNorthumbria. While bishop, he and Mellitus, another of the missionaries and bishop of London, co-signed a letter written by Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury to the Irish bishops urging the Celtic Church to adopt the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter. In 614 Justus attended the Council of Paris held byChlothar II. A pagan backlash against Christianity took root following the death of Ethelberht in 616, forcing Justus to flee to Gaul, along with Mellitus. By 617 though, Justus had been reinstalled to his bishopric. Justus became archbishop of Canterbury in 624 and received his pallium, the symbol of the jurisdiction entrusted to archbishops by the Holy See, from Pope Boniface V. He then consecrated Romanus as his successor at Rochester and also consecrated Paulinus as the first bishop of York. He succeeded Mellitus [see 619] and was succeeded by Honorius [see 627]. 625HONORIUS I Pope [625-638]. He came from Campania and was the son of the consul Petronius. He became pope on October 27th 625, two days after the death of his predecessor, Boniface V. The festival of theElevation of the Crossis said to have been instituted during the pontificate of Honorius, which was marked also by considerable missionary enterprise. Much of this was centred on England, especially Wessex. He also succeeded in bringing the Irish Easter celebrations in line with the rest of the Catholic Church. Honorius favoured Monothelitism but more than forty years after his death, Honorius was anathematised by name along with the Monothelites at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680. This condemnation was subsequently confirmed by Leo II. This anathema was later one of the main arguments against papal infallibility in the discussions surrounding the First Vatican Council of 1870. He succeeded Boniface V [see 619] and was succeeded by Severinus [see 638]. PAULINUS OF YORK [c.584-644] Monk and missionary probably from a Benedictine background who was part of the second contingent of missionaries sent in 601 by Gregory the Great to assist Augustine in Britain. He worked in Kent where he was consecrated bishop in 625 and travelled north as a chaplain to Ethelburga, the Christian wife of Edwin of Northumbria. Edwin was converted and baptised in 626 at York where Paulinus established his see. His work at York continued until Edwin was killed at the Battle Hatfield [632]. Paulinus now headed south and administered the vacant bishopric of Rochester until his death. Since he had left York before receiving the pallium from the pope it is disputed as to whether he was in fact the first archbishop of York. 626 627HONORIUS Archbishop of Canterbury [627-653]. He was a member of the Gregorian mission to evangelise the Anglo-Saxons in 597. In 627, he was consecrated as archbishop of Canterbury by Paulinus of York at Lincoln. Honorius wrote to Pope Honorius I asking him to raise the see of York to an archbishopric so that when one archbishop in England died, the other would be able to consecrate the deceased bishop's successor. The pope agreed, and sent apalliumfor Paulinus, but by this time, Paulinus had already been forced to flee from Northumbria after the death of King Edwin of Northumbriain October 633. Paulinus was received by Honorius and appointed to the bishopric ofRochester. Honorius consolidated the work of converting the English by sending Felix, a Burgundian, to Dunwich after Felix came to the archbishop and made known his desire to go to East Anglia as a missionary. As well as his help to Felix, Honorius consecrated the first Anglo-Saxonbishop, Itahamar of Rochester and his successor was also a native of England. Honorius had few conflicts with the Irish missionary efforts and admired Aidan, one of the leading Irish clergy. When Honorius died in 653, he was the last of the Gregorian missionaries alive. He succeeded Justus [see 624] and was succeeded by Deusdedit [see 655]. 628MACEDONIUS Patriarch of Antioch [628-640] see also 620 and 640. 629AMANDUS [584679] Belgian missionary and founder of monasticism in his country. 630 631-640 AD 631CYRUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (631-643) see 619 and 643. He attempted to reconcile the Monophysites with the Orthodox through Monothelitism. 632MODESTUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [632-634] see 609 and 634. 633OSWALD [c.605- 642] King of Northumbria. He was the son of Ethelfrith and fled to Scotland on his father's death in 616. He became a Christian through the work of the monks on Iona. On the death of King Edwin in 633 he returned to Northumbria. After prayer he gained a victory over the British king Cadwala at Heavenfield. He was determined to establish the Christian faith in his kingdom and sent to Iona for missionaries. The first sent was unsuccessful but the second, Aidan [see 640], who took up his see on Lindisfarne, worked with Oswald who sometimes accompanied him on missionary journeys acting as his interpreter. Oswald was killed in a battle with the heathen king Penda of Mercia at Oswestry. The name Oswestry is based on his name and means Oswalds tree or cross. Oswald is a good example of a primitive pattern of church-state cooperation. 634SOPHRONIUS I [560-638] Patriarch of Jerusalem [634-638] see 632 and 692. He was born in Damascus and was a monk in Egypt from 580. He travelled to the Jordan area and from 619 lived in Theodosius Monastery Jerusalem. He opposed doctrinally the compromise concocted by Heraclius, Cyrus of Alexandria, and Sergius I of Constantinople, who endeavoured to reconcile the Monophysite and Monothelite groups. When he was selected as patriarch of Jerusalem in 634 he issued his own statement of faith holding to the Chalcedon doctrine. Shortly afterwards Jerusalem was captured by Saracens under Caliph Omar in 637 hastening his death. The see became vacant from 638 until around 692. 635CHINA Nestorians were the first group from the west recorded in China when ALOPEN the Syrian born Christian missionary entered Sian the Tang dynasty capital. They met with imperial favour but provided no Bibles and condoned syncretism between Christians and Buddhists. His ministry was effective but the Nestorians failed to survive persecution under subsequent Chinese emperors and lasted for about 200 years in that country. By the end of the 10th century Christianity had disappeared. The Nestorians returned again in the 13th century but with little success [see 1294].636 637 638GREGORY OF AGRIGENTUM [559-638] Byzantine prelate who travelled in North Africa and the Near East when he was only 18. He was ordained deacon by the patriarch of Jerusalem and consecrated bishop in Rome at the age of 31. Accused and imprisoned by enemies he appealed to Pope Gregory I who declared him innocent and he was then received with honour by Emperor Maurice. His 10 volume commentary on Ecclesiastes has been preserved. PYRRHUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [638-641], succeeded Sergius I [see 610]. There is no additional information readily available. SEVERINUS Pope [638-640]. He was elected on the third day after the death of his predecessor and envoys were at once sent to Constantinople to obtain the confirmation of his election but the Emperor Heraclius, instead of granting the confirmation, ordered Severinus to sign his Monothelite profession of faith which was taken to Isaac exarch of Ravenna. Severinus refused to sign it and the exarch therefore refused to confirm the papal election in the emperors name, a situation that endured for over eighteen months. Isaac the exarch of Ravenna now attacked Rome and spent eight days looting the Lateran palace a part of which was sent to Constantinople. Severinus continued to reject the emperor's compromise position on Monothelitism and towards the end of his reign an ageing emperor gave his approval. Severinus was therefore finally installed as pope on May 28,640, and Isaac quickly withdrew to Ravenna. During the short time he was pope, Severinus convened a synod condemning Monothelitism. He died onAugust 2, 640. He succeeded Honorius I [see 625] and was succeeded by John IV [see 640]. 639 640AIDAN [d.651] Considered by some as "the true apostle of England". He was noted for his simplicity, humility and gentleness. Aidan was the first bishop of Lindisfarne who at the request of Oswald, king of Northumbria, went from Iona to teach the Northumbrians about Christianity. ELIGIUS [588-660] Bishop and metal worker who was a noted builder of abbeys and churches including the Abbey of St Denis Paris. A renowned philanthropist, he was ordained in 640, consecrated bishop of Tournai in 641, and proselytised many of the pagans in his diocese. GEORGE I Patriarch of Antioch [640-656] see also 628 and 656. JOHN IV Pope [640-642]. He was from Dalmatia. As John's consecration followed very soon after his election in December 640 it is supposed that the papal elections were being confirmed by the exarch of Ravenna rather than by the emperor in Constantinople. Troubles in his native land, caused by invasions of Slavs, directed John's attention there. To alleviate the distress of the inhabitants, John sent the abbot Martin into Dalmatia and Istria with large sums of money for the redemption of captives. As the ruined churches could not be rebuilt, the relics of some of the more important Dalmatian saints were brought to Rome. About the same time he condemnedMonothelism. Emperor Heraclius immediately disowned the Monothelite document. He succeeded Severinus [see 638] and was succeeded by Theodore I [see 642]. 641-650 AD 641OUEN [c.609-684] Archbishop of Rouen who was educated at the abbey of St Medard and served kings Clothaire II and Dagobert I. As the latter's able chancellor he established the monastery of Rabais in 634. On Dagobert's death Oeun was ordained and in 641 was consecrated as archbishop of Rouen. He built churches and monasteries, fostered theological education, and undertook evangelisation in a diocese still infested with paganism and barbarism. Ouen was also a diplomat and supported the mayor Ebroin and negotiated a peace between the Franks of Neustria and Austrasia. PAUL II Patriarch of Constantinople [641-653]. He assumed regency for the Byzantine emperor Constans II after a succession crisis in 641. He succeeded Pyrrhus I [see 638]. There is no additional information readily available. 642COPTIC CHURCH was already battered when in 642 the Muslims invaded and while this gave relief from the attention of the see of Byzantium the disease was worse than the cure as the Arab conquerors used heavy taxation and other threats to effect massive conversions to Islam. Under the Caliphs the destruction of churches and monasteries and the massacre of Christians helped to spark the Crusades [see 1095]. To maintain identity the Copts instructed the faithful in their traditional canon and civil law with a major compilation made by Patriarch Cyril III in 1236 [see 451 and 1517]. THEODORE I Pope [642-649]. He is believed to have been a Greek, but was born in Palestine. He was made a cardinal by John IV. His election was supported by the exarch and he was installed onNovember 24th 642. The main feature of his reign was the continued struggle against the heretical Monothelites. He refused to recognise Paul as the patriarch of Constantinople because his predecessor, Pyrrhus, had not been correctly replaced. He pressed Emperor Constans II to withdraw the Ecthesis of Heraclius. While his efforts made little impression on Constantinople, it increased the opposition to the heresy in the West. Pyrrhus even briefly in 645 recanted his heresy but was excommunicatedin 648 with Paul being excommunicated the following year. In response Paul destroyed the Roman altar in the palace of Placidia and exiled or imprisoned the papal nuncios. Theodore planned the Lateran Council of 649 to condemn the Ecthesis, but died before he could convene it. He succeeded John IV [see 640] and was succeeded by Martin I [see 649]. 643PETER IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (643-651) see 631 and 651. Following the total occupation of Egypt by the Arabs he sought refuge in Constantinople. He signed the Records of the 6th Ecumenical Council. 644 645 646 647 648 649AMANDUS [584-679] Founder of Belgian monasticism who became a monk at 20 and spent many years as a hermit. In 629 after consecration as a missionary he evangelised in Flanders and Carinthia. He became the bishop of Tongeres - Maastricht in 649 and founded eight abbeys. He retired to one where he wrote an autobiography. JOHN CLIMACUS [579-649] Ascetic and mystic who was a monk of Sinai and became an anchorite and later abbot to a monastery. He is known for his book Ladder of Paradise which shows a ladder with 30 steps, each step relating to a chapter describing a particular monastic virtue or vice, showing the way that may be acquired or eliminated. Step 30 is entitled Faith Hope and Charity where the monk supposedly receives the crown of glory from Christ. MARTIN I Pope [649-655]. He had previously acted as papal legate at Constantinople, and was held in high repute for learning and virtue. He was the last legate elected pope. Almost his first official act was to summon the Lateran Council of 649 to deal with the Monothelites, whom the Church considered heretical. It met in the church of St. John Lateran, was attended by one hundred and five bishops and held five sessions from October 5 to October 31, 649. In twenty canons it condemned the Monothelites, its authors, and the writings by which it had been promulgated. In this condemnation were included, not only the Ecthesis or exposition of faith of the patriarch Sergius for which the emperor Heraclius had stood sponsor, but also the notes of Paul his successor which had the support of the reigning emperor Constans II. Martin was very energetic in publishing the decrees of his Lateran synod in an encyclical, and Constans replied by enjoining his governor in Italy to arrest the pope, should he persist in this line of conduct, and send him as a prisoner to Constantinople. These orders were found impossible to carry out for a considerable space of time, but at last Martin was arrested in the Lateran on June 17th 653, along with Maximus the Confessor. He was hurried out of Rome and conveyed first to Naxos and subsequently to Constantinople by September 17th 653. After suffering an exhausting imprisonment and many alleged public indignities, he was ultimately banished to Kherson in the Crimea, where he arrived on May 15th 655, and died on September 16th of that year. He succeeded Theodore I [see 642] and was succeeded by Eugene I [see 654]. 650ISHU-YAB III [c.600-658] Patriarch of the East from 650. He was the son of Persian Christian and was a monk in northern Mesopotamia and became bishop of Nineveh in 627 and metropolitan of Arbil about 637. He fled from his diocese during the Byzantine invasion of 627 and was sent as a member of a peace embassy to Constantinople in 630. On his way back he stole some relics from a church in Antioch. His letters are an important first-hand evidence of history of the time. He succeeded, probably with Muslim help, in bringing Shimun, metropolitan of Fars into obedience but not before the latter had lost the Christians of Oman to the Muslims. LOW COUNTRIES [see also 1609] The modern Netherlands and Belgium are the Low Countries and are roughly divided by the Rhine estuary. Christianity spread there during the third century but in the following century the Roman Empire crumbled and there remained only scattered survivals of Christianity. The conversion of Clovis [see 481] chief of the Franks in 496 opened the way for the expansion of the faith with the Merovingian kings encouraging missions and during the fifth and sixth centuries the South Lowlands were gradually converted with Vaast, Falko, Herebert, and Lambert among the better known missionaries, the effort culminating with St Amandus The apostle to the Belgians around 650. North of the Rhine however there was a strong pagan kingdom which was suspicious of Frankish expansion. The isolated missionary effort of Wilfred of York [see 669] was followed by the mission of Willibrord the apostle to the Frisians [see 695], and Boniface [see 747] succeeded him. Mission efforts by Willehad [see 765] Lebuinus, and Ludger [see 775] assisted in the Christianisation of the Lowlands which was finally completed by Charlemagne through conquest around 800. After the death of Charlemagne pagan Northmen [Vikings] invaded, with the northern lowlands coming under their control. In the late ninth century the Northmen too were converted and by 1050 feudalism had evolved into a system which provided a relative degree of political stability. The religious history of the Lowlands therefore merged with the general religious history of feudal Europe. The Counts of Flanders played important roles in the Crusades and the Lowlands produced philosophers such as Henry of Ghent [see 1293] and Siger of Brabant [see 1266], and church reformer Norbert of Xanten [see 1120] being amongst the most prominent. Many attempts were made to reform the church during Medieval times and the Lowlands produced a strong mystical movement, Jan Van Ruysbroeck [see 1317], Gerard Groot [see 1380], and the Brethren of Common Life [see 1380], Thomas A. Kempis [see 1413], and Erasmus [1514]. Meanwhile, theologians Wessel of Gansfort [see1474] and Cornelis Hoen in some ways anticipated Luther. 651-660 AD 651SEVENTH CENTURY ORTHODOX PATRIARCHS OF ALEXANDRIA. See 643 and 727. From the middle of the century until Cosmas I see 727 there was a period of Coadjutoration of the Patriarchal Throne, a result of the Arab domination. During this time PETER V, PETER VI [as the unworthy Bishop of the Great City of Alexandria], THEOPHYLACTUS and ONOPSUS were the rulers of the see. 652FINAN [d.661] Second bishop of Lindisfarne where he succeeded Aidan in 652. He worked with Oswy, king of Northumbria, for the conversion of the country to Christianity of the Celtic or Irish type. Intensely missionary orientated in his outlook, he sought to bring the gospel to people beyond the borders of Northumbria, and did so with such success that he baptised both the kings of the East Saxons and Mercia. In the controversy over the date of Easter he took the Celtic tradition but died before the matter was finally settled in favour of Rome at the Whitby synod of 663. 653CEDD [d.664] Bishop of the East Saxons. With his brother Chad he was one of 12 pupils of Aiduan [see 640] on Lindisfarne. In 653 he was sent by King Oswy of Northumbria to evangelise Mercia. The following year he was sent to Essex and made bishop of the East Saxons. He was present as one of the Celtic representatives at the Synod of Whitby in 663-4 and accepted the verdict in favour of Roman customs. PETER HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople (653-666). He succeeded Paul II [see 641]. There is no additional information readily available. 654EUGENE I Pope [654-657] Little is known of Eugene's early life other than that he was a Roman from the Aventine, and was known for his good character. He had been a cleric from his youth and held various positions within the Church of Rome. On the banishment of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Martin_I" \o "Pope Martin I" Martin I [see 649] by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" \o "Byzantine Empire" Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constans_II" \o "Constans II" Constans II, he made no public stand against the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monothelitism" \o "Monothelitism" Monothelitism [see 681] of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" patriarchs of Constantinople. Martin I was carried off from Rome on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_18" \o "June 18" 18 June HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/653" \o "653" 653, and he was kept in exile until his death in September 655. Little is known about what happened in Rome after Pope Martin's departure, but it was typical in those days for the see to be governed by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archpriest" \o "Archpriest" archpriest and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archdeacon" \o "Archdeacon" archdeacon. After a year and two months, a successor was found to Martin in Eugene. Almost immediately after his election, Eugene was forced to deal with Monothelitism. One of the first acts of the new pope was to send legates to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople with letters to Emperor Constans II, informing him of his election, and professing his faith. The legates unfortunately allowed themselves to be deceived, or bribed, and brought back a synodical letter from Peter, the new HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople (656-666), while the emperor's envoy, who accompanied them, brought offerings and a request from the emperor that the pope would enter into communion with the patriarch of Constantinople. Peter's letter proved to be written in a difficult and obscure style, and avoided making any specific declaration as to the number of "wills or operations" in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ" \o "Christ" Christ. When its contents were read to the clergy and people they not only rejected the letter with indignation, but would not allow the pope to leave the basilica until he had promised that he would not on any account accept it. So furious were the Byzantine officials at this harsh rejection of the wishes of their emperor and patriarch that they threatened that they would roast Eugene and all the spokesmen at Rome along with him as they had roasted Pope Martin I. Eugene was saved from the fate of his predecessor by the advance of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" \o "Islam" Muslims who took HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodes" \o "Rhodes" Rhodes in 654, and defeated Constans himself in the naval battle of Phoenix 655. Eugene received the youthful HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfrid" \o "Wilfrid" Wilfrid [see 669] on the occasion of his first visit to Rome in 654 where he gained the affection of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archdeacon_Boniface&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Archdeacon Boniface (page does not exist)" Archdeacon Boniface, a papal counsellor of who presented Wilfrid to Eugene who "placed his blessed hand on the head of the youthful servant of God, prayed for him, and blessed him." Nothing more is known of Eugene except that he consecrated twenty-one bishops for different parts of the world and he died in 657. He succeeded Martin I [see 649] and was succeeded by Vitalian [see 657]. PETER Patriarch of Constantinople [654-666], succeeded Paul II [see 641]. There is no additional information readily available. 655DEUSDEDIT Archbishop of Canterbury [655-664]. He was the first Saxon to hold the position of archbishop of Canterbury. He was consecrated by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithamar_(bishop)" \o "Ithamar (bishop)" Ithamar, bishop of Rochester, on 26th March 655. He probably owed his appointment to the see of Canterbury to collaboration between the kings of Kent and Wessex. The name Deusdedit means "dedicated to God or, more literally, "God has given". The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/See_of_Canterbury" \o "See of Canterbury" see of Canterbury seems, at this time, to have been passing through a period of comparative obscurity as during the nine years of his pontificate all the new English bishops, with one exception, were consecrated by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celt" \o "Celt" Celtic or foreign bishops. Deusdedit, however, did found a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunnery" \o "Nunnery" nunnery on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Thanet" \o "Isle of Thanet" Isle of Thanet and had some share in the foundation of what later was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterborough_Cathedral" \o "Peterborough Cathedral" Peterborough Cathedral, in 657. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Whitby" \o "Synod of Whitby" Synod of Whitby which debated whether the Northumbrian Church should follow the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" \o "Roman Catholic Church" Roman or the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Church" \o "Celtic Church" Celtic Church was held in 664. Due to his affliction with the plague, Deusdedit does not appear to have been present for the victorious Romanist party and his death took place only a few months later. He succeeded Honorius [see 627] and was succeeded by Wighard [see 666]. 656MACARIUS Patriarch of Antioch [656-681] see also 640 and 681. 657ILDEFONSUS [c.606-667] Archbishop of Toledo who studied under Isidore of Seville [see 619]. Against his father's wishes he entered the monastery at Agalia near Toledo becoming its abbot and founding a nunnery nearby. From 657 he was archbishop of Toledo and contributed much to the Roman Catholic veneration of Mary. VITALIAN Pope [657-672]. After the death of Eugene, Vitalian was elected his successor and was consecrated and enthroned on July 30th 657. Like his predecessor Vitalian tried to restore the connection with Constantinople by making friendly advances to the Eastern Emperor Constans II (641-668) and to prepare the way for the settlement of the Monothelite controversy. He sent letters announcing his elevation to the emperor and to Patriarch Peter of Constantinople. The emperor confirmed the privileges of the Roman Church and sent to Rome a codex of the Gospels in a cover of gold richly ornamented with precious stones as a good-will gesture. The Patriarch Peter also replied, although his answer was somewhat noncommittal as to Monothelitism, a belief he defended. In his letter, he gave the impression of being in accord with the pope, whose letter to Peter had expounded the Catholic Faith. Thus ecclesiastical contact between Rome and Constantinople was restored but the mutual reserve over the dogmatic question of Monothelitism remained. Vitalian's name was entered on the records of the Byzantine Church, the only name of a pope so entered between the reign of Honorius I [see 625] and the Sixth Ecumenical Council of 680-81. Vitalian showed reciprocity toward Constans, when the latter came to Rome in 663, spending twelve days there during a campaign against the Lombards. On 5th July the pope and members of the Roman clergy, met the emperor at the sixth milestone and accompanied him to St. Peter's, where the emperor offered gifts. The following Sunday, Constans went in state to St. Peter's, offered a pallium wrought with gold, and was present during the Mass celebrated by the pope. The emperor dined with the pope on the following Saturday, attended Mass again on Sunday at St. Peter's, and after Mass took leave of the pope. On his departure Constans removed a large number of bronze artworks, including the bronze tiles from the roof of the Pantheon, which had been dedicated to Christian worship. Constans then moved on toSicily, oppressed the population, and was assassinated at Syracuse in 668. Vitalian supported Constans' son Constantine IV against a usurper and thus helped him attain the throne. It was not until the Sixth Ecumenical Council (681) that Monothelitism was suppressed. Vitalian was successful in improving relations with England, where the Anglo-Saxon and British clergies were divided regarding various church customs. At the Synod of Streaneshalch, King Oswy of Northumberland accepted Roman practices regarding the keeping of Easter and the shape of the tonsure. Together with King Egbert ofKent, he sent the priest Wighard to Rome, to be consecrated there after the death of ArchbishopDeusdedit of Canterburyin 664, but Wighard died at Rome of the plague. A highly educated monk,Theodore of Tarsus, who understood bothLatinandGreek, was chosen as archbishop of Canterbury [see 668]. In addition the See of Ravenna reported directly to Rome and Archbishop Maurus of Ravenna (648-71) sought to end this dependence. When Vitalian called for justification of his theological views, he refused and declared himself independent of Rome. The popeexcommunicated him, but Maurus did not submit and excommunicated the pope. Emperor Constans II sided with the archbishop and issued an edict removing the archbishop of Ravenna from the patriarchal jurisdiction of Rome and it was not until the reign of Pope Leo II (682-83) that the independence of the See of Ravenna was suppressed with Emperor Constantine IV repealing the edict of Constans and confirmed the ancient rights of the Roman See over the See of Ravenna. The introduction of church organ music is believed to date from the time of Vitalian's papacy. He died January 27th 672. He succeeded Eugene I [see 654] and was succeeded by Adeodatus [see 672]. 658 659HILDA [614-680] Abbess of Whitby who was related to King Edwin of Northumbria and was converted through the preaching of Paulinus and baptised by him in 627. She served God faithfully in the secular world for a number of years and then decided to become a nun. On her way to France to join a religious community she was recalled by Aidan [see 640] in 649 who appointed her abbess of the convent in County Durham. In 659 she became the founder and abbess of the double monastery for men and women at Whitby in Yorkshire. This community became famous as a school of theology and literature with graduates including five future bishops and Caedmon the earliest known English poet. At the synod of Whitby in 663-4 she defended the Celtic customs but accepted the decision that went in favour of Roman usage. 660 661-670 AD 661 662 663ANGLO SAXON CHURCH Christianity had existed in Britain as early as AD 156 but during the 4th and 5th centuries pagan Anglo Saxon invasions drove the Britons with their Christianity into ever diminishing enclaves. Through hatred of the Anglo Saxons the Britons refused to evangelise them. Augustine [see 597] landed in Kent and its king, Egbert, gave him land and a disused church in Canterbury from which the primacy of the see of Canterbury arises. Foundation of the sees were Canterbury, 597; London 604; Rochester, 604; Winchester, 609; Worcester, 620; York, 625; Dorchester 634: Lindisfarne, 635, Lichfield, 656; HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07255a.htm" Hereford, 662; Elmham, 673; Sherborne, 705; Selsey, 708; Leicester, 870; Ramsbury, c. 909; Crediton, c. 909; Wells, c. 909; Cornwall (St. Germans), 931. Much of Northern England was converted by the Celtic Church [see 461]. However pagan invasions from Scandinavia remained a problem until the Norman conquest. Missionaries always tried to convert the local king first resulting in his subjects being ordered to be baptised without giving much weight to belief. Monasticism was very popular though they apparently only admitted nobility. Some therefore also became centres of wealth and idleness in the 8th and 9th centuries. There were revivals in the 10th century under such leaders as Dunstan and Aethelwold and many of the books produced by the Anglo Saxons at that time were prized in Europe. COLMAN [d.676] Bishop of Lindisfarne. He was an Irish monk sent to Lindisfarne to succeed Finian as the third bishop. He supported King Oswy in maintaining Celtic customs particularly over the date of Easter. At the synod of Whitby in 663 he voted for the Celtic side and when the Roman side won he resigned as bishop and taking some of the monks returned to Ireland for the rest of his life. WHITBY, SYNOD OF An important turning point in the history of the Church in England. English Christianity in the 7th century had two main groups, one came from Rome through Augustine of Canterbury and the other from the Celtic Church via Iona and Lindisfarne. The most notable difference between the two was the date of when Easter was to be celebrated. The synod was called at Whitby in Yorkshire where Colman bishop of Lindisfarne argued that the Celtic tradition went back through Columba and Polycarp to the Apostle John. Wilfrid, abbot of Ripon, pleaded the nearly universal observance of the tradition going back to Peter and Paul. The king of Northumbria was in favour of the Roman party on the grounds that he would rather be on good terms with the keeper of heaven's gate than with Columba. The decision caused some bitterness among the Celtic party but was influential in bringing England within the mainstream of Christendom for almost the next 900 years. 664CEADDA [CHAD] Bishop of Lichfield. He was brother of Cedd [see 653] and succeeded him in 664 as abbot of Lastingham Yorkshire. In 669 King Wulfhere of Mercia asked for a bishop and Chad was sent. He was noted, like many others from Lindisfarne, for his humility, his devotion, teaching ability, and missionary works. EGBERT [639-729] English monk from Lindisfarne who in 664 when affected by the plague vowed that if spared he would never return to his native land. He was fired with missionary zeal and was largely responsible for organising the evangelisation of Germany. He spent the last 13 years of his life on Iona, persuading the monks to accept the Roman date of Easter. He died on the very day they celebrated Easter in conformity with the rest of Europe. 665AGATHO Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [665-681] see 619 and 681. 666WIGHARD Archbishop of Canterbury [666-668]. Wighard was a Saxon priest and a native of Kent. He served in the household of Archbishop Deusdedit of Canterbury. Bede says that in 664, he was selected to be the archbishop of Canterbury and that he was sent to Rome to visit Pope Vitalian for confirmation and to receive his pallium. However he died before his consecration in Rome, due to the bubonic plague. His death in Rome allowed Vitalian the opportunity to choose his successor, and he chose his friend Theodore of Tarsus to become the next archbishop. He succeeded Deusdedit [see 655] and was succeeded by Theodore [see 668]. 667THOMAS II HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [667-669]. He succeeded Peter [see 654]. There is no additional information readily available. 668THEODORE Archbishop of Canterbury [668-690]. Theodore was born in Tarsus in Turkey which was a diocese of the Byzantine Empire. Theodore's childhood experienced devastating wars between Byzantium and the Persian Empire which resulted in the capture of Antioch, Damascus, and Jerusalem in 613-14. Tarsus was captured by Persian forces when Theodore was 11 or 12. There is evidence that Theodore experienced Persian culture. It is most likely that he studied at Antioch, the historic home of a distinctive school of exegesis, of which he was a proponent. At some time before the 660s Theodore came to Rome and was living with a community of Eastern monks. In 667, when Theodore was 66, the see of Canterbury was vacant, and the man chosen to fill the post, Wighard, unexpectedly died in Rome. Theodore was chosen upon the recommendation of Hadrian who was later abbot of St. Peter's,Canterbury. Theodore was consecrated as archbishop of Canterbury in Rome on 26 March 668, and sent to England with Hadrian, arriving on 27 May 669. Theodore conducted a survey of the English Church, appointed various bishops to sees that had been vacant for some time and then called the Synod of Hertford to institute reforms concerning the proper celebration of Easter, episcopal authority, itinerant monks, the regular convening of subsequent synods, marriage and others. He also proposed dividing the large diocese of Northumbria into smaller sections, a policy which brought him into conflict with Bishop Wilfrid, whom Theodore himself had appointed to the see of York. Theodore deposed and expelled Wilfrid in 678 subsequently dividing his dioceses. The conflict with Wilfrid was not finally settled until 686687. In 679, Aelfwine, the brother of KingEcgfrith of Northumbria, was killed in battle against the Mercians. Theodore's intervention prevented the escalation of the war and resulted in peace between the two kingdoms, with KingEhtelred of Mercia paying compensation for Aelfwine's death. Theodore and Hadrian established a school in Canterbury resulting in a "golden age" of Anglo-Saxon scholarship. They attracted a large number of students who in addition to biblical studies they also taught their pupils poetry, astronomy, and the calculation of the church calendar. Theodore also taught sacred music, introduced various texts, knowledge of Eastern saints, and may even have been responsible for the introduction of the Litany of the Saints, a major liturgical innovation, into the West. Theodore died in 690 at the remarkable age of 88, having held the archbishopric for twenty-two years and was buried in Canterbury. He succeeded Wighard [see 666] and was succeeded by Berhtwald [see 693]. 669JOHN V Patriarch of Constantinople [669-675]. John was orthodox, as was his predecessor, Thomas II. Prior to his election to the patriarchal throne, he was a presbyter of Constantinople. He succeeded Thomas II [see 667]. There is no additional information readily available. WILFRID [634-709] Bishop of York. Wilfrid was from a noble family and educated at Lindisfarne and then went to study at Canterbury. He became abbot of Ripon after visiting Rome with Benedict Biscop [see 682]. In 654 Wilfrid promoted the Roman tradition strongly at the Synod of Whitby. Shortly after the synod he was appointed bishop of Northumbria with his seat in York. He went to Gaul for the consecration of Frankish bishops and stayed there for two years during which Chad [see 672] abbot Lastingham was consecrated bishop of York. On his return in 666 Wilfred went to Ripon but Theodore of Tarsus [see 669], archbishop of Canterbury, had him installed at York in 669. Wilfrid was an ambitious and able man with a forceful personality but came into conflict with others. In 703 the synod called by Archbishop Brihtwold decreed that Wilfred should resign the see of York and retire to Ripon as a monk. He appealed again to Rome and his claim was upheld but he agreed to the appointment of John of Beverley [see 705] as bishop of York and himself as bishop of Hexham. Wifrids importance lies in the large part he played in the Romanisation of the Celtic Church. 670BIBLE VERSIONS Old English listed in order [for Middle English see 1384] 670. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/caedmon.html" Caedmon in northern Britain composes poems based on Biblical narratives in Old English. 825. Vespasian Psalter gives interlinear Old English translation. 871 Alfred the Great included an English version of the Decalogue and some of the Pentateuch in his laws. 900. Paris Psalter gives Old English version of the first fifty Psalms. 950. Aldred (bishop of Durham) writes Old English between the lines of the Lindisfarne Gospels. 970. Faerman (priest in Yorkshire) makes the first Old English version of the Gospel of Matthew in the Rushworth Gospels, based upon Aldred's work. 1000. Aelfric (abbot in Oxfordshire) translates abridged Pentateuch and several other portions of Scripture into Old English. Wessex Gospels give first Old English version of all four gospels. 1066. Norman conquest of Britain destroys Old English literature, makes Norman French the language of the nobility. LAMBERT [c.635-700] Bishop, monk and missionary. He became bishop of Maastricht sometime around 670 and although a bishop until his death he was for political reasons exiled from the monastery which served as the headquarters of his see. During his exile he travelled as a missionary. He is sometimes known under the name of Landebertus the Martyr since some sources claim that he met are violent and bloody death. 671-680 AD 671 672ADEODATUS Pope [672-676]. Reigned from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_11" \o "April 11" April 11, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/672" \o "672" 672 to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_17" \o "June 17" June 17, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/676" \o "676" 676. Little is known about him. Most records which remain indicate that Adeodatus was known for his generosity, especially when it came to the poor and to pilgrims. Born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome, he became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictine" \o "Benedictine" Benedictine and was a monk of the Roman cloister of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Erasmus" \o "St Erasmus" St Erasmus on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caelian_Hill" \o "Caelian Hill" Caelian Hill. He was active in improving monastic discipline, and in the repression of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monothelitism" \o "Monothelitism" Monothelitism, and gave HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice" \o "Venice" Venice the right to choose the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doge_of_Venice" \o "Doge of Venice" doge itself. Pope Adeodatus II was already an elderly man when he was elected pope and, even though he reigned for four years, not a great deal was accomplished during his pontificate. He is sometimes referred to as Adeodatus (without a number) since HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Adeodatus_I" \o "Pope Adeodatus I" Pope Adeodatus I is sometimes known as Pope Deusdedit. He succeeded Vitalian [see 657] and was succeeded by Donus [see 676]. 673HERTFORD, COUNCIL OF [673] A council of bishops summoned by Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury [see 668] to promote the reorganisation of the English Church. Among its 10 canons it reaffirmed the Roman calculation of Easter, prohibited bishops intruding in the affairs of neighbouring dioceses, forbade monks and clergymen from leaving their places without permission, provided for future episcopal synods twice a year, and recognised adultery as the only ground for divorce. It was the first time that the English Church deliberated as a unity and has been called the first constitutional measure of the English race. 674 675CONSTANTINE I Patriarch of Constantinople [675-677] succeeded John V [see 669]. There is no additional information readily available.676DONUS Pope [676-678]. Of Roman birth, it was during his reign Reparatus, the archbishop of Ravenna, returned to the obedience to Rome thus ending the schism created by Archbishop Maurus who had aimed at making Ravenna independent. Also in this period a colony of Nestorian monks was discovered in a Syrian monastery at Rome, the Monasterium Boetianum. Donus is reported to have dispersed them through the various religious houses of the city, and to have given their monastery to Roman monks. Relations with Constantinople in his time tended towards the conciliatory. He succeeded Adeodatus [see 672] and was succeeded by Agatho [see 678]. GEORGE, BISHOP [c.640-724] Prominent Monophysite church writer. After 676 he was the chief bishop of Arab tribes in the Tigris and Euphrates area that were still Christian. Among his writings and works were a translation of Aristotle into Syriac, rhymed works on the sacraments, and treatments of patristic, dogmatic, exegetical, and astronomical questions in tracts and letters. 677THEODORE I Patriarch of Constantinople [677-679], he succeeded Constantine I [see 675]. There is no additional information readily available. 678AGATHO Pope [678-681]. He succeeded Donus [see 676] and was succeeded by Leo II [see 681]. He was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope" \o "Pope" pope from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_27" \o "June 27" June 27, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/678" \o "678" 678 to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_10" \o "January 10" January 10, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/681" \o "681" 681. A HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks" \o "Greeks" Greek born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily" \o "Sicily" Sicily of wealthy and devout parents, he apparently gave away his inheritance after their death and retired to a monastery in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palermo" \o "Palermo" Palermo. Shortly after Agatho became pope, Wilfrid, archbishop of York, arrived at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome to invoke the authority of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See" \o "Holy See" Holy See in his behalf as he had been deposed from his see by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore,_Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury" Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, who had split the diocese appointing three bishops to govern the new sees. At a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod" \o "Synod" synod in which Pope Agatho investigated the affair, it was decided that Wilfrid's diocese should indeed be divided, but that Wilfrid himself should name the bishops. The major event of his pontificate was the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_Ecumenical_Council" \o "Sixth Ecumenical Council" Sixth Ecumenical Council (6801), which ended the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monothelite" \o "Monothelite" Monothelite heresy that had been tolerated by previous popes. The council began when Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_IV" \o "Constantine IV" Constantine IV, wanting to heal the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schism_(religion)" \o "Schism (religion)" schism that separated the two sides, wrote to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Donus" \o "Pope Donus" Pope Donus suggesting a conference on the matter, but Donus was dead by the time the letter arrived. However, Agatho was quick to seize the offer of the emperor and sent a large delegation to meet those from the east at Constantinople. The legates and patriarchs gathered in the imperial palace on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_7" \o "November 7" November 7, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/680" \o "680" 680 and as a result ended the Monothelite heresy and also healed the schism. Agatho also undertook negotiations with Constantine concerning the relations of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_empire" \o "Byzantine empire" Byzantine Court to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_elections" \o "Papal elections" papal elections. As a result Constantine promised Agatho to abolish or reduce the tax that the popes had had to pay to the imperial treasury on their HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consecration" \o "Consecration" consecration. Some say he was the first pope to take, as part of his inauguration, what they call the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_Oath_(Traditionalist_Catholic)" \o "Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)" Papal Oath. CAEDMON [d.678] English poet who was a cow herder who according to Bede suddenly became able to write poetry and composed a short piece known as Caedmons hymn. He was taken before Hilda [see 659] abbess of Whitby where he composed more verses and was persuaded to enter a monastery. He is said to have written extensively on the Genesis story, the Exodus, Incarnation, Passion, Resurrection, and Ascension, however only a part of the Genesis text survives. 679ADAMNAN [624704] Abbot of Iona [679704]. He was famous for two books "De Locis Sanctis" an account of a visit to Palestine about 690 and the "Life of St Columba", the founder of Iona. Deeply concerned about the schism between Iona and Rome he persuaded the Irish Church to adopt the Roman method of determining Easter but could not persuade his own monks to do so. This authority however was accepted in 716 after his death. GEORGE I Patriarch of Constantinople [679-686]. He succeeded Theodore I [see 677]. There is no additional information readily available. HATFIELD, COUNCIL OF This provincial synod of the bishops and teachers of the English church at Hatfield (or Heathfield) was summoned in 679 and presided over by Archbishop Theodore [see 668]. It met at the wish of Pope Agatho [see 678], who hoped for and secured the churchs condemnation of the Monothelite heresy [see 681], its acceptance of the decrees of the first five general councils of the church, and a profession of faith in the Double Procession of the Holy Spirit. 680CONSTANTINOPLE, THIRD COUNCIL OF [see 2nd council 553 and 4th council 879] called partly because of the rise of Islam in the 7th century, and the marked attempt of the Eastern emperor to bring about religious unity between Rome and Constantinople. The council rejected Monothelism and restated the Chalcedonian definition adding that Christ had two wills as well as two natures. Because of these decisions and the fact that Islam had taken over much of the Middle East, the Nestorian [see 428] and Monophysite [see 451] wings of the church became permanently separated from the orthodox church. 681-690 AD 681LEO II Pope [681-683]. He was a Sicilian by birth and elected pope a few days after the death of St Agatho on January 10th 681 but was not consecrated until after the lapse of a year and seven months on August 17th 682, because of a delay in confirmation by the Byzantine emperor Constantine IV. Leo was known as an eloquent preacher who was interested in music, and noted for his charity to the poor. Emperor Constantine IV had already promised Agatho [see 678] to abolish or reduce the tax that the popes had had to pay to the imperial treasury on their consecration over the course of about a century. During his short reign Leo confirmed the acts of the Sixth Ecumenical Council (680-1). During this council, Pope Honorius [see 625] was anathematised for his views in the Monothelite controversy as a favourer ofheresy. However, Leo took great pains to make it clear that in condemning Honorius, he did so not because Honorius taught heresy, but because he was not active enough in opposing it. In accordance with the papal mandate, a synod was held at Toledo (684) in which the Council of Constantinople was accepted. Leo also put an end to the attempts of the Ravenna archbishops to not be under the control of the bishop of Rome with Constantine IV revoking the decree of his father Constans in favour of Ravenna. The pope sweetened the deal for the Ravenna bishops by abolishing the tax it had been customary for them to pay when they received thepallium. Also, in apparent response toLombardraids, Leo transferred the relics of a number of martyrs from the catacombs to churches inside the walls of the city. He succeeded Agatho [see 678] and was succeeded by Benedict II [see 684]. MONOTHELITES The question whether there were two wills or one in the Word made flesh was inevitable. The Chalcedon settlement [see 451] had insisted on the doctrine of two natures in the incarnate Son. But some of the follows of Cyril of Alexandria [see 444], believing that a suggestion of a duality must lead straight back to Nestorianism [see 428], were dissatisfied. The opponents of Chalcedon became known as Monophysites which corresponded with Monothelites. This controversy nearly tore the empire apart and the emperor Heraclius instructed Sergius patriarch of Constantinople to find a formula of mediation which would pacify the Monothelites. The heated controversy over the issue followed until the Council of Constantinople in 681, the sixth ecumenical council of the church which ruled out Monothelitism and settled for Dyothelitism, for two wills, as being more in harmony with that of two uncompounded natures in Christ for which Chalcedon had declared. THEOPHANES Patriarch of Antioch [681-687] see also 656 and 687. YOANNIS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [681-689] see 665 and 689. He was originally from the North ofEgypt. During his papacy the Muslim ruler in Damascus was Marwan I who made his sons governors over all the provinces including Abd al-Aziz who was appointed governor over Egypt. When this occurred Pope Yoannis [John] III wrote from Alexandria to make known to them what had been done concerning the seal, which was set upon all the places, and the trouble with the misbelieving Chalcedonians from which he was suffering. Thereupon the scribes sent messengers to Alexandria with instructions that the seal should be broken in the places named, and that all the property of the Church should be delivered to the Father Patriarch. In 680 Pope John III rebuilt Saint Mark's Cathedral in Alexandria. 682BENEDICT BISCOP [628689] British founder of the monasteries at Warmouth [674] and Jarrow [682]. Of noble birth he made a number of visits to Rome, the first in 653 with Wilfred [see 669]. He became a monk in 666. In 669 he was sent from Rome with Theodore of Tarsus [see 668] to Canterbury where he was abbot for two years at the monastery of St Peter and St Paul. One of his students was Bede [see 700] who was at both Warmouth and Jarrow. He was responsible for introducing glaziers and other craftsmen to the church buildings and the teaching of the Gregorian chant.683 684BENEDICT II Pope [684-685]. He succeeded Leo II [see 682] and was succeeded by John V [see 685]. Although chosen in 683, he was not ordained until 684 because the leave of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Emperors" \o "Byzantine Emperors" Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_IV" \o "Constantine IV" Constantine IV was not obtained until some months after the election. Due to the problem of distance, he obtained from the emperor a decree which made approval for popes available from the exarch of Ravenna. This gave the power of confirmations of papal nominations directly to the church and the people of Rome. To help to suppress HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monothelitism" \o "Monothelitism" Monothelitism, he endeavoured to secure the agreements of the bishops of Spain to the decrees of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" \o "Third Council of Constantinople" Third Council of Constantinople, of 678, and to bring about the submission to the decrees of Macarius, the deposed bishop of Antioch. JACOB OF EDESSA [c.640-708] Jacobite [see 787] scholar who was born near Antioch and was elected bishop of Edessa in 684 but soon yielded his position to spend most of his time in monasteries. His presence often led to open hostility. He was one of the most important writers of the Monophysite church in western Syria. He wrote the earliest known Syriac grammar and introduced the use of Greek letters for Syriac vowels. 685CUTHBERT [634-687] Bishop of Lindisfarne who after a vision connected with the death of Aidan [see 640] he entered a monastery in 651. In 664 he moved to Lindisfarne as prior and introduced Roman customs there, at first against opposition, and undertaking missionary work. In 676 he withdrew to another Farne island for greater solitude but he consented to becoming the bishop in 685. After his death in 687 his body was buried in Lindisfarne but due to Danish raids it was moved by the monks in 875 and not finally buried again until 999 when it was interred in Durham and a church built as a shrine. JOHN V Pope [685-686]. He was the first pope of the Byzantine Papacy who was allowed to be consecrated by the Byzantine emperor without prior consent, and the first in a line of ten consecutive popes of eastern origin. His papacy was marked by reconciliation between the city of Rome and the empire. John was a Syrian by birth, born in the province of Antioch. On account of his knowledge of Greek, in 680 he was named papal legate to the Third Council of Constantinople. John V's papacy saw a continuation of improving relations with Byzantium. The emperor greatly reduced taxes on the papal patrimonies of Sicily and Calabria and abolished other taxes, such as a surtax on grain that had been paid only with difficulty in recent years. A letter from Justinian II assured John V that a "synod of high-ranking civil and ecclesiastical officials" had read and thereafter had sealed the text of the Third Council of Constantinople to prevent any alteration to its canons. The letter was addressed to "John pope of the city of Rome" but due to Johns death it was received by Pope Conon [see 686]. John Vs burial inscription praised him for combating Monothelitism at the Third Council of Constantinople "with the titles of the faith, keeping such vigilance, you united the minds so that the inimical wolf mixing in might not seize the sheep, or the more powerful crush those below". He succeeded Benedict II [see 684] and was succeeded by Conon [see 686]. 686CONON Pope [686-687]. It is said that he came from a military family in Thrace and was educated in Sicily. He was a compromise candidate between the military and clergy in Rome. He was a favourite of Emperor Justinian II who rebated some taxes to him. He was consecrated in 686 and died a year later after a long illness. He succeeded John V [see 685] and was succeeded by Sergius I [see 687]. 687PASCHAL I Antipope [687]. Paschal was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope of theRoman Catholic church during the year of687. He was opposed to Pope Sergius I and Antipope Theodore. PAUL III Patriarch of Constantinople [687-693], he succeeded George I [see 679]. There is no additional information readily available. SEBASTIAN Patriarch of Antioch [687-690] see also 681 and 690. SERGIUS I Pope [687-701]. He came from anAntiocheneSyrianfamily which had settled atPalermoinSicily. Sergius left Sicily and arrived in Rome during the pontificate ofPope Adeodatus [see 672]. A fellow Sicilian Pope Leo II ordained him cardinal-priest in 683 and he rose through the ranks of the clergy. He owed his election as Pope Conon's successor to skilful intrigues against Antipopes Paschal and Theodore and he was chosen by a group of judges, soldiers, clergy, and citizens. On April 10th 689, Sergius I baptised King Caedwalla of Wessex in Rome. He also ordained Willibrord as bishop of the Frisians and Berhtwald [see 693] as archbishop of Canterbury. Sergius I did not attend theQuinisext Council of 692, but sent legates who ended up subscribing to the canons as "holding the place of the entire synod of the Holy Roman Church". Sergius himself rejected certain canons of the council, although he continued to support political unity with Constantinople. It is unknown exactly which canons he objected to but declared that he would "rather die than consent to erroneous novelties". The canon which declared Constantinople equal in privileges but second in honour to Rome was also probably not the point of contention as it differed little from the pronouncements of earlier councils. However, the Quinisext Council did approve all eighty-five of theApostolic Canons, while Sergius I would only have supported the first fifty. The bulk of the resistance probably stemmed from varying practices between east and west such as Roman deacons being prohibited from living with their wives after ordination, Roman priests being prohibited from having married twice prior to ordination, and Roman Christians were prohibited from fasting on the Saturdays of Great Lent and allowed to consume animal blood. In a symbolically important step, Sergius I declared support for the chant "Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us" at the breaking of the Host during Mass. Enraged, Emperor Justinian II dispatched his magistrate also named Sergius, to Rome to arrest Bishop John of Portus, the chief papal legate to the Third Council of Constantinople and Boniface, the papal counsellor who were brought to Constantinople as a warning to the pope. Eventually, Justinian II ordered Sergius I's arrest and abduction to Constantinople by his notoriously violent bodyguard Zacharias, however the militia of the exarch of Ravenna and the duchy of Pentapolis frustrated the attempt with Zacharias nearly losing his own life in an attempt to arrest Sergius I. However rather than seizing upon the anti-Byzantine sentiment, Sergius I did his best to quell the uprising. Sergius died on September 8, 701. He succeeded Conon [see 686] and was succeeded by John VI [see 701]. THEODORE II Antipope [687]. Theodore was an antipope of the Roman Catholic church during the year of 687. He was opposed to Pope Sergius I and Antipope Paschal. 688 689ISAAC Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [689-692] see 681 and 692. During his tenure, The Hanging Church was built, though an older church might have been present on the site. The Hanging Church is the most famous Coptic Christian church in Cairo, as well as possibly the first built in Basilican style. It is called The Hanging (The Suspended) Church because of its location above a gatehouse of Babylon Fortress, the Roman fortress in Coptic Cairo ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Cairo" \o "Old Cairo" Old Cairo) as its nave is suspended over a passage. KILLIAN [c.640-689] The apostle of Franconia. A native of Ireland he was probably already a bishop when he left with 11 companions to evangelise the Franks. Having reached Wurzburg he reputedly travelled to Rome for papal approval of his mission. Many people were converted in Franconia due to this ministry. Killian was martyred together with two of his fellow missionaries Coloman and Totman by Gelina in Franconia over a domestic dispute involving a duke. 690GEORGE II Patriarch of Antioch [690-695] see also 687 and 695. 691-700 AD 691 692ANDREW OF CRETE [660740] Archbishop of Gortyna, Crete. He was a theologian and hymn writer who had been born in Damascus and become a monk in Jerusalem. He was appointed as archbishop in 692. He attended the Monothelite synod of Constantinople of 712 and was involved in the Iconoclast Controversy [see 717]. He encouraged hymn singing in the Eastern church and composed a Great Canon containing 250 stanzas. SIMEON I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [692-700] see 689 and 702. He was the first pope elected from among the Syrians. There were two attempts to poison Pope Simeon and he survived both of them. He was a great reformer and fought very fiercely against a new trend among Coptic men who began emulating the Arabs by taking more than one wife. 693BERTWALD Archbishop of Canterbury [693-731]. Little is known of his early life. According to Bede [see 700] he was well acquainted with the Holy Scriptures and corresponded with Boniface, Aldhelm, and Wilfrid. Cenwalh, king of Wessex appointed Bertwald as the first Anglo-Saxon abbot of Glastonbury in 667, on the advice of his friend, Benedict Biscop [see 682]. He received a generous land grant, around Meare, from the king some four years later. About 676, he was made abbot of the monastery at Reculver in Kent. The see of Canterbury was vacant for two years after the death of Theodore before Bertwald was elected to the see of Canterbury on 1 July 692. The long vacancy resulted from the disturbed conditions in the kingdom of Kent at the time, as various kings fought for control. The succession to the kingdom was disputed between rival claimants Oswine and Wihtred, and various outside kings including Caedwalla and Swaefheard raided and plundered Kent. The vacancy may also have occurred because Wilfrid, who was at that point having problems in Northumbria, desired to become archbishop of Canterbury but this did not happen as Bertwald was consecrated on 29 June 693. After his consecration, Bertwald travelled to Rome to obtain the support of Pope Sergius I, who wrote to a number of Anglo-Saxon kings and bishops in support of the archbishop. He appears to have been an able governor of the English Church, establishing the bishopric of Sherborne in Wessex and it was during his tenure that Sussex, the last pagan kingdom, was converted to Christianity. He also consecrated the first bishop of Selsey. Bertwald was a proponent of his predecessor's view of the archbishops of Canterbury as primates of the entire island of Britain and secured the freedom of the Church from taxation under Wihtred of Kents laws issued in 695. The law code also dealt with other ecclesiastical matters, including marriage, Sunday observance, and pagan worship. Much of Bertwald's time in office coincided with the efforts of Wilfrid to regain the see of York, and to reverse the division of York into smaller dioceses. He presided at the Council of Easterfield in 702. He succeeded Theodore [see 668] and was succeeded by Tatwin [see 731]. CALLINICUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [693-705] succeeded Paul III [see 687]. Callinicus I was patriarch for 13 years. He helped with the removal of Emperor Justinian II and the placement of Leontios on the throne. However upon the triumphant return of Justinian, Callinicus was captured, blinded and imprisoned in a monastery. 694 695ALEXANDER Patriarch of Antioch [695-702] see also 690 and 742. Patriarchate of Antioch vacant 702-742. WILLIBRORD [658-739] Anglo-Saxon missionary and Apostle to the Frisians who was educated at the monastery of Ripon near York headed by Wilfrid [see 669]. In his twenties he went to Ireland and became enthusiastic about becoming a missionary. His mentor, the Anglo Saxon monk Egbert [see 664] suggested Frisia where Wilfrid had already briefly preached in 677. In 690 Willibrord and eleven companions started across the Channel to Frankish Frisia where they were greeted by Pepin and began missionary work. At the age of 37 Willibrord went to Rome in 695 to be made archbishop of the new Frankish church province to be centred in Utrecht. Willibrord established the famed monastery of Echternach in Luxembourg and supervised a vigorous mission effort which gained much success. After Pepins death, evangelical work was halted temporarily by the north Frisian counterattack led by Radbod the pagan, but under Charles Martel the Franks regained south Frisia, and aided by Boniface [see 747] Willibrord continued working with the Frisians until the time of his death after which Boniface carried on his work. 696 697 698 699 700BEDE [673735] Monk of Jarrow and the "Father of English History". In his time Northumbria was a beacon of Christian learning while darkness was gathering in Europe. Bede's writing included natural history, chronology, biblical translation and exposition including his most famous work "Church History of the English People". Bede who was known as the venerable Bede also published an English version of the Gospels. ISAAC OF NINEVEH [d. c.700] Nestorian bishop of Nineveh who was originally a monk in Kurdistan and was made bishop by the patriarch George. He retired after only five months in the episcopate. During his later life he was suspected of departing from the Nestorian faith. 701-710 AD 701JOHN VI Pope [701-705]. He was a Greek from Ephesus who reigned during the Byzantine papacy. His papacy was noted for military and political breakthroughs on the Italian peninsula. He succeeded to the papal chair two months after the death of Pope Sergius I and his election occurred after a vacancy of less than seven weeks. During his reign, he assisted theexarchTheophylactos, who had been sent to Italy by the emperor Justinian II, and prevented him from using violence against the Romans. John VI's interventions prevented Theophylactos from being injured, having come to Rome to "cause trouble for the pontiff". According to some sources, he "single-handedly convinced the Lombard duke Gisulf of Benevento to withdraw his forces and return home", after the duke had devastated the neighbouring Campanian countryside and constructed an encampment within sight of the city walls of Rome. It is believed he did this using tactics of persuasion and bribery. In 704, after the 70 year-old Wilfrid of York was expelled again from his see he went to Rome and pleaded his case before John. Wilfrid had visited Rome in 654 and 679 and witnessed its progressive transformation, such as John VI convening a synod of Greek-speaking bishops to hear Wilfrid's cause which was a linguistic hurdle that much perturbed Wilfird. The synod exonerated Wilfrid, restored him to his see, which he occupied until his death in 709 and sent him back to England with letters for King Ethelred of Mercia commanding that papal mandates be implemented. He succeeded Sergius [see 687] and was succeeded by John VII [see 705]. 702ALDABERT OF UTRECHT Northumbrian born missionary who went to Ireland with Egbert before joining Willibrord [see 695] and ten others on a mission to Freisland. After the conversion of the Frisians he served as the first archdeacon of Utrecht. ALEXANDROS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [702-729] see 692 and 729. He presided over his church during an era of great hardship and oppression. Upon the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon_of_Alexandria" \o "Simeon of Alexandria" Simeon of Alexandria in 701, the Patriarchate of Alexandria remained vacant for approximately four years, while the members of the church sought an appropriate successor. Alexander's patriarchate occurred under several HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad" \o "Umayyad" Umayyad HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliph" \o "Caliph" caliphs, whose positions on the Copts varied greatly. This period included the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(718)" \o "Siege of Constantinople (718)" Siege of Constantinople, which had a serious economic impact on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt" \o "Economy of Egypt" economy of Egypt. The failure at Constantinople, coupled with the financial strains brought about by the Al-Zubayr rebellion which made the Caliphs look to Egypt as the closest source of funds from which to prop themselves up economically. People were employed to assist the governor in locating where the people had hidden their wealth, which would then be confiscated by the government. For the first time monks were taxed and church possessions confiscated. The extreme financial pressures these taxes imposed on the Copts caused many to convert to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" \o "Islam" Islam to escape them. Later on the government ordered the destruction of all crosses and sacred images in churches. He also ordered all his subjects to wear a leaden identification badge around their necks, and required that all Copts who wished to engage in business activity have the mark of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion" \o "Lion" lion HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand" \o "Brand" branded on their hands. Anyone caught without the mark would have his hand cut off. This ongoing and escalating abuse of the people by their government instilled a rebellious mood in the Copts, and several local revolts broke out against the government. When the government decided that Alexander, as patriarch, must submit to being branded with the lion as well, he protested and asked that he be allowed to plead his case before the viceroy himself. However he was imprisoned and died in an attempt to escape. 703 704 705CYRUS Patriarch of Constantinople [705-711] succeeded Callinicus I [see 693]. He is regarded as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint" \o "Saint" saintin the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Church" \o "Orthodox Church" Orthodox Churchand HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" \o "Roman Catholic Church" Roman Catholic Church. Cyrus was placed on the patriarchal throne in 705 by Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_II" \o "Justinian II" Justinian II as a replacement for the deposed Patriarch HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_Callinicus_I_of_Constantinople" \o "Ecumenical Patriarch Callinicus I of Constantinople" Callinicus I. Soon after Justinian's fall in December 711, Cyrus was replaced by the new emperor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippikos" \o "Philippikos" Philippicus, with Patriarch HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_John_VI_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch John VI of Constantinople" John VI [see 712], who shared the new emperors HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monothelite" \o "Monothelite" Monothelite sympathies. JOHN VII Pope [705-708]. Like his predecessor he was of Greek nationality. John was the first pope to be the son of a Byzantine official and is one of the popes of theByzantine captivity. John VII had good relations with theLombards, who then ruled much of Italy. However, his relations with Justinian II, the Byzantine emperor, were far from smooth. Papal relations with Byzantium had soured over theQuinisext or Trullan Council of 692. Emperor Justinian II despatched two metropolitan bishops, also sending with them a mandate in which he requested and urged John VII to gather a council of the apostolic church, and to confirm such of them as he approved, and quash and reject those which were adverse. But John, worried about his weak state, sent them back to Justinian by the same metropolitans without any recommendations at all. He succeeded John VI [see 701] and was succeeded by Sisinnius [see 708]. JOHN OF BEVERLEY [d.721] Bishop of York who was educated at Canterbury and studied at Hilda's double abbey at Whitby [see 659]. He was one of the five pupils of Hildas who later became bishops. He became bishop of Hexham in 686 and one of his ordinations was Bede [see 700]. In 705 he was translated to York. He had a considerable reputation for personal holiness and after his death a cult following grew up around him in mediaeval England. 706ANASTASIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [692?-706] see 634 and 706. The date of Anastasius succession is speculative but finished in 706 after the see had been vacant for at least 50 years. JOHN V Patriarch of Jerusalem [706-735] see 692 and 735. 707 708CONSTANTINE Pope [708-715] who continued the tradition of the Byzantine Papacy where a pope before he was consecrated had to receive the approval of the Byzantine emperor, showing Rome was subject to Constantinople. Constantine was fluent in Greek and had previously visited Constantinople being one of three western legates to the third Constantinople conference of 680-81. Justinian II, the emperor, demanded Constantines attendance at court and he left without delay in October 710. He was away from Rome for a year during which time he was able to compromise over the Trullan canons of the Quinisext Council. However a month after his departure Justinian was murdered in an army revolt and the new emperor, Philippikos, disagreed with the compromise. Pope Constantine rejected Philippikos approach and refused to mint any coins with the new emperors image on it. The problem was solved when the emperor was deposed in 713 and Anastasius II reconfirmed Justinians policy. Constantine succeeded Sisinnius [see above] and was succeeded by Gregory II [see 715]. SISSINIUS Pope [708]. He was a Syrian by birth. The small size of the donations to the papacy during his reign amounting to 42 pounds of gold and 310 pounds of silver was a mere fraction of the personal donations of other contemporary pontiffs and indicate that he was probably not from the aristocracy. He was selected as pope during the Byzantine papacy. Sisinnius remained pope for only twenty days and even though he is said to have been so afflicted with gout that he was unable even to feed himself, he is nevertheless said to have been a man of strong character and to have been able to take thought for the good of the city". Among his few acts as pope was the consecration of a bishop for Corsica. He was succeeded less than two months later by Constantine, also Syrian by birth who was probably the brother of Sisinnius. He succeeded John VII [see 705] and was succeeded by Constantine [see above]. 709AFRICA, ROMAN The Muslim Saracens conquest of Africa begun in 642 was completed in 709 with the fall of Carthage occurring in 698. This meant flight, slavery or apostasy for many Christians and the reduction of Africas bishoprics to three by the mid 11th century and to none by the 13th. The Turkish conquest of the late 16th century removed the last traces of Christian presence in North Africa [previous see 533]. HADRIAN THE AFRICAN [d.709] North African monk and scholar who became abbot of a Benedictine house near Naples. Proficient in Greek and Latin and a personal friend of Pope Vitalian [see 657] he resisted his appointment to the archbishopric of Canterbury. He did however agree to accompany his suggested nominee Theodore of Tarsus [see 668] to England as adviser and defender of Roman orthodoxy. He became head of the school at Canterbury and taught students from as far away as Ireland and the Continent. His contribution helped secure the dominance of Roman Christianity in Britain. 710 711-720 AD 711 712JOHN VI Patriarch of Constantinople [712-715] he succeeded Cyrus [see 705]. John VI was placed on the patriarchal throne in 712 by Emperor Philippicus as a replacement for the deposed patriarch,Cyrus. John was favoured by Philippicus because he shared his Monothelite sympathis. The religious policy of the new patriarch and his emperor caused the temporary rupture of relations with theRoman Church. However, in 715 the new emperor Anastasios II deposed John VI and replaced him with the Orthodox patriarch Germanus I. 713 714 715GERMANUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [715-730]. He succeeded John VI [see 712]. Appointed by Emperor Anastasius II, Patriarch Germanus negotiated his abdication after the victory of Theodosios IIIin 715. In 726 EmperorLeo III published an edict forbidding the use of images in the Church. His soldiers consequently removed images from churches throughout theByzantine Empire. Germanus, the patriarch of Constantinople, protested the edict. He wrote a letter appealing to PopeGregory IIinRomein 729. Emperor Leo deposed Germanus as patriarch soon afterwards. Pope Gregory opposed Leo and urged him to retract the edict, which Leo refused to do. In 730 Germanus resigned rather than subscribe to the iconoclast decree of Emperor Leo III, which he felt could not be enacted without an ecumenical council. He was replaced by an iconoclast patriarch,Anastasius, and died a few years later. GREGORY II Pope [715-731] who it is alleged bought off the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards" \o "Lombards" Lombards for thirty pounds of gold, he used the peace for vigorous missionary efforts among the Germanic tribes, and for strengthening the papal authority in the churches of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain" \o "Great Britain" Britainand HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland" \o "Ireland" Ireland. By excommunicating the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Emperors" \o "Byzantine Emperors" Byzantine emperor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" \o "Leo III the Isaurian" Leo III, he prepared the way for a long series of revolts and civil wars, which tended greatly to the establishment of the temporal power of the popes. He died in 731 He succeeded Constantine [see 708] and was succeeded by Gregory III [see 731]. 716 717 718 719PAULICIANS Evangelical anti-hierarchal sect originating in the seventh century probably in Armenia. Their characteristic doctrines were Adoptianist [see 200], Rejection of Mariolatry, images, the authority of Scripture especially esteeming Luke and Paul, and rejecting the Old Testament, and the practice of believer's baptism. The earliest reference to them occurs in 719 when John Otzin then patriarch of Armenia warned against obscene men who are called Paulicinas. Their founder was probably Constantine Sylvanus around 640 who ministered for 27 years before being stoned to death around 684. His persecutor Simeon was himself converted and became his successor and was martyred in 690. Savage persecution under Empress Theodora [842-857] resulted in the martyrdom of 100,000 people and developed into a war of extermination. In 973 John Zimisces transported a great colony to Thrace effectively introducing their concepts to Europe. Crusaders found them everywhere in Syria and Palestine and Anabaptists had contact with them in the 16th century. A colony holding their beliefs settled in Russian Armenia in 1828. 720ODILIA [d. c.720] Abbess and patroness of Alsace who is reputed to be the blind daughter of Frankish nobleman Adalric, and founded a nunnery at his castle in the Vosges Mountains after recovering her sight. Her shrine in the abbey there became a great place of pilgrimage especially for those with eye diseases. Famous people such as Charlemagne also visited it. 721-730 AD 721 722 723 724 725 726 727COSMAS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (727-768) see 651 and 768. He was officially recognized by the conquering Arabs as Patriarch and as the representative of the Orthodox communities, restoring the Church of Alexandria after its many years of Coadjutoration 728 729KOSMA I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [729-730] see 702 and 730. He was a monk in the Monastery of Saint Macarius the Great. He was ordained Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark, against his will. He earnestly prayed to God to let him die and his prayers were answered when died a mere 14 months after his enthronement. 730ANASTASIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [730-754] succeeded Germanus I [see 715]. He was heavily involved in the controversy over icons (images). His opinion of icons changed twice. First he opposed them, then he favoured them, and finally he opposed them again. In 726 Emperor Leo III published an edict forbidding the use of images in the Church. His soldiers consequently removed images from churches throughout the Byzantine Empire. Germanus I, the patriarch of Constantinople, protested the edict. He wrote a letter appealing to Pope Gregory II [see 715] in Rome in 729. Emperor Leo deposed Germanus as patriarch soon afterwards. Pope Gregory opposed Leo and urged him to retract the edict, which Leo refused to do. Leo now appointed Anastasius patriarch of Constantinople and he willingly sided with the emperor on the question of icons. Pope Gregory died in 731, and his successor, Gregory III [see 731] continued the campaign to retain icons, and wrote his own letter to Leo, exhorting him to change his policy. The controversy raged for years. In 741 Leo died. His son Constantine V became emperor. Soon afterwards, a man named Artabasdos assumed the rule of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire. Artabasdos was Leo's son-in-law and his chamberlain, yet he favoured the use of icons. With the support of many priests and lay people, Artabasdos declared himself the "Protector of the Holy Icons". He convinced the patriarch Anastasius to crown him emperor. Anastasius now switched sides again and became an ardent defender of icons, which Artabasdus reinstalled in the churches. Anastasius excommunicated Constantine V and declared him a heretic and a denier of Jesus. Constantine in the meantime returned to his ancestral home in the Isaurian Mountains. He gathered the Asian segment of his army, who were all iconoclasts, and marched to Constantinople in 743. He defeated Artabastos and began to take bitter vengeance on his enemies. He had Artabastos executed. He removed the icons from the churches once again. His treatment of Anastasius was horrendous. First he had him whipped and blinded. Then he paraded him through the streets in shame. He forced Anastasius to revert to his former opinion against idols, and then restored him to his position as patriarch. Anastasius died in 754. THEODOROS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [730-742] see 729 and 743. 731-740 AD 731GREGORY III Pope [731-741]. He was a Syrian by birth and the last pope to date born outside of Europe. His reign like that of his predecessor was disturbed by the iconoclastic controversy in the Byzantine Empire, in which he vainly requested the intervention ofCharles Martel. Elected by popular acclamation, he was the last pope to seek theByzantine HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarch" \o "Exarch" exarch's mandate. Gregory immediately appealed to the Byzantine emperor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" \o "Leo III the Isaurian" Leo III, to moderate his position on the iconoclastic controversy. When this received no response he called a synod in November 731, Leo decided to bring the pope under control. This included appropriating papal territories, and transferring ecclesiastical jurisdictions to the patriarch of Constantinople. Gregory's support of the empire led him to help contribute to the recapture of Ravenna after it had fallen to the Lombards in 733. However, he also sought to fortify Rome and seek alliance with opponents of the Lombard monarch Liutprand and then from the Franks. He sent ambassadors to Charles Martel, who made no response. Gregory promoted the Church in northern Europe such as the missions of Boniface in Germany and Willibald in Bohemia. He also bestowed palliums on Egbert of York and Tatwin, archbishop of Canterbury [see below]. He succeeded Gregory II [see 715] and was succeeded by Zachary [see 741]. TATWIN Archbishop of Canterbury [731-734]. Tatwin was a Mercian by birth. He became a monk at the monastery at Breedon-on-the-Hill in the present-day County of Leicestershire and then abbot of that house. Bede describes him as a man notable for his prudence, devotion and learning. There is some work by Tatwin drawn from the Psalms. The work was completed before he became archbishop, and was used not only in England but also on the continent. Through the influence of King Ethelbald he was appointed as archbishop of Canterbury in 731 and was consecrated on 10th June 731. He was one of a number of Mercians who were appointed to Canterbury during this period. Apart from his consecration of the bishops of Lindsey and Selsey in 733, Tatwin's period as archbishop appears to have been uneventful. He died in office on 30 July 734. He succeeded Berhtwald [see 693] and was succeeded by Nothelm [see 735]. 732CHARLES MARTEL [689-741] French Military Leader whose victory over the Saracens near Poitiers ended the threat of serious invasion of western Europe by Muslims from Spain and by his ceaseless campaigns against the German Frisians and Saxons in the north east. Charles encouraged and helped finance two great missionary monks Willibrord [see 695] and Boniface [see 747] in their work with the Germanic people but kept close control of the ecclesiastical establishment in his own domain resulting in spiritual degeneration in the Frankish church. FRANCE [see also 496 and 910] Charles Martel stemmed the tide of Muslim advance with a victory over them near Tours in 732. It was however the grandson of Charles Martel, Charlemagne, who proved the major benefactor of the Christian Church in Frankland in the early Middle Ages, doing all he could to further it, even using force to convert the heathen when necessary. But by 843 Charlemagnes former empire was divided into three parts and this date marks the beginning of the modern kingdom of France. The history of Christianity in mediaeval France was marked by great vitality and achievement in the realms of piety, reform, learning and politics. 733 734 735JOHN VI Patriarch of Jerusalem [735-760] see 706 and 760. NOTHELM Archbishop of Canterbury [735-739]. Nothhelm was a contemporary of Boniface and the VenerableBede, whom he supplied with correspondence from the papal library following a trip to Rome. He also researched the history of Kentand the surrounding area for Bede, supplying the information through the abbot of St Augustine's abbey in Canterbury. Before his appointment to the archbishopric, he was the archpriest of the Saxon-built St Paul's Cathedral, London. Named to the see of Canterbury in 735, he was consecrated the same year. He may have been, like his predecessor, appointed byEthelbald, king ofMercia, whose counsellor he was. This was during a time of expanding Mercian influence. He held a synodin 736 or 737, which drew nine bishops. Boniface wrote to him, requesting a copy of the Responsiones of Pope Gregory I for use in his missionary efforts. Boniface also asked for information on when the Gregorian mission to England arrived in England. Nothhelm died on 17 October 739. He succeeded Tatwin [see 731] and was succeeded by Cuthbert [see 740]. 736 737 738EGBERT [d.766] Archbishop of York, pupil of the Venerable Bede [see 700] and the cousin of Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria. Egbert was ordained in Rome and appointed to the diocese of York in 732. In 735 Pope Gregory III made him the second archbishop of York. His position was consolidated when his brother Eadberht succeeded to the Northumbrian throne in 738. He was a correspondent and consultant of the English Boniface [see 747], the apostle of Germany. He is remembered most however as the founder of the Cathedral School where he himself taught `theology. 739 740CUTHBERT Archbishop of Canterbury [740-758]. He may have been the Cuthbert who was bishop of Hereford before being consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury in 740. He participated in the Synod of Clofesno where several canons involving the responsibility of clergy were drawn up. He also obtained papal permission to inter the dead within the city walls and was the first to be buried within his own cathedral having added the Chapel of St John for that purpose. He died in 758. He succeeded Nothelm [see 735] and was succeeded by Bregwin [see 761]. CYNEWULF [d.783] Poet and 10th bishop of Lindisfarne from 740 which makes his episcopate the longest in that see. He incurred the displeasure of King Eadfrid because of the murder of a member of the royal family who had taken sanctuary at Lindisfarne. He was imprisoned for two years but later released after reconciling with the king. It is believed this is also the poet of the same name. 741-750 AD 741ZACHARY Pope [741-752]. He was a Greek and was the last pope of the Byzantine papacy. Most probably he was a deacon of the Roman Church and as such signed the decrees of the Roman council of 732 and was on intimate terms with Gregory III, whom he succeeded on December 10, 741. Zachary was a wise and subtle diplomat. Finding that his predecessor's alliance with the Lombards was not protecting papal cities his tact in dealing with various princes in a variety of emergencies contributed to save the exarchate of Ravenna from the Lombard attacks. Significant long correspondence between Zachary and Boniface the apostle ofGermany, survives, and shows how great was the influence of this pope on events then happening in France and Germany. He encouraged the deposition of the last Merovingian king of the Franks, Childeric III, and it was with his sanction that Boniface crowned Pepin the Short as king of the Franks at Soissonsin 752. Zachary is stated to have argued with the Byzantine emperor Constantine V on the part he had taken in the iconoclastic controversy. He died March 22, 752. He succeeded Gregory III [see 731] and was succeeded by Stephen I [see 752]. 742CHRODEGANG Bishop of Metz [742-766]. Born in the early 8th century he was appointed as chancellor by Charles Martel [see 732] and exercised an influence over both church and state. He assisted in severing the ties between Rome and Constantinople. He founded monasteries and introduced greater discipline for the clergy. STEPHEN IV Patriarch of Antioch [742-748] see also 702 and 748. 743MIKHAEL I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [743-767] see 730 and 767. He was thrown into prison by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Malik" \o "Abd al-Malik" Abd al-Malik, King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyriakos_of_Makuria" \o "Kyriakos of Makuria" Kyriakos of Makuria marched north into HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt at the head of an army said to number 100,000 men to free him. However, once the army reached HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt, the Pope was released from prison. He also opposed the enthroning of bishop Isaac as the Orthodox bishop of Antioch because he already held another bishopric. PEPIN III [the Short] [714-768] King of the Franks and son of Charles Martel [see 732]. In 747 he secured the sanction of Pope Zachary in the setting aside of Childeric III, the last of the Merovingians who in order to maintain the legal fiction of that dynasty was named king of the Franks in 743. In fact all power had devolved to the Carolingian line. However Zachary died before he ratified the new dynasty and so Boniface [see 747] and several other bishops consecrated Pepin at Soissons in 751. His anointing with his two sons Charlemagne and Carloman by Pope Stephen thus confirming that dynasty took place in 754 at St Denis whose monks had educated Pepin and where he was to die. Pepin gave certain lands to the pope which formed the basis of the Papal States [see 756]. 744 745 746 747BONIFACE [680754] English missionary and martyr. Archbishop of Mainz [747751]. After training at Exeter he went to Frisia to serve under the English missionary Willibrord [see 695]. He witnessed many baptisms in southern Germany where he spent much of his life. He destroyed symbols of paganism such as his felling of the pagan Oak of Thor at Geismar, and under his influence unity returned to the Western Church and the empire started to take form. He resigned from his position of archbishop and was martyred in Frisia. 748THEOPHYLACT Patriarch of Antioch [748-767] see also 742 and 767. 749JOHN OF DAMASCUS [c.675-749] Greek theologian and the last of the great Eastern fathers who after serving as chief representative of the Christians in the court of the caliph of Damascus went into the monastery near Jerusalem where he was ordained a priest. In the Iconoclastic Controversy [see 753] he defended the three treatises on the use of icons. His fame however is particularly associated with the Fount of Wisdom which achieved lasting fame in both East and West. It was divided into three parts covering philosophy, heresies, and the orthodox faith. The last section has always been used as a textbook in the Orthodox Churches. In 1890 Pope Leo XIII declared John to be a Doctor of the Church. 750GREGORY OF UTRECHT [707-775] Missionary and abbot who was the son of a noble Frankish family and on hearing Boniface speak on the apostolic life in 722 he immediately joined him and remain associated with him as a fellow labourer for more than 30 years, accompanying him to Rome in 738, where Gregory acquired valuable manuscripts. He became abbot of St Martins at Utrecht in 750, establishing there a kind of missionary college to which students flocked from almost all the German tribes and even England. His biography stresses his contempt of riches, his seriousness, forgiveness and charity. 751-760 AD 751 752STEPHEN I Pope [752]. Stephen was a priest of Rome and was elected pope in March of 752 but he died of a stroke three days later, before being ordained a bishop. At the time, the pope who was by definition the bishop of Rome was considered as such only from the day of his ordination. Since Stephen was never consecrated as a bishop, he was not considered a legitimate pope for much of history. He succeeded Zachary [see 741] and was succeeded by Stephen II [see below]. STEPHEN II Pope [752-757]. The Lombards to the north of Rome had captured Ravenna, former capital of the Eastern Roman Empire exarchate, in 751, and began to put pressure on Rome. Relations were very strained in the mid-8th century between the papacy and the Eastern Roman emperors due to the fact that the Eastern Roman Empire itself was under pressure from both the Abbasid Caliphate and the Bulgars with no help coming from Constantinople. Stephen turned to Pepin the Younger, the recently crowned king of the Franks, and even travelled to Paris to plead for help in person. On January 6, 754, Stephen re-consecrated Pepin as king. In return, Pepin assumed the role of ordained protector of the Church and set his sights on the Lombards. Pepin invaded Italy twice to settle the Lombard problem and delivered the territory between Rome and Ravenna to the papacy, but left the Lombard kings in possession of their kingdom. He succeeded Stephen I [see above] and was succeeded by Paul I [see 757]. 753ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY The dispute involved the church and state over the presence of paintings, mosaics, and the statues in churches, in the period from 717 to 843. Though early councils had prohibited pictures in churches, their usage became widespread between 400 and 600. In 717 Emperor Leo III [see 717] succeeded to the imperial throne and in 725 legislated against image worship. His motivation is not clear, but it was possibly affected by his knowledge of Muslim opposition to images and by a desire to gain greater control over the church. His legislation was rejected in Rome by Pope Gregory II as heretical and his successor Gregory III confirmed this. In 753 Leos successor Constantine V summoned a council to meet in Hieria near Chalcedon which resulted in a full condemnation of the use of images by the three hundred and thirty eight bishops present. The Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 787 however, guided by Empress Irene and Patriarch Tarasirus, who were both iconodules, reversed the decision but when Leo the Armenian became emperor the ban was restored in 815, a policy which continued under his successors Michael and Theophilus. After the death of Theophilus, Theodora, his widow, restored the use of icons and in 843 caused a feast of orthodoxy to be instituted on the first Sunday in Lent and arranged for the return of the exiled iconodules. This marked the end of the imperial support for iconoclasm. Iconoclasm often reappeared in European history, with Carlstadt [see 1518] Luther's colleague, being an example of a fervent iconoclast. This subject was commented on by the Caroline Books [see 790]. 754CONSTANTINE II Patriarch of Constantinople [754-766] succeeded Anastasius [see 730]. There is no additional information readily available. 755 756PAPAL STATES From 756 to 1870 certain civil territories in Italy acknowledged the pope as their temporal ruler. Constantine [see 312] probably gave the Lateran palace to the Church of Rome after 321, when it could legally own property. By 600 gifts of large estates were based on the legend that Constantine had donated these lands to Bishop Sylvester I. A forged document called the Donation of Constantine supported these claims until proved a forgery in the 15th century. Until the eighth century dispute over iconoclasm, the largest Papal States were in Sicily. Even with the loss of these properties to the Byzantium emperor, the pope still controlled more land than any other person in Italy. Under Gregory II the Roman popes filled the vacuum left by the Byzantine collapse in central Italy. Pope Stephen II in 753 anointed Pepin [see 743] giving him and his sons the title of Patrician of Romans. Pepin promised in writing to give certain territories to the pope so this is how he, the pope, obtained lands in central Italy. In 781 Charlemagne [see 771] guaranteed to Pope Adrian I the Pepin donations. This was cemented at the coronation of Charlemagne in 800. Finally under Garibaldi from 1860 foreign influence ended. Italian troops entered Rome on the 20th September 1870, and on 13th May 1871 the Vatican, Lateran, and Castel Gandolfo were declared to be papal territory. Pius IX refused to accept the papal guarantee though under Mussolini Pius XI signed the Lateran Pact in 1929, and after 1944 this pact became part of the Republican Constitution. 757PAUL I Pope [757-767. He had first served as a Roman deacon and was frequently employed by his brother, Pope Stephen II, in negotiations with the Lombard kings. After Stephen's death on April 26th 757, Paul prevailed over a faction that wanted to place Archdeacon Theophylactas pope and was thus chosen his brother's successor by the majority that wished a continuation of the late pope's policy. The new pope's reign was dominated by his relations with the Frankish and Lombard kings and with the Eastern emperor. He adopted an independent tone in informing the imperial Exarch in Ravenna of his election, but wrote to Pepin that the Frankish alliance should be maintained unimpaired, being possibly forced to this course by the Lombard king, Desiderius. The Lombards held the cities of Imola, Osimo, Bologna, and Ancona, which were claimed byRome, and in 758 seized upon the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. The same year he visited Rome and compelled Paul to write to Pepin asking him to concede all the Lombard claims. Pepin found it advisable to maintain good relations with Desiderius, and Paul apparently accomplished little by his double-dealing. Later, however, Pepin gave the pope some support and acted as arbiter between the Roman and Lombard claims. In 765, papal privileges were restored in Beneventine and Tuscan territory and partially in Spoleto. Meanwhile, the alienation from Constantinople grew greater. Several times, especially in 759, Paul feared that the Eastern Roman emperor would send an army against the city of Rome. He lived in continual dread in case the Eastern Roman ambitions turned the Frankish influence in favour of the Lombards. This was actually attempted, but Pepin held to his original foreign policy regarding Italy. Paul diedJune 28,767. He succeeded Stephen II [see 752] and was succeeded by Stephen III [see 767]. 758 759 760THEODORE Patriarch of Jerusalem [760-782] see 735 and 782. 761-770 AD 761BREGWIN Archbishop of Canterbury [761-764]. Various stories have been told about Bregwin's origins however all these stories rest on works that were written after the Norman conquest of England. There are no contemporary records of Bregwin before he was archbishop. He was consecrated as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop" \o "Archbishop" archbishop on 27 September 761 with his election taking place in a brief period when Kent under Aethelbert was free of Mercian dominance between 756 and 764. He wrote letters to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lullus" \o "Lullus" Lullus of Mainz which still exist, and later his biography was written by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadmer" \o "Eadmer" Eadmer [see 1055]. He died in 764 and was originally buried in the baptistry in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury" \o "Canterbury" Canterbury, but his remains were moved to the Romanesque cathedral's choir in 1123. He succeeded Cuthbert [see 740] and was succeeded by Jaenberht [see 765] 762 763 764 765JAENBERHT Archbishop of Canterbury [765-792]. He was a monk at St Augustine's abbey, Canterbury before being selected as abbot of that monastic house. He came from a prominent family in the kingdom of Kent, and a kinsman of his, Eadhun, was the reeve of King Egbert II of Kent with whom he himself was on good terms. He was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury on 2nd February 765 at the court of King Offa of Mercia, which implies that his election was acceptable to the king. He received apallium in 766. In 776, Kent, which had been subjected to Offa, rebelled, perhaps at the urging of Jnberht, and secured their freedom. In 780 and 781, he attended church councils at Brentford that were led by King Offa of Mercia. Although he seems to have originally been on decent terms with Offa, Jaenbert's ties to Egbert were also strong, for after the Battle of Otford, Egbert granted a number of estates to Christ Church. After Offa reasserted control over Kent, which occurred at the latest in 785, these lands were confiscated by Offa and granted to some of Offa's associates. A dispute between the see of Canterbury and Offa le to the creation of the rival archdiocese of Lichfield in 787 under Higbert. Originally, Offa attempted to gain the archbishopric to London, but when that effort failed, the king secured the creation of a third archbishopric in the British Isles. Lichfield was the main Mercian bishopric, and thus the new archbishopric was under Offa's control. Some of the sources of conflict were Jaenberhts opposition to Offa's removal of the Kentish dynasty, a conflict over land claimed by both the archbishop and the king, and his refusal to crown Offa's son Ecgfrith of Mercia. Another source of conflict was Canterbury's mint, where the archbishop minted his own coins. In 787 Pope Adrian I sent a pallium to Higbert of Lichfield, which elevated Lichfield to an archbishopric, and Ecgfrith was crowned. Canterbury retained as suffragans the bishops of Winchester, Sherborne, Selsey, Rochester, and London. The dioceses of Worcester, Hereford, Leicester, Lindsey, Dommoc and Elmham were transferred to Lichfield. Jaenberht presided at a council held at London sometime after the elevation of Lichfield, which was attended by most of the bishops from the southern part of Britain. He died on 12 August 792. He succeeded Bregwin [see 761] and was succeeded by Aethelhard [see 793]. WILLEHAD [d.789] Missionary to the Saxons who was born in Northumbria and educated at York. In 765 he went as a missionary to Friesland. Willehads work was partially inspired by Willibrord [see 695] the Apostle of Frisia. About 780, at the direction of Charlemagne [see 771] he went to seek to evangelise the Saxons in Wigmodia but the promotion of this work was cut short by an insurrection in 782. Following this he spent a number of years in the monastery of Echternach copying ancient manuscripts before becoming bishop of Bremen in 787 where he built a cathedral dedicated to the Apostle Peter completed in 789. 766NICETAS I Patriarch of Constantinople [766-780], he succeeded Constantine II [see 754]. There is no additional information readily available. 767CONSTANTINE II Antipope [767-768]. He was in opposition to Paul I and Stephen III. Constantine II who died 6th August 768 was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/767" \o "767" 767 and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/768" \o "768" 768. During the last days of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_I" \o "Pope Paul I" Pope Paul I in June, Constantines brother HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toto_of_Nepi" \o "Toto of Nepi" Toto of Nepi and a body of Tuscans placed him upon the papal throne when he was still a layman. In the spring of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/768" \o "768" 768 he was deposed and killed by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards" \o "Lombards" Lombards while prisoner in the monastery of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Saba_(Rome)" \o "San Saba (Rome)" San Saba. MINA I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [767-775] see 743 and 776. THEODORE Patriarch of Antioch [767-797] see also 748 and 797. VIRGILIUS OF SALZBURG [c.710-784] Early mediaeval Irish scholar, abbot, and bishop. He served as abbot of the monastery of Aghaboe in Ireland and had a reputation for geographical knowledge. In 743 he went to the court of Pepin [see 743] who later sent him to Bavaria to become bishop of Salzburg. Virgilius however refused consecration and administered only the temporal affairs of the diocese. He soon came into conflict with his archbishop, Boniface [see 747], who disapproved of the arrangement. In 748 Boniface charged Virgilius with holding a heretical view on the spherical shape of the earth and with making intrigue against him. No trial seems to have been held and Virgilius was not condemned. In 767 he finally accepted consecration and among the significant services he made to the church was the conversion of the Alpine Slavs in 772. 768PHILIP Antipope [768]. He was in opposition to Stephen III. He was pope for only one day (July 31st 768). The subject of others intrigues rather than acting on his own account, he was a chaplain in a monastery at Rome. The sometime papal Chancellor, Christophorus, had sought Lombard help to depose PopeConstantine II, who was the candidate of the military faction in Rome. When Constantine was taken captive, Waldipert, acting as the envoy of the Lombard king,Desiderius, accompanied Christophorus' brother Sergius in an attack on Rome that ended Constantine's papacy. Waldipert then installed Philip as pope. Christophorus, on learning of this, stated that he would not enter Rome until Philip was removed. Philip was forced to return to his monastery. Christophorus entered Rome and oversaw the election ofStephen III. POLITIANUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (768-813) see 727 and 813. He managed to placate the Kalif Harun al Rasheed (768-809), who provoked the persecution of the Christians of Egypt. STEPHEN III Pope [767-772]. He was a native of Sicily and came to Rome during Pope Gregory IIIs reign [see 731] and gradually rose to high office in the service of successive popes. After the deposition of Antipopes Constantine II and Philip, Stephen was chosen to succeed Paul. Fragmentary records are preserved of the council of April 769 at which the degradation of Constantine was completed and certain new arrangements made for papal elections and the practice of devotion to icons confirmed. Stephen inclined to have an alliance between the papacy and the Lombards rather than to the Franks. He succeeded Paul I [see 757] and was succeeded by Adrian I [see 772]. 769 770 771-780 AD 771CHARLEMAGNE (Charles the Great) [742-814] King of the Franks and the first mediaeval Roman emperor who became sole ruler of the Frankish kingdom in 771 and spent the next three decades in warfare. His greatest military success was the conquest of the Saxons. In 774 he annexed Italy after defeating the Lombards, and in the east he crushed Bavaria and defeated the Avars, an Asiatic people who had penetrated the middle Danube. On Christmas Day 800 in Rome, Pope Leo III [see 795] crowned him emperor. As this challenged the Byzantine emperors position, Charles worked to improve relations with the east. He fostered a revival in learning by bringing to his court the Christian elite of the West to form the Palace School at Aachen. As a result, by uniting the pagan and Christian classical knowledge, it re-established the common culture of the West. 772ADRIAN I Pope [772-795]. He was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope" \o "Pope" pope from February 1, 772 to December 25, 795. Soon after his accession he asked Charlemagne to help him against HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiderius" \o "Desiderius" Desiderius, king of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards" \o "Lombards" Lombards. He entered HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy with a large army, besieged Desiderius in his capital of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavia" \o "Pavia" Pavia, took that town, banished the Lombard king to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbie" \o "Corbie" Corbie in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France and took the title 'King of the Lombards' himself. The pope had to content himself with some additions to the duchy of Rome, and to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" \o "Exarchate of Ravenna" Exarchate of Ravenna, and the Pentapolis in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marches" \o "Marches" Marches, which consisted of the "five cities" on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic" \o "Adriatic" Adriatic coast from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimini" \o "Rimini" Rimini to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancona" \o "Ancona" Ancona with the coastal plain as far as the mountains. The friendly relations between pope and king were not disturbed by the difference which arose between them on the question of the veneration of images, to which Charlemagne and the bishops in France were strongly opposed, while Adrian favoured the views of the Eastern Church, and approved the decree of the Second Council of Nicaea (787), confirming the practice and excommunicating the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasm_(Byzantine)" \o "Iconoclasm (Byzantine)" iconoclasts. The practice was again condemned at the Synod of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt" \o "Frankfurt" Frankfurt in 794 and so the dispute remained unsettled at Adrian's death. In 787, he elevated the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Lichfield" \o "Bishop of Lichfield" diocese of Lichfield, in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England, to an archdiocese on request from the English bishops and King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offa_of_Mercia" \o "Offa of Mercia" Offa of Mercia in order to balance the ecclesiastic power in that land between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent" \o "Kent" Kent and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercia" \o "Mercia" Mercia. He gave the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichfield" \o "Lichfield" Lichfield bishop, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higbert" \o "Higbert" Higbert, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallium" \o "Pallium" pallium in 788. An epitaph written by Charlemagne in verse, in which he styles Adrian "father," is still to be seen at the door of the Vatican basilica. Adrian restored some of the ancient HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(Roman)" \o "Aqueduct (Roman)" aqueducts of Rome, and rebuilt some of the churches including HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Cosmedin" \o "Santa Maria in Cosmedin" Santa Maria in Cosmedin, decorated by Greek monks fleeing from the iconoclastal persecutions. His was the longest papacy until he was surpassed by the 24-year papacy of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" \o "Pope Pius VI" Pius VI in the late 18th century. He succeeded Stephen IV [see 768] and was succeeded by Leo III [see 795] .773 774 775LUDGER [c.744-809] Missionary to the Saxons. Ludger was born in the Low Countries and visited England and studied under Alciun of York [see 804]. In 775 he was sent to the continue the missionary work of Lebuin at Deventer. Charlemagne sent him to preach to the Saxons of Westphalia and about 803 he became bishop of Munster. He died on a preaching tour. 776YOANNIS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [776-799] see 767 and 799. 777 778 779 780PAUL IV Patriarch of Constantinople [780-784], he succeeded Nicetas I [see 766]. In 726 EmperorLeo III published an edict forbidding the use of images in the Church. His soldiers consequently removed images from churches throughout theByzantine Empire. Germanus, the patriarch of Constantinople, protested the edict. He wrote a letter appealing to PopeGregory IIinRomein 729. Emperor Leo deposed Germanus as patriarch soon afterwards. Pope Gregory opposed Leo and urged him to retract the edict, which Leo refused to do. Paul IV, known asPaul the New, had once opposed the veneration oficonsbut urged the calling of anecumenical councilto address theiconoclast controversy. He resigned and retired to amonasterydue to old age and illness. He was succeeded byTarasius, who was a lay administrator at the time. TIMOTHY I [728-823] Patriarch of the East from 780 who was made a bishop before 769 through the influence of his uncle. He obtained his election as the patriarch in 780 by unworthy methods and was not accepted until two years later. Despite this unpromising start he was one of the greatest of the patriarchs of the East. On good terms with contemporary caliphs he shifted the patriarchal centre from Ctesiphon to Baghdad and built a palace there. Timothy was a firm and able administrator and created at least six new metropolitan provinces including one in Tibet. He was widely read in both Church Fathers and Greek philosophy. In other spheres Timothy was an outstanding missionary statesman choosing the right men for missionary work and handling them sympathetically and imaginatively. Outstanding missionaries were the Arab Christian Shubhal-ishu who died a martyr, his successors Yab-alaha the scribe and Qardagh the bookbinder, and Elijah of Moqan [see 820].They worked on the shores of the Caspian Sea and with the Turks and Tartars eastwards on the silk road to China. His correspondence extended even into India. 781-790 AD 781Christianity widespread in China with a number of monasteries built. GERMAN ECCLESIASTICAL VERSE "Wessobrunner Gebet" is the earliest German verses published. 782ELIAS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [782-797] see 760 and 797. GODESCALE "Evangaelistary" illustrated with figures of Christ and the Evangelists. PAUL THE DEACON [c.720-800] He was well-educated and became the tutor of the daughter of King Desiderius. He was for a brief period of time a member of a Benedictine monastery before settling in Monte Cassino Monastery. In 782 he visited Charlemagne and remained in Frankia for four years writing the history of the diocese of Metz. After his return to Monte Cassino he wrote the history of the Lombard people and the history of Rome and various reviews and liturgical pieces. 783 784TARASIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [784-806], he succeeded Paul IV [see 780]. Tarasius was born and raised in the city ofConstantinople. A son of a high-ranking judge he was related to important families including that of the later patriarch,Photios the Great. Tarasius had embarked on a career in the secular administration and had attained the rank ofsenator, eventually becoming imperial secretary to Emperor Constantine VI and his mother, Empress Irene. Originally he embraced Iconoclasm, but later repented, resigned his post, and retired to amonastery, taking the Great Schema (or monastic habit). Since he exhibited both Iconodule sympathies and the willingness to follow imperial commands when they were not contrary to the faith, he was selected as Patriarch of Constantinopleby Empress Irene in 784, even though he was a layman at the time. Nevertheless, like all educated Byzantines, he was well versed intheology, and the election of qualified laymen as bishops was not unheard of in the history of the Church. He reluctantly accepted, on condition that church unity would be restored with Rome and the oriental patriarchs. To make him eligible for the office of patriarch, he was ordained to the diaconate and then the priesthood, prior to his consecration as bishop. Before accepting the dignity of patriarch, Tarasius had demanded and obtained the promise that the venerationoficonswould be restored in the church. As a part of his policy of improving relations with the Church of Rome, he persuaded Empress Irene to write to Pope Adrian I, inviting him to send delegatesto Constantinople for a new council, to repudiate heresy. The pope agreed to send delegates, although he disapproved of the appointment of a layman to the patriarchate. The council convened in the Church of the Holy Apostles on August 17th 786. Mutinous troops burst into the church and dispersed the delegates. The shaken papal legates at once took ship for Rome. The mutinous troops were removed from the city, and the legates reassembled atNicaeain September 787. The patriarch served as acting chairman [with Christ being considered the true chairman]. The council, known as the Second Council of Nicaea, condemned Iconoclasm and formally approved the veneration of icons. The patriarch assumed a moderate policy towards former Iconoclasts, which incurred the opposition of Theodore the Studite and his partisans. About a decade later, Tarasius became involved in a new controversy. In January 795 Emperor Constantine VI divorced his wife Maria of Amnia, and Tarasius reluctantly condoned the divorce. The monks were scandalised by the patriarch's consent. The leaders of the protest, Abbot Plato and his nephew Theodore the Studite, were exiled, but the uproar continued. Much of the anger was directed at Tarasius for allowing the subsequent marriage of the emperor to Theodote to take place, although he had refused to officiate. Under severe pressure from Theodore, Tarasius excommunicated the priest who had conducted Constantine's second marriage. He continued to loyally serve the subsequent imperial regimes of Irene and Nikephoros I. The patriarch's reputation suffered from criticism of his alleged tolerance of simony. On the other hand, his pliability proved most welcome to three very different monarchs and accounts for Tarasius continuation in office until his death. The later selections of the laymen Nikephoros and Photios as patriarchs may have been in part inspired by the example set by Tarasius. 785 786 787JACOBITES The Monophysites [see 451] of Syria who rejected the doctrine of the two natures of Christ were named after Jacob Baradaeus [see 542]. After the Council of Chalcedon in 451 the Syrian patriarch withdrew his church from communion with the other Eastern churches because he did not accept their Christological doctrine set forth by the council. Empress Theodora treated them sympathetically during the mid-sixth century. It was at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 that it was described as Jacobite in the anathemas issued against the Monophysite doctrine. Among the Theologians of the Jacobites are reckoned Isaac of Antioch, Jacob of Edessa [see 684] and Jacob of Sarug [see 519]. NICAEA, SECOND COUNCIL OF This council dealt with iconoclasm which had developed both in the East and West. The veneration of images was accepted and encouraged. [See also Iconoclast Council at 753 and Caroline Books at 790]. This concept became more popular with the Franks than the Iconoclasts during the reign of Pope John VIII [872-882]. OFFA King of Mercia [757-796], created the archbishopric of Lichfield as a metropolitan see in addition to that at Canterbury. PAULINUS [c.730-802] Bishop of Aquileia who excelled at theological scholarship. His reputation motivated Charlemagne to appoint him as master at the French court where he became a firm friend of Alciun [see 804] and in 787 bishop of Aquileia. Paulinus contended against Adoptianism [see 200] at the synods of Regensburg [792], Frankfurt [794], and Cividale [796]. His writings include hymns, poems, letters and other anti-adoption pieces. PETERS PENCE A tax sent from England to the pope in Rome for the purpose of helping poor English pilgrims resident in Rome. It probably began with King Offa of Mercia in 787 on the occasion of the visit of papal legates when the archdiocese of Lichfield was being created. Supposedly one penny was raised from each house in England. After the Norman conquest the tax continued but now it appeared that the funds collected went exclusively for the pope. After the rejection of papal supremacy by Henry VIII and his Parliament, Peters Pence was abolished in 1534. 788 789AACHEN Synod first held at Aachen in 789. Ten synods were held at Aachen between 789 and 1023 dealing mainly with ecclesiastical discipline of parish clergy, monks and nuns. Charlemagne [see 771] himself saw that Adoptianism [see 200] which had been canvassed in Spain during this century had been condemned at Regensburg [792] and Frankfurt [794] and was again condemned at the 799 synod. In addition he disagreed with the pope on the doctrine of the Procession of the Spirit [see 589] and had this discussed at the 809 synod. 790CAROLINE BOOKS These were a four volume Frankish commentary written 790-792 probably by Alciun [see 804] on the place of images in the Church. It held to the extreme views of neither the Iconoclast Council of 753 nor that of 2nd Nicea of 787. It concluded that the images were for instruction only, while the Cross of Christ, Scripture, sacred vessels and saints relics are worthy of adoration. The Nicene position gained increasing acceptance by the Franks after its more accurate version by Antipope Anastasius Bibliothecarius [see 855] appeared under Pope John VIII [see 872]. 791-800 AD 791 792ELIPANDUS [c.718-802] Originator and exponent of Adoptianism [see 200] in Spain. In reaction against the teaching that Jesus was one of the divine persons of the Trinity, he drew a very sharp distinction between the eternal Son, the second person of the Trinity, and the human nature of Christ. His view was that the Logos, the eternal Son of God, had adopted the humanity not the person with the result that Christ became the adoptive Son. Such views were condemned by the Council of Regensburg in 792, Frankfort 794, Aix la Chapelle 798, and by popes Adrian I and Leo III. FELIX OF URGEL [d.818] Bishop of Urgel in Spain. An exponent of Adoptianism, he defended his views in the presence of Charlemagne at the Council of Regensburg in 792 where he was forced to recant. He was sent to Rome by Charlemagne and compelled to sign an orthodox confession which he subsequently repudiated. At the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle in 798 Felix again acknowledged himself defeated, wrote recantation, and called on the clergy at Urgel to follow his example but papers found after his death again showed that he probably never really changed his mind. 793AETHELHARD Archbishop of Canterbury [793-805]. Aethelhard was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot" \o "Abbot" abbot of a monastery at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louth,_Lincolnshire" \o "Louth, Lincolnshire" Louth, Lincolnshire before being consecrated bishop of Winchester and translated to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/See_of_Canterbury" \o "See of Canterbury" see of Canterbury and was enthroned archbishop on 21 July 793. This enthronement was presided over by the then senior bishop of the land: Higbert, archbishop of Lichfield. Aethelhard was deposed by Eadberht who had seized control of Kent in which Canterbury is situated and he fled to the court of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecgfrith_of_Mercia" \o "Ecgfrith of Mercia" Ecgfrith of Mercia who died before 796 was out and a distant relative HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenwulf" \o "Cenwulf" Cenwulf took the throne. While some were critical of him for fleeing, Pope Leo III praised him for refusing to submit to Eadberht, whom Leo compared to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" \o "Julian the Apostate" Julian the Apostate. There arose a conflict between the rank of Lichfield and Canterbury and because Lichfield had been established by the papacy, any change in its status required papal assent. Cenwulfs first approach to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" \o "Pope Leo III" Pope Leo III in 797 did not succeed, mainly because Leo seems to have resented the implied criticism of his predecessor Adrian I [see 772]. The second one in 801, however, bore a letter to the pope that asked for the advice of the pope on how to resolve the problems surrounding Lichfield and Canterbury. The letter reminded the pope of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" \o "Pope Gregory I" Pope Gregory Is old scheme to have two metropolitans in Britain, one in the north and one in the south, with the southern one being based in London. The pope in reply to Cenwulf said that the southern archbishopric must remain at Canterbury, and excommunicated Eadberht and authorised his expulsion from Kent if he persisted in keeping Aethelhard from Canterbury. In 798 Cenwulf invaded Kent and captured Eadberht, who he blinded and imprisoned and Aethelhard was restored to Canterbury, where he managed to secure professions of obedience from a number of southern bishops. He went to Rome and Leo III eventually sided with Canterbury and demoted Lichfield back down to a bishopric. On his return to England in 803 he convened the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Councils_of_Clovesho" \o "Councils of Clovesho" Councils of Clovesho which decreed that no archiepiscopal see besides Canterbury should ever been established in the southern province of Britain. Higbert attended the council, but is named as an abbot, which makes it apparent that he had resigned his see before the council met and been compensated with an abbey. Aethelhard presided over at least eleven synods and died on 12 May 805 and was buried in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury" \o "Canterbury" Canterbury. He succeeded Jaenbert [see 765] and was succeeded by Wulfred [see 805]. 794FRANKFURT, COUNCILS OF Frankfurt was the scene of a number of councils during Carolingian times. The most famous was held in 794 to condemn the Spanish Adoptionist heresy. It issued 55 other canons, one which repudiated the Second Council of Nicaeas decree on icon worship while the others dealt with a variety of matters, including metropolitan jurisdiction and monastic discipline. Charlemange rejected the veneration of images. THEODORE OF STUDIUM [759-826] Byzantine abbott who became a monk in 787 and an abbot in 794 of Saccudion monastery in Bithiynia. Having opposed Constantine VIs adulterous second marriage he was briefly exiled. This pattern continued as he was exiled on a number of occasions after his differences with Patriarch Nicephorus and the disputations in 814 regarding icons where he led the group supporting the use of icons. Apart from his defence of image worship he is known for his adaptation of the Rules of St Basil which became the norm for the Eastern Church. Theodore was the prolific author. 795CYNEWULF Anglo Saxon author of Elena, Juliana, Christ; fates of the Apostles LEO III Pope [795-816]. He came from a common-folk background, had risen in the hierarchy of Rome and was elected pope only one day after the burial of Adrian I who had worked for good relations between Rome and the Frankish Empire under Charlemagne. Leo announced his election to Charlemagne, sending him the keys of St Peters tomb and the banner of Rome, requesting an envoy. Charlemagne in his reply stated that it was his function to defend the church, and the popes to pray for the realm and for victory of the army. Leo aroused the hostility of Romes nobility, who saw the papal post as reserved for noble candidates. During his rule he was accused of adultery and perjury. In April 799 he was attacked by a gang, who unsuccessfully attempted to gouge out his eyes and cut off his tongue for his earlier actions, only to be saved by Magnus Forteman and 700 Frisian nobles of his army. He was then formally deposed and sent to a monastery, but escaped and made his way to Paderborn, where he met Charlemagne. Charlemagne ordered Leos enemies to Paderborn, but no decision could be found. He then had Leo escorted back to Rome. In November 800 Charlemagne himself went to Rome, and on December 1st held a council there with representatives of both sides which ended in his opponents being exiled. Two days later, on Christmas Day 800, Leo crowned Charlemagne as Roman emperor. This offended Constantinople, which had traditionally been seen as the defender of Rome, but the Eastern Roman empress Irene of Athens was too weak to oppose Charlemagne. Leo helped restore King Eardwulf of Northumbria, and settled various matters of dispute between the archbishops of York and Canterbury. He also reversed the decision of his predecessor, Pope Adrian I, in regards to the granting of thepalliumto the bishop of Lichfield, Higbert. He believed that the English Church had been misrepresented before Adrian and that therefore his act was invalid. In 803, Lichfield was a normal diocese again. Leo forbade the addition of the filioque to the Nicene Creed which was added by Franks inAachenin 809. He also ordered that the Nicene creed be engraved on silver tablets so that his conclusion might not be overturned in the future. He engraved in Latin I, Leo, put here for love and protection of orthodox faith. An effective administrator of the papal territories, Leo contributed to the beautification of Rome. He succeeded Adrian I [see 772] and was succeeded by Stephen IV [see 816]. 796 797GEORGE Patriarch of Jerusalem [797-807] see 782 and 807. JOHN IV Patriarch of Antioch [797-810] see also 767 and 810. 798BEATUS [d.798] Spanish Abbot of a Benedictine monastery near Salamander was a counsellor to Queen Adosinda of Leon. Expecting the world to end in 800 he wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse drawing on previous authors. He also was a hymn writer. He opposed the Adoptianist Christology of Elipandus co authoring a book in 785 with a fellow monk Etherius bishop of Osma. THEODULF [c.750-821] Bishop of Orleans who was a Goth and joined the court of Charlemagne. Theodulf was a close friend of Alcuin [see 804]. The king appointed him bishop of Orleans in 798 and his administration produced a scholarly edition of the Vulgate, established schools, reformed worship, and left architectural and artistic masterpieces. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800. He composed the hymn All Glory, Laud and Honour. In 818 he was deposed by Louis the Pious for alleged complicity in the revolt of King Bernard of Italy. 799MARKOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [799-819] see 776 and 819. 800 801-810 AD 801 802 803 804ALCUIN of York [d.804] A mediaeval scholar and a pupil of Bede. Alcuin was the most important and influential of the scholars invited by Charlemagnes [see 771] court in 782 where his teaching and writing provided the basis for further Caroline scholars. He introduced the Caroline minuscule which had both capital and small letters unlike the Merovingian cursive which was in common use at that time. He also led in a revision of the Vulgate [see 404] and worked hard to raise the intellectual level of the monks. 805WULFRED Archbishop of Canterbury [805-832]. Wulfred is believed to have come from Middlesex and was a member of a wealthy and important family with considerable landholdings in Middlesex and neighbouring regions. He was archdeacon of the community at Christ Church, Canterbury, before the death of his predecessor. He attended a synod as a member of Aethelhards staff in 803. Under Wulfreds long archiepiscopacy considerable changes and reforms took place at Christ Church, which can be traced in the plentiful documentation that survives from this time. Wulfred used his very considerable personal wealth to fund the construction of new buildings, and reformed the community perhaps on the rule ofBenedict. The main thrust of the reforms was that the clergy of the cathedral agreed to live in common and eat in common, in return for some property interests in their housing. Although it is clear that a communal style of living was practiced, whether the cathedral clergy were transformed into canons or if they remained monks is unclear. Wulfred was the first archbishop to place his portrait on the pennies struck in his name, unlike those of previous archbishops. Wulfred left most of his wealth to his diocese at his death. He came into conflict withCenwulf, king of Merciaover the issue of whether laymen could control religious houses and in 808 the papacy informed Charlemagne that Cenwulf had not yet made peace with the archbishop, but by 809 they seem to have been on good terms. There was however continuous friction between church and state during his rule. Final settlement of the debate over lordship of monasteries came in 838 at Kingston, shortly before Egberts death. He succeeded Aethelhard [see 793] and was succeeded by Feologild [see 832]. 806NICEPHORUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [806-815] succeeded Tarasius [see 784]. He was born in Constantinople of a strictly orthodox family, which had suffered from the earlier Iconoclasm. His father Theodore, one of the secretaries of Emperor Constantine V had been scourged and banished to Nicaea for his zealous support of Iconodules. The son inherited the religious convictions of the father. Nevertheless, he entered the service of the empire, became cabinet secretary, and under Irene took part in the synod of 787 as imperial commissioner. He then withdrew to one of the cloisters that he had founded on thePropontis, until he was appointed director of the largest home for the destitute in Constantinople about 802. After the death of PatriarchTarasius, although still alayman, he was chosen patriarch by the wish of the emperor on April 12th 806. The uncanonical choice met with opposition from the strict clerical party and this opposition intensified into an open break when Nikephoros, in other respects a very rigid moralist, showed himself compliant to the will of the emperor by reinstating the excommunicated priest Joseph. After vain theological disputes in December 814 there followed personal insults. Nikephoros at first replied to his removal from his office by excommunication, but was at last obliged to yield to force, and was taken to one of the cloisters he had founded. From there he carried on promoting the cause of the iconodules against thesynod of 815. On the occasion of the change of emperors, in 820, he was put forward as a candidate for the patriarchate and at least obtained the promise of toleration. He died at the monastery of Saint Theodore. 807THOMAS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [807-821] see 797 and 821. 808 809 810JOB I Patriarch of Antioch [810-826] see also 797 and 826. 811-820 AD 811 812 813ARLES, SYNODS OF [see also 314] Charlemagne called a synod in 813 to ensure adequate ecclesiastical education for the clergy and to emphasise the preaching and teaching of the Catholic faith. The synod of 1234 issued canons against the Albigensian [see 1209] heresy emphasising observation of the decrees of the Lateran [1215] and Toulouse [1229] councils and urging bishops to counter the heresy by closer surveillance in their dioceses. The synod of 1260 was an attempt to order details of church life and to condemn the doctrines of Joachim of Fiore [see 1192]. EUSTATHIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (813-817) see 768 and 817. He was pious and merciful and realised many good works. GEORGE SYNCELLUS Byzantine church historian. He wrote a Chronicle which traces human history from creation to the time of Diocletian [245- 313]. The appendix covered the period 313-813. 814LOUIS I [778-840] Frankish emperor from 814 also known as Louis the Pious. He was the youngest and the sole surviving son of Charles the Great. In 817 he divided his empire among his three sons Lothair, Pippin, and Louis. He was greatly interested in missions and monastic reform. He wanted mission work to proceed apart from territorial conquest, and as a result he stimulated the creation of a large Scandinavian mission with Anskar [see 831] as his chief missionary. For leadership in monastic reform he turned to Benedict of Aniane [see 817]. However in both missions and monasteries his visions were not completely fulfilled. 815THEODOTUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [815-821] succeeded Nicephorus I [see 806]. Theodotus was born into a prominent family and became attached to the court bureaucracy and was a confidant of emperor. He served as an administrative official and retained imperial favour by promoting the cause of the usurping emperor, Leo V. After Leos accession, Theodotus convinced the emperor in the righteousness of Iconoclasm. After deposing the Orthodox Patriarch Nikephorus in 815, Emperor Leo V had Theodotus tonsured and appointed him patriarch. The elderly official is described as meek, uneducated, and virtuous, although his previous actions had exhibited a taste for intrigue. Theodotus was charged with holding luxurious and frivolous banquets, scandalising some of the more conservative members of the clergy. He presided over the synod of Constantinople in 815 which reinstituted Iconoclasm, although much of theIconoclasteffort was driven by other clerics, including the later Patriarchs Antony I and John VII. In the aftermath of this synod Theodotos was accused of torturing by starvation more than one Iconoduleabbot in an attempt to force them into agreement with his ecclesiastical policy. 816AGOBARD [779-840] Archbishop of Lyons. A Spanish refugee from the Moors who became Archbishop in 816. He envisaged a Frankish kingdom under the dynasty of Charlemagne which would be Christian irrespective of their national origin and all under one law, a prototype revived Roman Empire. He was deposed from 835 to 837 by order of the Emperor Louis the Pious but his successor Amalric of Metz was deposed in 838 by the Synod of Quiercy. His writings were mainly against the Adoptionists. FLORUS [d. c.860] Scholar and controversialist who became a deacon at Lyons during the period when Agobard [see above] was its bishop [816-840]. After Agobard lost his position in 835 because of his opposition to the schemes of Empress Judith, Florus defended the rights and the independence of the Church of Gaul in one of his written works. He also wrote other significant treatises including some additions to the Martyrology of Bede. STEPHEN IV Pope [816-817]. He continued the policy of Leo III and immediately after his consecration in June 816 ordered the Roman people to swear allegiance to the Frankish king Louis the Pious, to whom he went personally in August of 816. After the coronation of Louis at Rheims in October, he returned to Rome, where he died in January of the following year. He succeeded Leo III [see 795] and was succeeded by Paschal I [see 817]. 817BENEDICT OF ANIANE [750821] Monastic reformer who distinguished himself in Charlemagnes wars. A narrow escape from drowning led him into monastic life. He vigorously opposed the teachings on Felix [see 792]. He became ecclesiastical adviser to Louis the Pious and influenced the council of AixlaChappelle [817] causing them to adopt a short lived rigid uniformity on all monasteries. CHRISTOPHORUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (817-841) see 813 and 841 He participated in the Jerusalem Synod (836) against Iconoclasm. There is information that he was paralysed and was helped by Bishop Petros. CLAUDIUS OF TURIN Bishop of Turin who was trained in theology in Lyons and also under Felix [see 792] an Adoptianist. He was a priest in the court of Louis the Pious and on becoming bishop of Turin attacked the cult of images. He also wrote commentaries on some of the Old Testament books, the gospels and Pauline epistles. PASCHAL I Pope [817-824]. A Roman who was raised to the pontificate by the acclamation of the clergy, shortly after the death of Pope Stephen IV and before the sanction of the emperor, Louis the Pious, had been obtained. As a result his relations with the imperial house were never good and he was also unsuccessful in winning the support of the Roman nobles. In 822, he gave the legateship over Scandinavia to Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims. He licensed him to preach to the Danes, though Ebbo failed in three different attempts to convert them. Only later did Ansgar succeed in that task. He died in Rome while the imperial commissioners were investigating the circumstances under which two papal officials that were testifying against the pope had been seized at the Lateran, blinded and afterwards beheaded; Paschal had shielded the murderers but denied all personal complicity in their crime, however the Roman people refused him the honour of burial within the church of St Peter. He renovated the basilica ofSanta Prassede, which includes the famous Theodora mosaic of his mother. He succeeded Stephen V [see 816] and was succeeded by Eugene II [see 824]. 818AACHEN COUNCIL Sanctioned execution as the penalty for blasphemy 819YAKUB Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [819-830] see 799 and 830. He ordained HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abuna_Yohannes&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Abuna Yohannes (page does not exist)" Abuna Yohannes as the head of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Church, according to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Patriarchs_of_Alexandria" \o "History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria" History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria; however civil war, drought, and plague in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia forced Yohannes to return to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" \o "Alexandria" Alexandria, where he remained through Jacobs tenure. 820ELIJAH OF MOQAN An eastern missionary bishop in northern Mesopotamia around 800-820 and was something of a mystic. He is said to have achieved concentration by repeating Alleluia, Glory be to God before reciting each verse of the Psalms. Appointed as missionary bishop to Moqan on the south west shores of the Caspian Sea, he insisted on being consecrated on the day of Pentecost, and Timothy I [see 780] Patriarch of the East agreed to this. Elijahs mission was among tree worshippers and his first major work was going single-handed and felling a great sacred oak, and many heathen were converted. His method included preaching, teaching and healing, and distributing copies of prayers and hymns. He died in 820. 821-830 AD 821ANTONY I HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [821-836] succeeded Theodotus I [see 815]. Antony was of undistinguished background but received a good education, becoming a lawyer in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople around 800. He later became a monk and advanced to the position of abbot. By 814 he had become the bishop in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia" \o "Anatolia" Anatolia. Although Antony was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconodule" \o "Iconodule" Iconodule, he became an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasm" \o "Iconoclasm" Iconoclastin 815, when Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_V_the_Armenian" \o "Leo V the Armenian" Leo V reinstituted Iconoclasm. The reason for Antonys change of heart is said to have included his hope for attaining the patriarchate. The emperor appointed him a member of the committee headed by the future patriarch HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_John_VII_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch John VII of Constantinople" John Grammatikus to find patristic support for Iconoclasm. In 821 the new emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_II" \o "Michael II" Michael II appointed Antony patriarch, disappointing the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoudios" \o "Stoudios" Stoudites, who were hoping that icons would be restored. When the patriarch of Antioch crowned HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_the_Slav" \o "Thomas the Slav" Thomas the Slav rival emperor, Antony had him excommunicated in 822. The iconodule historians record that Antony was stricken with a wasting disease as divine punishment for his participation in Iconoclast councils. The patriarch died early in 837 and was later HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anathema" \o "Anathema" anathematised. BASIL Patriarch of Jerusalem [821-842] see 807 and 842. 822 823 824EUGENE II Pope [824-827]. A native of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome, chosen to succeed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paschal_I" \o "Pope Paschal I" Paschal I even though another candidate, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zinzinnus&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Zinzinnus (page does not exist)" Zinzinnus, was proposed by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebeian" \o "Plebeian" plebeian faction. As a result the presence of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothair_I" \o "Lothair I" Lothar, son of the Frankish emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" \o "Louis the Pious" Louis the Pious was necessary in order to maintain the authority of the new pope. Lothar took advantage of this opportunity to redress many abuses in the papal administration, to vest the election of the pope in the nobles, and to confirm the statute that no pope should be consecrated until his election had the approval of the Frankish emperor. Eugene is described by his biographer as simple and humble, learned and eloquent, handsome and generous, a lover of peace, and wholly occupied with the thought of doing what was pleasing to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" \o "God" God. Apparently even before Lothar left Rome, ambassadors arrived, from Emperor Louis and from the Greeks, concerning the icon question. At first the Byzantium emperor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_II" \o "Michael II" Michael II, showed himself tolerant towards the image-worshippers, and their great champion, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_the_Studite" \o "Theodore the Studite" Theodore the Studite, wrote to him to exhort him to unite the Church of Constantinople to the head of the Churches of God, Rome. Michael however soon forgot his tolerance and bitterly persecuted the image worshippers, and endeavoured to secure the co-operation of Louis the Pious. Before taking any steps to meet the wishes of Michael, Louis asked the popes permission for a number of his bishops to assemble, and make a selection of passages from the Fathers to clarify the question the Greeks had put before them however the bishops who met at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" \o "Paris" Paris in 825 were incompetent in their work. Their collection of extracts from the Fathers was a mass of confused and ill-digested tradition lore and both their conclusions and the letters they wished the pope to forward to the Greeks were based on a complete misunderstanding of the decrees of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nic%C3%A6a" \o "Second Council of Nica" Second Council of Nicaea meaning that their work was ineffective. A council which assembled at Rome in the reign of Eugene passed several enactments for the restoration of church discipline, took measures for the foundation of schools and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_(religion)" \o "Chapter (religion)" chapters, and decided against priests wearing a secular dress or engaging in secular occupations. Eugene also adopted various provisions for the care of the poor and of widows and orphans, and on that account received the name of father of the people. He died on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_27" \o "August 27" 27th August 827. He succeeded Paschal I [see 817] and was succeeded by Valentine [see 827]. 825 826NICHOLAS I Patriarch of Antioch [826-834] see also 810 and 834. 827GREGORY IV Pope [827-844]. Chosen to succeed Valentine in December 827 at which time he openly recognised the supremacy of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious. However papal dependence on the Holy Roman Emperor loosened through the quarrels of Louis the Pious and his sons, the future Lothair I, Pepin and Louis the German. On the sons rebellion against their father, Gregory supported Lothair, hoping his intervention would promote peace, but in practice this action annoyed the Frankish bishops. Gregorys response was to insist upon the primacy ofSt Peters successor, the papacy being superior to the Emperor. The two armies, of Louis and his sons, met at Rotfeld, near Colmar, in the summer of 833. The sons persuaded Gregory to go to Louis camp to negotiate, but he then found he had been duped by Lothair. Louis was deserted by his supporters and was forced to surrender unconditionally, and was deposed and humiliated. This sequence of events is known as the field of lies. Louis was subsequently restored, and after his death Gregory made unsuccessful attempts to mediate in the conflict that ensued between the brothers. Gregory promoted the celebration of the feast of All Saints and is also known for his appointment of Ansgar for archbishop of Hamburg and Bremen, and a missionary delegate for north and east parts of Europe. He succeeded Valentine [see below] and was succeeded by Sergius [see 844]. VALENTINE Pope [827]. He was pope for less than two months. He was a Roman by birth, and was first made a deacon by Paschal I. Nothing further is known of Valentines history. He succeeded Eugene II [see 824] and was succeeded by Gregory IV [see above]. 828 829WALAFRID, STRABO [c.808-849] Walafrid was a theologian and monk who was named Strabo because he had a squint. He trained under Rabanus Maurus [see 847] at Fulda and befriended the famous Gottschalk [see 849]. After 829 he was chaplain of the Empress Judith and was named abbot of Reichenau in 838 but continued to be involved in the political struggles between Charles the Bald and Charlemagnes successors. Cultural historians owe him a debt for studies on those days liturgical and religious customs. 830SIMEON II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [830] see 819 and 831. According to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Severus_of_Hermopolis&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Severus of Hermopolis (page does not exist)" Severus of Hermopolis, Pope Simeon was a disciple of his predecessor, Pope Yakub and dwelt in his cell; and had been a friend since boyhood of Pope HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Mark_II_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope Mark II of Alexandria" Markos II. His tenure was only five months and sixteen days, and the Pope was afflicted through his office with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gout" \o "Gout" gout. 831-840 AD 831ANSKAR [801865] Frankish Apostle to Scandinavia was made archbishop of Hamburg. On two occasions he made journeys into Denmark and Sweden and laid the foundation for Christianity in Scandinavia. YOUSAB I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [831-849] see 830 and 849 According to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Patriarchs_of_Alexandria" \o "History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria" History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria, conditions finally improved in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia, allowing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abuna_Yohannes&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Abuna Yohannes (page does not exist)" Abuna Yohannes [see 819] to return to that country to administer its church. It was Pope Joseph who finally fulfilled the desire of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Pishoy" \o "Saint Pishoy" Saint Pishoy [320-417] and moved his body as well as that of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Paul_of_Tammah" \o "Saint Paul of Tammah" Saint Paul of Tammah to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Saint_Pishoy" \o "Monastery of Saint Pishoy" Monastery of Saint Pishoy in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrian_Desert" \o "Nitrian Desert" Nitrian Desert. 832FEOLOGILD Archbishop of Canterbury [832-833]. Feologild attended the Council of Clovesho in 803, and was listed on the acts of that council as an abbot of a monastery in Kent. He was elected to thesee of Canterbury in early 832 and consecrated on 9th June 832. He died on 30 August 832. There is no other information readily available on him. He succeeded Wulfred [see 805] and was succeeded by Ceolnoth [see 833]. THOMAS OF MARGA Nestorian historian. In 832 he entered the Nestorian monastery near Mosul in Syria and after serving as chaplain and secretary to the patriarch Abraham from 837 to 850, became consecrated bishop of Marga. Thomas is best known as the writer of the Book of Governors, which was a history of his monastery and is therefore an important source of the early history of the Nestorian church. 833CEOLNOTH Archbishop of Canterbury [833-870]. The Dean of Canterbury, Ceolnoth was consecrated as archbishop on 27th July 833. At the Council of Kingston in 838 a perpetual alliance was made between the see of Canterbury and the West Saxon kings, Aethelwulf and Egcberht. Aethelwulf was also granted the right to receive tithes in return for the church praying for the givers. During this time England was constantly harassed by the Danes and it is thought that a certain level of peace was secured by him by the minting of coinage. He succeeded Feologild [see 832] and was succeeded by Aethelred [see 870]. 834SIMEON I Patriarch of Antioch [834-840] see also 826 and 840. 835AMALAR OF METZ [780-850] Liturgical Writer whose work with Alciun [see 804] assisted in the development of the mediaeval Mass. When he was appointed in 835 to the see of Lyons in the absence of Archbishop Agobard [see 816] he found considerable opposition to his views which were condemned at the Synod of Quiercy in 838. He was the first to give evidence of the practice of incensing the altar and of reading the Gospel from a higher place than the Epistle. 836 837JOHN VII Grammaticus Patriarch of Constantinople [837-843] succeeded Antony I [see 821]. John was born to an aristocratic family of Armenian origin. Johns sister was the mother of the later patriarch,Photios. Beginning his clerical career in 811, John was also an icon painter and a correspondent of Theodore of Stoudios. By 814, John had become an Iconoclast and Emperor Leo V chose him to lead a committee to collect patristic texts supporting this theological position in preparation for the synod of 815, which reinstituted Iconoclasm. John was rewarded for his troubles by being appointed abbot of the prestigious Sergios and Bakchos monastery where recalcitrant Iconodules were being re-educated. John was renowned for his learning and was also charged with tutoring the future emperor, Theophilos, during the reign of his fatherMichael II, and is credited with instilling strong Iconoclast sympathies in his student. On the accession of Theophilos, John was appointed patriarchs assistant, a position that made him a likely heir to the patriarchate. In 830, John was dispatched as an ambassador to the Abbasids in Baghdad but this did little to prevent a period of fierce warfare between them and the Byzantine Empire. The circumstances of John VIIs patriarchate are obscure. He was appointed patriarch by his student Theophilos and may have been responsible for the slight intensification of the persecution of Iconodules. He was deposed by Theophilos widow Theodora (his own relative) as a preliminary towards the ending of Iconoclasm in 843. The deposed patriarch survived into the 860s. 838QUIERCY, SYNODS OF Several such assemblies were held in the ninth century with the first meeting in 838 when Florus [see 816], a supporter of Agobard [see 816] archbishop of Lyons, alleged that part of Amalar of Metzs [see 835] book on liturgical ritual was heretical. This was confirmed at the synod. A second synod met in 849 to condemn the view of the double predestination alleged by the Augustinian theologian Gottschalk [see 849] a monk of Fulda. Through the efforts of Hincmar of Reims [see 845], Gottschalk was condemned at the synod. He was scourged, defrocked and imprisoned. Hincmar discovered however that other noted scholars broadly supported Gottschalks position so a third synod was held at the suggestion of Charles the Bald in an effort to sort out the problem. Four propositions were passed: predestination to glory was accepted, and the reprobate from not being helped would go to hell through their own free choice; grace restores mans ability to do good; God desires to save all men; and Christ suffered for all men. These propositions were not universally accepted and further synods subsequently met including two at Quiercy in 857 and 858. 839 840ELIAS I Patriarch of Antioch [840-852] see also 834 and 852. 841-850 AD 841SOPHRONIUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (841-860) see 817 and 860. He was a wise and prudent man of the church. During his tenure as patriarch the brutal persecution against the Christians of Egypt by Kalif Jafar Al Mutawakkil broke out 842GEORGE HAMARTOLOS. Byzantine monk who wrote a World Chronicle from the creation to the death of the Eastern emperor Theophilus in 842. It was not an original work but a compilation of previous works. In turn, later writers borrowed from his Chronicle which had been continued up to 948 by another scribe, perhaps Simeon Metaphrastes. SERGIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [842-844] see above and 855. The see of Jerusalem was vacant from 844 to 855. 843METHODIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [843-847]. Born to wealthy parents he was sent as a young man to Constantinople to continue his education and hopefully attain an appointment at court. Instead he entered a monastery in Bithynia, eventually becoming abbot. Under Emperor Leo V the Armenian (813-820), the Iconoclast persecution broke out for the second time. In 815 Methodios went toRome, perhaps as an envo y o f t h e d e p o s e d P a t r i a r c h N i e p h o r s . U p o n h i s r e t u r n i n 8 2 1 h e w a s a r r e s t e d a n d e x i l e d a s a n i c o n o d u l e b y t h e I c o n o c l a s t r e g i m e o f E m p e r o r M i c h a e l I I . I r o n i c a l l y , M e t h o d i o s w a s r e l e a s e d i n 8 2 9 a n d a s s u m e d a p o s i t i o n o f i m p o r t a n c e a t t h e c o u r t o f t h e e v e n more fervently iconoclast emperor, Theophilos. Soon after the death of the emperor, in 843, the influential minister Theoktistos convinced the Dowager Empress Theodora, as regent for her two-year-old son Michael III, to permit the restoration of icons by arranging that her dead husband would not be condemned. He then deposed the iconoclast PatriarchJohn VII Grammatikosand secured the appointment of Methodius as his successor, bringing about the end of the iconoclast controversy. A week after his appointment, accompanied by Theodora, Michael, and Theoktistos, Methodius made a triumphal procession from church to church restoring the icons to them. This heralded the restoration of orthodoxy, and became a holiday in the Eastern Orthodox Church, celebrated every year on the First Sunday of Great Lent, and known as the Triumph of Orthodoxy. Throughout his short patriarchate, Methodius tried to pursue a moderate line of accommodation with members of the clergy who were formerly Iconoclasts. This policy was opposed by extremists, primarily the monks of theStoudiosMonastery, who demanded that the former Iconoclasts be punished severely as heretics. To rein in the extremists, Methodius was forced to excommunicate and arrest some of the more persevering monks. 844JOHN VIII Antipope [844]. He was in opposition to Sergius II. On the death of Pope Gregory IV, the archdeacon John was proclaimed pope by popular HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclamation" \o "Acclamation" acclamation, while the nobility elected Pope Sergius II, a Roman of noble birth. The opposition was suppressed, with Sergius intervening to save Johns life. Sergius was then consecrated immediately, without seeking the ratification of the Frankish court. SERGIUS II Pope [844-847]. On the death of Gregory IV the archdeacon John was proclaimed pope by popular acclamation, while the nobility elected Sergius, a Roman of noble birth. The opposition was suppressed, with Sergius intervening to save Johns life. Sergius was then consecrated immediately by the nobles without seeking the ratification of the Frankish court. The Holy Roman EmperorLothair I, however, disapproved of this abandoning of the 824 statute that no pope should be consecrated until his election had the approval of the Frankish emperor. He sent an army under his son Louis, the recently appointed viceroy of Italy, to re-establish his authority. The church and the emperor reached an accommodation, with Louis being crowned king of Lombardy by Sergius, although the pope did not accede to all the demands made upon him. Simonyis said to have flourished during the reign of Sergius II. During his reign Rome was ravaged and the churches of St PeterandSt Paulwere sacked bySaracens. He succeeded Gregory IV [see 827] and was succeeded by Leo IV [see 847]. 845HINCMAR OF REIMS [806-882] Archbishop of Reims who was educated in Paris and in 822 was introduced to the court of Louis the Pious. On Louis death, Hincmar firmly attached himself to Charles the Bald thus incurring the hostility of Lothair I. Elected as archbishop of Reims in 845 he faced imperial opposition but avoided his own deposition at the Synod of Soissons in 853. When the council of Mainz [848] condemned Gottschalks [see 849] errors on predestination, he published a refutation of the monk. With Lothairs death in 869 Hincmar no longer feared to support Charles the Bald and he proceeded to crown him despite papal objection. 846 847ASPERGES The ceremony of sprinkling with holy water, which is Roman Catholic practice when consecrating churches or purifying houses. Sprinkling the congregation at Mass was ordered by Pope Leo IV in 847. IGNATIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [847-858, 867-877]. The Dowager Empress Theodora appointed Ignatius, a staunch opponent of Iconoclasm, to succeed Methodius Ias patriarch of Constantinople in 847. He soon became embroiled in the conflict between theStouditesand the moderates in the Church on the issue whether or not to dispose of clergymen who had cooperated with iconoclast policies in the past. He took the side of the conservative Stoudites and deposed thearchbishop of Syracuse, Gregory Asbestas, leader of the moderate party. Asbestas appealed for redress to Pope Leo IVand thus inaugurated a period of friction in relations between the Roman and Constantinopolitan churches. Emperor Michael III removed Theodora from influence in 857 and Ignatius was forced to resign and was replaced by the layman Photios. When Photios reversed some of his predecessors policies, Ignatiuss supporters appealed to Pope Nicholas I, who at first tried to stay out of the controversy but then condemned Photius, not so much on the question of icons but on the question of papal precedence over the patriarch and jurisdiction over newly-convertedBulgaria. In 867 Basil I the Macedonianusurped the throne and, seeking an alliance with Nicholas I and Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor, banished Photius and restored Ignatius on the patriarchal throne. Reinstated, Ignatius refused to yield to the papacy and drew Bulgaria back into the orbit of the Byzantine Church in 870. Since Ignatius and Photius pursued the same policy, the latter was recalled and reinstated as tutor to the emperors children. When Ignatius died in October 877, Photios was reinstated as patriarch. RABANUS MAURUS [c.776-856] Archbishop of Mainz. He was born of a noble family, made a deacon in 801 and went to Fulda where he studied under Alciun [see 804] who saw that he had great scholastic abilities. He was ordained in 814 and was abbot of Fulda from 822 to 842 advancing its intellectual, spiritual, and temporal welfare, erecting buildings, collecting manuscripts and art, and engaging in writing. In 847 he became archbishop of Mainz where he instructed clergy and laity, combated social disorders, and defended sound doctrine. He held three provincial synods: on ecclesiastical disciple discipline in 847, on Gottschalk doctrine of predestination in 848, and on the rights and disciplines of the Church in 850. He was a prolific writer well ground in the Scripture but not an original thinker with his writings being largely compilations rather than original. 848 849GOTTSCHALK [805-869] Theologian and monk who was compelled by his father to enter the Benedictine abbey at Fulda. The Synod of Mainz [829] released him from his vows, but the dispensation was cancelled on an objection by Rabanus Maurus [see 847] the newly elected abbot and he was moved to another Franciscan monastery of Orbais. He appears to be in the first to teach double predestination, that is, the elect are predestined freely to bliss while the wicked are predestined justly to condemnation on the foreknowledge of their guilt. He was therefore accused of denying the universal saving will of God as well as human free will. He was condemned by the Synods of Mainz [848] and Quiercy [849], deprived of priesthood, flogged, and imprisoned for life at the monastery of Hautvilliers. He died unreconciled in a disturbed mental state as result of his privations. MIKHAEL II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [849-851] see 831 and 851. 850BOOK OF KELLS An ornamented book of the four gospels in Jeromes Latin version probably commenced at Iona [see 563] and completed at Kells at the beginning of the 9th century. The book has 340 leaves of thick glazed parchment and remarkably preserved from loss or damage. It was deposited in the library of Trinity College Dublin in 1660. ISHODAD OF MERV Nestorian bishop of Hedatta on the Tigris. Facts concerning his life are gathered largely from Arab sources. At one point he was considered a candidate for a patriarchal see. His fame rests on his commentaries which were written in Syriac. He ranks as a key figure in the understanding of biblical exposition in Eastern Christianity. OENGUS Irish monk and member of the monastic community near Dublin. He is best known as the author of a litany which throws light on the influence of the Eastern Assyrian Church on the monastic life of the Celtic Church [see 461]. It shows that a larger number of scholars from the Middle East sought refuge in Ireland in the 8th and 9th centuries. He also gives a list of bishops and pilgrims who lived in groups if seven. 851-860 AD 851KOSMA II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [851-858] see 849 and 859. 852THEODOSIUS I Patriarch of Antioch [852-860] see also 840 and 860. 853PASCHASIUS RADBERTUS [c.785-860] Abbott and scholar who was well versed in the Scriptures, Church Fathers, and Latin classics, and became an instructor of younger monks. His humility refused to allow him advancement beyond the order of deacon. Following the death of Abbott Isaac however he accepted the abbacy of Corbie, a post he renounced for that of unencumbered study about 853.He attended the Synods of Paris [847] and Quiercy [849] and produced several works especially contributions to Mariology and an extensive commentary on Matthew. His realistic interpretation of Christs presence in the sacrament graphically depicted it as being in the Lords same crucified and risen flesh, was sharply opposed by Ratramnus [see 868] and Rabanus Maurus [see 847]. 854 855ANASTASIUS III Antipope [855]. He was in opposition to Benedict III. He was a nephew of Bishop HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsenius_of_Orte&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Arsenius of Orte (page does not exist)" Arsenius of Orte, who undertook important commissions aspapal legate. He learned the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" \o "Greek language" Greek language from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Roman" \o "Eastern Roman" Eastern Roman HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monks and obtained an unusual education for his era, such that he appears to be the most learned ecclesiastic of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome in the barbaric period of the 9th century. During the pontificate of Pope Nicholas I (855-867) he was employed by the pope as secretary and he has been shown to be the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost-writer" \o "Ghost-writer" ghost-writer behind much papal official correspondence of these years. He was also active as an author, and translated Greek language works into HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" \o "Latin" Latin. The successor of Nicholas, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Adrian_II" \o "Pope Adrian II" Pope Adrian II (867-872), appointed Anastasius Head of archives of the Roman Church, an important office at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateran" \o "Lateran" Lateran Palacethat gave him further influence at the papal court. In 869 he was sent by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor" Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor as envoy to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople to negotiate a marriage between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" \o "Leo VI the Wise" Leo VI the Wise, oldest son of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_emperor" \o "Byzantine emperor" Byzantine emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_I" \o "Basil I" Basil I, and Louiss only child, Ermengard. The successor of Adrian II, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_VIII" \o "Pope John VIII" Pope John VIII(872-882), also esteemed Anastasius and confirmed him in the office of librarian, entrusted important affairs to him, and encouraged him to further literary work. After the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_IV" \o "Pope Leo IV" Pope Leo IV in 855, Anastasius was elected as antipope by the imperial party, but the rightfully elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Benedict_III" \o "Pope Benedict III" Pope Benedict III, gained the supremacy, and acted kindly towards the usurper. During the pontificate of Adrian II, Anastasius became involved in serious difficulties when, in 868, his brother Eleutherius forcibly carried off the daughter of the pope and soon afterwards killed her and her mother. Eleutherius was executed, and Anastasius who was regarded as the instigator of the murder, was punished by excommunication and deposition. Anastasius translated from Greek into Latin the Acts of both the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" \o "Second Council of Nicaea" Second Council of Nicaeaand the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople" \o "Fourth Council of Constantinople" Fourth Council of Constantinople, as well as several legends of saints, along with other writings. BENEDICT III Pope [855-858]. He succeeded Leo IV [see 847] and was succeeded by Nicholas I [see 858]. Little is known of Benedicts life before his papacy. He was educated and lived in Rome and was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinal HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest" \o "Priest" priest. He was elected upon the refusal of Hadrian, the initial choice of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy" \l "Catholic_clergy" \o "Clergy" clergy and people. A group of important people preferred a different candidate, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Anastasius" \o "Antipope Anastasius" Anastasius. This latter group had Benedicts election disavowed and Anastasius installed. However, popular opinion was so strong that Benedicts HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consecration" \o "Consecration" consecration was allowed. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor" Louis IIs envoys forced Benedict to handle Anastasius and his adherents leniently and this split helped weaken the hold of the emperors upon the popes, especially upon their elections. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethelwulf" \o "Aethelwulf" Aethelwulf of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessex" \o "Wessex" Wessex and his son, the future HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" \o "Alfred the Great" Alfred the Great, visited Rome in Benedicts reign. SOLOMON Patriarch of Jerusalem [855-860] see 842 and 864. The see of Jerusalem was vacant from 860 to 864. 856 857LEO IV Pope [847-855]. He was a Roman by birth and unanimously chosen to succeedSergius II. When elected, on April 10th 847 he was a cardinal and had been subdeacon of Gregory IV and archpriest under his predecessor. His pontificate was chiefly distinguished by his efforts to repair the damage done by the Saracens during the reign of his predecessor to various churches of the city, especially those ofSt PeterandSt Paul. The Saracens were besieging Gaeta which led to Leos ordering that the walls of the city be restored and strengthened between 848 and 849. When the Muslims approached Portus, he summoned themariner cities of Italy: Naples, Gaeta and Amalfi to form a league. The subsequentBattle of Ostiawas one of the most famous in Middle Ages papacy history, and is celebrated in a famousfrescobyRaphaeland his pupils in the Vatican Palace. He also restored and embellished the damaged churches ofSt. Pauland St. Peters: the latters altar received again, after the former had been stolen, a gold covering, which weighed 206 lb. and was studded with precious gems. He succeeded Sergius II [see 844] and was succeeded by Benedict III [see 855]. 858NICHOLAS I Pope [858-867]. He received excellent training, and was admired for his benevolence, knowledge, and eloquence. He entered the service of the church at an early age, was made subdeacon by Pope Sergius II (844-47), and deacon by Leo IV (847-55). After the death of Benedict III Louis II, the Holy Roman Emperor, who was in the neighbourhood of Rome, came into the city to exert his influence upon the election. On 24th April Nicholas was elected pope, consecrated, and enthroned in St. Peters in the presence of the emperor. Three days after, he held a farewell banquet for the emperor, and afterward, accompanied by the Roman nobility, visited him in his camp before the city, on which occasion the emperor came to meet the pope and led his horse for some distance. Nicholas is remembered as a consolidator of papal authority and power, exerting decisive influence upon the historical development of the papacy and its position among the Christian nations of Western Europe. He refused to grant an annulment to Lothar II from Theutberga so that he could marry his mistress Waldrada and when a council pronounced in favour of annulment, Nicholas I declared the council to be deposed, its messengers excommunicated, and its decisions void. Despite pressure from the Carolingians, who laid siege to Rome, his decision held. During his reign, relations with the Byzantine Empire soured over his support for Ignatius as Patriarch of Constantinople, who had been removed and Photius appointed to replace him. Archbishop John of Ravenna oppressed the inhabitants of the papal territory, treated his suffragan bishops with violence, made unjust demands upon them for money, and illegally imprisoned priests. He also forged documents to support his claims against the Roman See and maltreated the papal legates. As the warnings of the pope were without result, and the archbishop ignored three times a summons to appear before the papal tribunal, he was excommunicated. Nicholas showed the same zeal in other efforts to maintain ecclesiastical discipline, especially as to the marriage laws. Ingiltrud, wife of Count Boso, had left her husband for her lover so Nicholas commanded the bishops in the dominions of Charles the Bald to excommunicate her unless she returned to her husband. As she paid no attention to the summons to appear before the Synod of Milan in 860, she was put under the ban. Another matrimonial case in which Nicholas interposed was that ofJudith, daughter of Charles the Bald, who had marriedBaldwin, Count of Flanders, without her fathers consent. Frankish bishops had excommunicated Judith, and Hincmar of Reims had taken sides against her, but Nicholas urged leniency, in order to protect freedom of marriage. For a variety of reasons, Boris I of Bulgariabecame interested in converting to Christianity and undertook to do that at the hands of western clergymen to be supplied byLouis the Germanin 863. Late in the same year, the Byzantine Empire invadedBulgariaas Bulgaria suffered famine and natural disasters. Boris was forced to sue for peace. Because the majority of his people were still opposed to Christianity, he was secretly baptised according to the Byzantine rite. The Byzantine Emperor who became his godfather conceded to him territory in Thrace. Unhappy with Byzantine influence and desiring an independent status which Photius was unwilling to grant, Boris sent in August 866 an ambassador to Pope Nicholas with one hundred six questions on the teaching and discipline of the Church. Nicholas answered these inquiries and sent missionaries under the papal legate Bishop Formosus. When Pope Adrian II rejected Boris request that either Formosus or Deacon Marinus (later PopeMarinus I) be made archbishop of Bulgaria, Boris began to look again towards Constantinople. In 870 a council of Constantinople granted the Church of Bulgaria an independent status and Greek priests were sent as missionaries and were soon replaced by Bulgarian. He encouraged the missionary activity of the Church. He sanctioned the union of the sees ofBremen and Hamburg, and confirmed to Anschar archbishop of Bremen and his successors, the office of papal legate to the Danes, Swedes, and Slavs. He succeeded Benedict III [see 855] and was succeeded by Adrian II [see 867]. PHOTIUS I the Great Patriarch of Constantinople [858-867, 877-886]. Photius is widely regarded as the most powerful and influential patriarch of Constantinople since John Chrysostom, and as the most important intellectual of his time, being known as the leading light of the ninth-century renaissance. He was a central figure in both the conversion of the Slavs to Christianityand the estrangement of the Eastern Orthodox churches from the Catholic Church. He was a well-educated man from a noble Constantinopolitan family. He intended to be a monk, but chose to be a scholar and statesman instead. In 858, Emperor Michael III deposed Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople, and Photius, still a layman, was appointed in his place. Amid power struggles between the pope and the emperor, Ignatius was reinstated. Photius resumed the position when Ignatius died by order of the emperor. A new pope approved his reinstatement. Photius ecclesiastical career took off spectacularly when in four days in 858 he was successively ordained lector, sub-deacon, deacon and priest. He was consecrated as patriarch of Constantinople on Christmas day. The deposition of Ignatius and the sudden promotion of Photius caused scandal and ecclesiastical division as the pope and the rest of the western bishops took up the cause of Ignatius. However eventually, finding Photius well supported they acquiesced in the confirmation of his election at a synod in 861. On their return to Rome, they discovered that this was not at all what Nicholas had intended, and in 863 at a synod in Rome the pope deposed Photius, and reappointed Ignatius as the rightful patriarch. Four years later, Photius was to respond on his own part, excommunicating the pope on grounds of heresyover the question of the double procession of the Holy Spirit. The situation was additionally complicated by the question of papal authority over the entire Church and by disputed jurisdiction over newly-convertedBulgaria. Photius now obtained the formal recognition of the Christian world in a council convened at Constantinople in November 879. The legates of Pope John VIII attended, prepared to acknowledge him as legitimate patriarch, a concession for which the pope was much censured by Latin opinion. During this time there was also significant instability in the Byzantine Emperors and their close relations. For the Eastern Orthodox, Photius was long the standard-bearer of their church in its disagreements with the pope of Rome. The most important of the works of Photius is his renowned Bibliotheca, a collection of extracts and abridgments of 280 volumes of classical authors the originals of which are now to a great extent lost. The work is especially rich in extracts from historical writers. There has been discussions on whether the Bibliotheca was in fact compiled in Baghdad when Photius was ambassador to the Abbasid court in Samarra since many of the mentioned works, the majority by secular authors, seems to have been virtually nonexistent in both contemporary and later Byzantium. The Abbasids showed great interest in classical Greekworks and Photius might have studied them during his years in exile in Baghdad. To Photius we are indebted for almost all we possess of Ctesias, Memnon of Heraclea, Conon, the lost books of Diodorus Siculus, and the lost writings of Arrian. Theology and ecclesiastical history are also very fully represented, but poetry and ancient philosophy are almost entirely ignored. 859ADO [799-876] Bishop of Vienne who was head of the monastic school at Prum and became Archbishop in 859. He was a clerical reformer and authored books on the life of saints and an outline of world history. His main writings however cover a history of martyrs. SHENOUDA I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [859-880] see 851 and 880. As a result of the attacks by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_people" \o "Berber people" Berbers and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedouins" \o "Bedouins" Bedouins, Pope Shenouda I built walls around the monasteries of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrian_Desert" \o "Nitrian Desert" Nitrian Desert. Their height varies between ten and eleven metres, and their widths are about two metres. They were also covered with a thick layer of plaster. 860CYRIL [826-869] AND METHODIUS [815-885] Greek brothers known as the apostles to the Slavs who in 860 participated in a mission to the Khazars. Two years later Michael III and Patriarch Photius sent them to Moravia to evangelise and organise the Slav church. Cyril is also accredited with providing the Cyrillic alphabet known as Glagolitic [see 863]. Cyril died soon after entering a monastery in 868. Methodius was created a bishop by Adrian II [see 867] in order to return to the Slavs where he was imprisoned for a while. On his release John VIII [see 872] consecrated him archbishop of Pannonia. The Slavs still revere these brothers. MICHAEL I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (860-870) see 841 and 870. During his tenure as patriarch the holy relics of the Evangelist Mark were stolen by the Venetians. A great persecution also broke out against the monks during the reign of Kalif Al Mustain (862-866). NICHOLAS II Ptriarch of Antioch [860-879] see also 852 and 879. 861-870 AD 861PRUDENTIUS [d.861] Bishop of Troyes. He was a Spaniard who left his country as a youth and went to France. He was educated at the Palatine School and became chaplain to the court of Louis the Pious. Prudentius became bishop of Troyes about 845. He supported the Augustinian position in the controversy on predestination between Hincmar [see 845] and Gottschalk [see 849] opposing the former clearly denying the general salvation of all men. 862ERIGENA, JOHN SCOTUS [810-877] Irish scholar noted chiefly as an interpreter of Greek thought in the West. He entered into the religious controversies of his day, notably on predestination and the Eucharist. Erigena is of importance in the period between Augustine and Anselm. His work on the divine nature published in 862 is ambiguous and was exploited by various parties. It was condemned by Pope Honorius III [see 1216] in 1225. He makes no distinction between theology and philosophy, and attempts a rational demonstration of the substance in Christian truth. This however seems to lead towards pantheism. Though he himself was not a mystic, there is a strong mystical strain in his writings. 863 864BORIS King of Bulgaria [852889]. Bulgaria had been evangelised by the Byzantium Church from the seventh century. Boris became a convert to Orthodox Christianity in 864 and was baptised by the patriarch of Constantinople. Because of the association of church and state in the eastern church his conversion represented Bulgaria becoming associated with Constantinople but Boris resisted Byzantium control of the Bulgarian church and later control by the western church when Rome desired more control than Boris welcomed. As a result the Bulgarian see remained semi autonomous. THEODOSIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [864-879] see 855 and 879. 865FALSE DECRETALS These were allegedly discovered in Spain by Archbishop Riculf of Mainz. They were really 9th century Frankish forgeries interpolated into an earlier genuine collection of Conciliar Acts edited by Isidore of Seville who died in 636. In particular, the forgeries were most frequently used in the 9th to 11th centuries to establish historical grounds for contemporary papal views on papal monarchy. The Donation of Constantine and the letter from Clement I to James, the brother of Christ were included in the False Decretals, and were key documents. The forged nature of these decretals was completely demonstrated in 1558. The person first to use them was Nicholas I in 865 who apparently knew much earlier that they were forgeries. Their authenticity however was accepted throughout the Middle Ages. 866 867ADRIAN II Pope [867-872]. He was pope from December 14, 867 to December 14, 872. A member of a noble Roman family, and became pope at an advanced age. Photius, the patriarch of Constantinople, shortly after the council in which he had pronounced sentence of deposition against HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_I" \o "Pope Nicholas I" Pope Nicholas I, was driven from the patriarchate by a new emperor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_I" \o "Basil I" Basil the Macedonian, who favoured his rival HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Ignatius" \o "Patriarch Ignatius" Ignatius. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople" \o "Fourth Council of Constantinople" Fourth Council of Constantinople was called at which Adrian was represented by legates, who presided at the condemnation of Photius as a heretic, but did not succeed in coming to an understanding with Ignatius on the subject of the jurisdiction over the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Orthodox_Church" \o "Bulgarian Orthodox Church" Bulgarian church. Like his predecessor Nicholas I, Adrian was forced to submit, in temporal affairs, to the interference of the emperor, Louis II, who placed him under the surveillance of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsenius_of_Orte&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Arsenius of Orte (page does not exist)" Arsenius, bishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orte" \o "Orte" Orte, his confidential adviser, and Arseniuss nephew HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastasius_Bibliothecarius" \o "Anastasius Bibliothecarius" Anastasius, the librarian. Adrian had in his youth married a woman named Stephania, by whom he had a daughter, and both were still living at his election, following which they lived with him in the Lateran Palace. They were carried off and assassinated by Anastasiuss brother, Eleutherius, in 868. Adrian died exactly five years after his election. He succeeded Nicholas I [see 858] and was succeeded by John VIII [see 872]. 868RATRAMNUS [d. c.868] Early mediaeval theologian whose importance rests on his books and his involvement in numerous theological controversies. His most famous work was written in reaction to a tract on the sacrament written by his former teacher Radbertus [see 853]. His book was condemned in 1050 as mediaeval theology moved in the direction of defining the doctrine of transubstantiation. In 850 he wrote in support of Gottschalks [see 849] position on double predestination. His last book was written at the urging of Nicholas I and provided a defence of the Latin Church against the attacks of the Eastern Church. He pleaded for unity, but maintained that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, and he held to the primacy of Rome. 869 870AETHELRED Archbishop of Canterbury [870-888]. He succeeded Ceolnoth [see 833]. Most of his time as archbishop was spent dealing with the effects of Viking raids, but he also had a conflict with King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" \o "Alfred the Great" Alfred the Great [see 871] over ecclesiastical matters. It was during his reign that the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_Codex_Aureus" \o "Stockholm Codex Aureus" Golden Gospels were ransomed from a raiding army and donated to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury" \o "Canterbury" Canterbury. He also was urged, along with Archbishop HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulfhere_of_York" \o "Wulfhere of York" Wulfhere of York, by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_VIII" \o "Pope John VIII" Pope John VIII to reform the dress of the English clergy. The Anglo-Saxon clergy wore the short tunic that was the normal costume of the laypeople of Britain. The Roman custom, however, was to wear long clerical robes or habits, and the Anglo-Saxon custom was opposed by the popes and other continental clergy. However the clothing customs of the Anglo-Saxon clergy did not change. Around 877, he wrote to Pope John VIII to complain about King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" \o "Alfred the Great" Alfred the Greats conduct towards Canterbury. The exact nature of the dispute is not clear, but we know the pope told the archbishop that Canterbury had papal support and that the pope had written to the king urging the king to respect the rights of the archbishop. His biggest concern however would have been the Viking raids on England. Canterbury had been sacked by the Vikings around 850, and there were raids in Kent in 855 and 865 also. Another problem for the archbishop was a decline in the abilities of the scribes at Canterbury, which are dramatically illustrated by the documents which have a number of errors and duplications. They also show that some at least of the scribes had little knowledge of Latin. He died 30 June 888. He succeeded Ceolnoth [see 833] and was succeeded by Plegmund [see 890]. EDMUND [c.840-870] King and martyr. He succeeded to the throne of East Anglia at 15 and for the next 14 years lived in peace. The invading Danes, who had gained ground in other parts of the country but had for some reason until then left his territories alone, came south. Edmund engaged them in battle. He was defeated, captured but refused to renounce his faith or to hold his kingdom as vassal of a heathen overlord and was thereupon killed by the Danish archers, and then beheaded. Bury St Edmunds named after him became one of the famous shrines in England in his memory. MICHAEL II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (870-903) see 860 and 907 This is John, Bishop of Maioumas, who, when he was transferred to the Patriarchal Throne of Alexandria by Emperor Basil I the Macedonian, was renamed Michael, in honour of his predecessor. 871-880 AD 871ALFRED THE GREAT [849899] King of Wessex [871899]. He was keen to restore the English Church after the devastation of the Danish raids but resources were limited. Alfred concentrated on the restoration of education which had been lost in these difficult times. With the help of an international group of scholars Alfred translated some of the fundamental works of theology, history and spiritual direction into English including the Decalogue and some of the Psalms. 872JOHN VIII Pope [872-882]. He is often considered one of the ablest pontiffs of the ninth century and the last bright spot on the papacy until Leo IX two centuries later. He was born inRome. Among the reforms achieved during his pontificate was a notable administrative reorganisation of the Papal Curia. With little help from European kings, he attempted to expel the Saracens from Italy after they had penetrated as far as Rome. He failed and was forced to pay tribute. John defended Methodius against his German enemies, who objected to his use of theSlavonic languagein theliturgy. John later confirmed the permission to use Slavonic that had been originally granted by Pope Adrian II, Johns predecessor. In 879 he recognised the reinstatement of Photius as the legitimate patriarch of Constantinople. Consequently, John VIII was in favour of reciting theCreedwithout thefilioque. In 878 John crowned Louis II, king of France. He also crowned two Holy Roman Emperors: Charles II and Charles III. He succeeded Adrian II [see 867] and was succeeded by Marinus [see 882]. 873 874 875USUARD, MARTYROLOGY OF This was the most popular martyrology in mediaeval times. Usuard was so successful in obtaining relics of the saints for his order, the Benedictines, that Charles the Bald commissioned him to draw up a martyrology. Taking into account the work of Ado [see 859], Bede [see 700], Florus [see 816], and others, he completed his work in 875. The work proved to be very popular in monasteries throughout Western Europe. 876 877 878 879CONSTANTINOPLE, FOURTH COUNCIL OF [see 3rd council 680] Called by Patriarch Photius of Constantinople [see 858] where it readopted the Nicene Creed. The council spoke against the filioque the phrase and from the Son which was added to the Nicene Creed by the Western Church to show that the Holy Spirit came from the Father and the Son. ELIAS III Patriarch of Jerusalem [879-907] see 864 and 908. MICHAEL I Patriarch of Antioch [879-890] see also 860 and 890. 880MIKHAEL III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [880-907] see 859 and 910. In HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/882" \o "882" 882, the governor of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Arab_Egypt" \o "History of Arab Egypt" Egypt, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Tulun" \o "Ahmad ibn Tulun" Ahmad ibn Tulun, forced Mikhael to pay heavy contributions, forcing him to sell a church and some attached properties to the local HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" \o "Jew" Jewish community. This building was at one time believed to have later become the site of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" \o "Cairo Geniza" Cairo Geniza. 881-890 AD 881 882MARINUS Pope [882-884]. Before becoming pope, he served as bishop of Caere, which made his election controversial, because, at this stage of history, a bishop was expected never to leave office to move to another see. On three separate occasions he had been employed by the three popes who preceded him as legate to Constantinople, his mission in each case having reference to the controversy in the deposition by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople. Among his first acts as pope were the restitution of Formosus as cardinal bishop of Portus and the anathematising of Photius. Due to his respect for King Alfred he freed the Anglo-Saxons of Rome from tribute and taxation. He succeeded John VIII [see 872] and was succeeded by Adrian III [see 884]. 883 884ADRIAN III Pope [884-885]. Reigned from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_17" \o "May 17" May 17, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/884" \o "884" 884 to September, 885. His brief pontificate came during troubled times. He was born at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome. He died in September 885 at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modena" \o "Modena" Modena on a journey to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worms,_Germany" \o "Worms, Germany" Worms in modern HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" Germany after being summoned by the Frankish king, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Charles III, Holy Roman Emperor" Charles III, the Fat, to settle the succession to the empire and discuss the rising HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saracen" \o "Saracen" Saracen power. He succeeded Marinus I [see 882] and was succeeded by Stephen V [see 885]. 885STEPHEN V Pope [885-891]. His father, Adrian, who belonged to the Roman aristocracy, entrusted his education to his relative, Bishop Zachary, librarian of the Holy See. Stephen was created a cardinal-priest by Marinus I. He was consecrated pope in September 885, without waiting for the imperial confirmation, but when Charles the Fat found with what unanimity he had been elected he let the matter rest. Stephen was called upon to face a famine caused by a drought and by locusts, and as the papal treasury was empty he had to fall back on his fathers wealth to relieve the poor, to redeem captives, and to repair churches. In his relations with the young Slavonic church, he pursued the policy of Pope Nicholas I. To promote order he adopted Guy III of Spoleto as his son and crowned him emperor in 891. He also recognised Louis the Blind as king of Provence. As Aurelian,archbishop of Lyon, would not consecrate Teutbold who had been canonically elected bishop of Langres, Stephen himself consecrated him. He had also to oppose the arbitrary proceedings of thearchbishops of Bordeaux and Ravenna, and to resist the attacks which Patriarch Photius made on the Holy See. When writing against Photius, he begged the emperor to send warships and soldiers to enable him to ward off the assaults of theSaracens. Stephen also received many Englishpilgrimsand envoys bringingPeters Pence [see 787] to Rome. He succeeded Adrian III [see 884] and was succeeded by Formosus [see 891]. 886STEPHEN I Patriarch of Constantinople [886-893] succeeded Photius I [see 858]. Stephen was the son of Eudokia who was the mistress of Emperor Michael III. Castrated by Basil I, Stephen became a monk and was designated for a career in the church from his childhood. In 886 his brother, the new emperor, Leo VI, dismissed Patriarch Photiusand appointed the 19-year old Stephen as patriarch in his stead. Patriarch Stephen participated in the ceremonial reburial of Michael III by Leo VI in the imperial mausoleum attached to the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. There are no important events associated with Stephens patriarchate, and the patriarch, who acquired a reputation for piety, died in May 893. 887 888 889 890PLEGMUND Archbishop of Canterbury [890-914]. Little is known of the early life of Plegmund. He was ofMerciandescent and is believed to have lived as a hermit on what was at that time an island which became known as The Isle of Chester in Cheshire. His reputation as a scholar attracted the attention of King Alfred who, some time before 887, summoned him to court with three other scholars. Plegmund was selected for the see of Canterbury in 890 by King Alfred, his election to the archbishopric of Canterbury being recorded in the Anglo-Saxon ChronicleHere Archbishop Plegmund was elected by God and all the people. There is a gap in time between the death of the previous archbishop of Canterbury, Aethelred, and the consecration of Plegmund which may have been because the see had been offered to Grimbald, a Flemish monk and scholar, who refused it. During the 9th century thesee of Canterburywas at a low point and one of Plegmunds responsibilities was to re-establish its authority. Between 909 and 918 he created new sees within the existing Diocese of Winchester in Crediton, Ramsbury, Sherborne and Wells. This meant that each future shire of Wessex had its own bishop; Crediton for Devon and Cornwall, Ramsbury for Wiltshire, Sherborne for Dorset, and Wells for Somerset as well as the diocese of Winchester for Hampshire. In order to do this he had to gain the approval ofPope Sergius III, who had annulled all the acts of Pope Formosus, and in 908 he travelled to Rome to be regranted his pallium. He was the first archbishop of Canterbury to visit Rome for nearly a century and he returned with therelicsofSaint Blaise. As a member of King Alfreds court Plegmund worked with three other scholars to translate Gregory the Greats Pastoral Care from Latin into English. The king then sent copies of it to all the bishops of his realm. Under Plegmunds archbishopric, the quality of the Latin used by his scribes improves over the poor quality of the previous two archbishops. When Alfred died in 899, Plegmund crowned his sonEdward the Elder,king. He succeeded Aethelred [see 870] and was succeeded by Athelm [see 923]. ZACHARIAS Patriarch of Antioch [890-902] see also 879 and 902. 891-900 AD 891FORMOSUS Pope [891-896] undertook diplomatic missions to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria" \o "Bulgaria" Bulgaria in 866 and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France in 869 and 872, and also persuaded HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" \o "Charles the Bald" Charles the Bald, king of France, to be crowned by the pope. As early as 872 he was a candidate for the papacy, but due to political complications he left HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome and the court of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_VIII" \o "Pope John VIII" Pope John VIII that year. John convened a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod" \o "Synod" synod and Formosus was ordered to return, or be HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunicated on charges that he opposed the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor" \o "Emperor" emperor and had deserted his diocese without papal permission and committed several other acts against the papacy and church. The condemnation of Formosus and others was announced in July 872. In 878 the sentence of excommunication was withdrawn after he promised never to return to Rome or exercise his priestly functions. Formosus was elected pope on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_6" \o "October 6" October 6, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/891" \o "891" 891. Supporters of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_II_of_Spoleto" \o "Guy II of Spoleto" Guy II of Spoleto forced Formosus to crown him as a Roman emperor in April 892. Other immediate issues were in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople where HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Photius_I_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople" Patriarch Photius had been ejected and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_I_of_Constantinople" \o "Stephen I of Constantinople" Stephen, the son of Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_I" \o "Basil I" Basil I, had taken the office. There was also a quarrel between the archbishops of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne" \o "Cologne" Cologne and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg" \o "Hamburg" Hamburg concerning the bishopric of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Bremen" \o "Archdiocese of Bremen" Bremen. In the contest between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odo,_Count_of_Paris" \o "Odo, Count of Paris" Odo, count of Paris and Charles the Simple for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" French crown, the pope sided with Charles. Formosus persuaded HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnulf_of_Carinthia" \o "Arnulf of Carinthia" Arnulf of Carinthia to advance to Rome, invade the Italian peninsula, and take control of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy. In 894 Arnulfs army occupied all the country north of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_River" \o "Po River" Po River and in the following year undertook his second Italian campaign and in 896 he was crowned by the pope in Rome. The new emperor moved against Spoleto but was struck with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralysis" \o "Paralysis" paralysis on the way and was unable to continue the campaign. He succeeded Stephen VI [see 885] and was succeeded by Boniface VI [see 896]. 892 893 HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Patriarch_Antony_II_of_Constantinople" ANTONY II HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [893-901] succeeded Stephen I [see 886 ]. A monk by age 12, Antony Kauleas became a priest and the abbot of a monastery. He came to the attention of the all-powerful minister of Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" \o "Leo VI the Wise" Leo VI. Antony had supported Leo against the former patriarch, Photius I of Constantinople, and had contributed to the pacification of the church by effecting a compromise between the supporters of Photius and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Ignatios_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch Ignatios of Constantinople" Ignatius. The emperor appointed Antony patriarch after the death of his own brother, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Stephen_I_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch Stephen I of Constantinople" Patriarch Stephen I of Constantinople in 893. Patriarch Antony II was a pious man who generously endowed monastic foundations and founded or re-founded the Kaulea monastery with the support of the emperor and who preached at the churchs dedication ceremony. 894 895 896BONIFACE VI Pope [896]. A native of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome who was elected in April 896 as a result of riots soon after the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Formosus" \o "Pope Formosus" Pope Formosus. Prior to his reign, he had twice incurred a sentence of deprivation of orders, as a sub-deacon and as a priest. After a pontificate of fifteen days, he is said by some to have died of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gout" \o "Gout" gout, by others to have been forcibly ejected to make way for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Stephen_VI" \o "Pope Stephen VI" Stephen VI, the candidate of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" \o "Duchy of Spoleto" Spoletan party. At the Council of Rome, held by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_IX" \o "Pope John IX" John IX in 898, his election was pronounced null and void. He succeeded Formosus [see 891] and was succeeded by Stephen VI [see below]. STEPHEN VI Pope [896-897]. He had been made bishop of Anagni by Pope Formosus. The circumstances of his election are unclear, but he was sponsored by one of the powerful Roman families, the house of Spoleto, that contested the papacy at the time. Stephen is chiefly remembered in connection with his conduct towards the remains ofPope Formosus, his last predecessor but one. Doubtless under pressure from the Spoleto contingent and fuelled by Stephens fury with his predecessor, the rotting corpse of Formosus was exhumed and put on trial, in the so-called Cadaver Synod in January 897. With the corpse propped up on a throne, adeaconwas appointed to answer for the deceased pontiff, who was condemned for performing the functions of a bishop when he had been deposed and for receiving the pontificate while he was the bishop of Porto, among other revived charges that had been levelled against Formosus in the strife during the pontificate of John VIII. The corpse was found guilty, stripped of its sacred vestments, deprived of three fingers of its right hand which were the blessing fingers, clad in the garb of a layman, and quickly buried; it was then re-exhumed and thrown in theTiber. All ordinations performed by Formosus were annulled. The trial excited a tumult. Though the instigators of the deed may actually have been Formosus enemies of the House of Spoleto the scandal ended in Stephens imprisonment and his death bystranglingthat summer. He succeeded Boniface VI [see above] and was succeeded by Theodore II [see 897]. 897ROMANUS Pope [897]. He was born atGallese near Civita Castellana, and elected to succeed the murdered pope, Stephen VI, but deposed a few months later by one of the factions, which then governed Rome. His short rule was regarded as a virtuous one by the historian Frodoard. He ended his days as amonk. He succeeded Stephen VII [see 896] and was succeeded by Theodore II [see below]. THEODORE II Pope [897]. He was the son ofPhotius, the patriarch of Constantinople. He was ordained as a priest by Pope Stephen V; also his brother Theotius was a bishop. Theodore was pope for twenty days during December 897 before he died. He reinstated the clerics who had been forced from office by Pope Stephen VI, recognising the validity of the ordinations ofPope Formosus. He had the body of Formosus, which had been thrown in theTiber,recovered near Porto and reburied in St. Peters. He succeeded Romanus [see above] and was succeeded by John IX [see 898]. 898JOHN IX Pope [896-900]. He was ordained as a Benedictine priest by Pope Formosus. With the support of the powerful House of Spoleto he was elected Pontiff in early 898 following the sudden death of Pope Theodore II. With a view to diminishing the factional violence in Rome John held several synods in the city and elsewhere in 898. They not only confirmed the judgement of Pope Theodore II in granting Christian burial to Pope Formosus, but also at a council held at Ravenna decreed that the records of the synod held by Stephen VI which had condemned him should be burned. Re-ordinations were forbidden, and those of the clergy who had been degraded by Stephen were restored to the ranks from which he had deposed them. To keep their independence, which was threatened by the Germans, the Slavs of Moravia appealed to John to let them have a hierarchy of their own. Ignoring the complaints of the German hierarchy, John sanctioned the consecration of ametropolitanand three bishops for the Church of the Moravians. Finding that it was advisable to cement the ties between the empire and the papacy, John IX gave unhesitating support to Lambert in preference to Arnulf during the Synod of Rome, and also induced the council to determine that henceforth the consecration of the popes should take place only in the presence of the imperial legates. The sudden death of Lambert shattered the hopes which this alliance seemed to promise. He succeeded Theodore II [see 897] and was succeeded by Benedict IV [see 900]. 899 900BENEDICT IV Pope [900-903]. He upheld the ordinances of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Formosus" \o "Pope Formosus" Pope Formosus, whose rotting corpse had been exhumed by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Stephen_VI" \o "Pope Stephen VI" Pope Stephen VI and put on trial in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadaver_Synod" \o "Cadaver Synod" Cadaver Synod of 897. In 901, after the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian" \o "Carolingian" Carolingian emperors had disappeared, Benedict followed the example of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" \o "Pope Leo III" Pope Leo III and crowned HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_of_Provence" \o "Louis of Provence" Louis of Provence as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Holy Roman Emperor" Holy Roman Emperor. In his reign, he also excommunicated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin_II_of_Flanders" \o "Baldwin II of Flanders" Baldwin II of Flanders for murdering HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulk,_Archbishop_of_Reims" \o "Fulk, Archbishop of Reims" Fulk, archbishop of Reims. He died in the summer of 903 and was buried in front of St Peters, by the gate of Guido. He succeeded John IX [see 898] and was succeeded by Leo V [see 903]. 901-910 AD 901NICHOLAS I Patriarch of Constantinople [901-907, 912-925] succeeded Antony II [see 893]. Nicholas was born in the Italian Peninsula and had become a friend of the PatriarchPhotius. He fell into disfavour after Photios dismissal in 886 and retired to a monastery. Emperor Leo VI the Wise retrieved him from the monastery and made himmystikos, a dignity indicating either the imperial secretary or a judicial official. On March 1, 901, Nicholas was appointed patriarch. However, he fell out with Leo VI over the latters fourth marriage to his mistress Zoe. Although he reluctantly baptised the son of this relationship, the future Constantine VII, Nicholas forbade the emperor from entering the church and may have become involved in a revolt. He was deposed as patriarch on February 1, 907 and replaced by Euthymius. Exiled to his own monastery, Nicholas regarded his deposition as unjustified and involved the papacy in the dispute. About the time of the accession of Leo VIs brother Alexander to the throne in May 912, Nicholas was restored to the patriarchate. A protracted struggle with the supporters of Euthymius followed, which did not end until the new EmperorRomanus I promulgated theTome of Union in 920. In the meantime Alexander had died in 913 after provoking a war withBulgaria, and the underage Constantine VII succeeded to the throne. Nicholas Mystikos became the leading member of the regency for the young emperor, and as such had to face the advance of Simeon I of Bulgaria on Constantinople. Nicholas negotiated a peaceful settlement, crowned Simeon emperor of the Bulgarians in a makeshift ceremony outside Constantinople, and arranged for the marriage of Simeons daughter to Constantine VII. This unpopular concession undermined his position, and by March 914 Zoe overthrew Nicholas and replaced him as foremost regent. She revoked the agreement with Simeon, prompting the renewal of hostilities with Bulgaria. With her main supporter crushingly defeated by the Bulgarians at the Battle of Acheloos in 917, Zoe started to lose ground. Embarrassed by further failures, she and her supporters were supplanted in 919 by the admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who married his daughter Helena to Constantine VII and finally advanced to the imperial throne in 920. The Patriarch Nicholas came to be one of the strongest supporters of the new emperor, and took the brunt of renewed negotiations with the Bulgarians until his death in 925. In addition to his numerous letters to various notables and foreign rulers (including Simeon of Bulgaria), Nicholas Mystikos wrote an account of the sack of Thessalonica by the Arabs in 904. He was a critical thinker who went as far as to question the authority of Old Testament quotations and the notion that the emperors command was unwritten law. 902GEORGE III Patriarch of Antioch [902-917] see also 890 and 917. 903LEO V Pope [903]. A native of Ardea, he was pope for some thirty days in 903. He was dethroned by antipope Christopher (903904), who is sometimes considered a legitimate pope. Elected while a priest, Leo Vs pontificate occurred in the darkest period of papal history. He was deposed and murdered, presumably strangled byChristopher, who was in turn executed byPope Sergius III. He succeeded Benedict IV [see 900] and was succeeded by Sergius III [see 904]. 904SERGIUS III Pope [904-911]. Because Sergius III was possibly the only pope known to have ordered the murder of another pope and the only pope known to have fathered an illegitimate son who later became pope, his pontificate has been described as dismal and disgraceful. He was the son of Benedictus, and came from a noble Roman family. His reign was remarkable for the rise of what papal historians saw as a pornocracy or rule of the harlots, a reversal of the natural order as they saw it. It was an age with women in power:Theodora, whom Liutprand characterised as a shameless whore exercised power on the Roman citizenry like a man, and her daughter Marozia, the mother of Pope John XI(931935) and reputed to be the mistress of Sergius III. Sergius III and his party opposedPope Formosus(891896), who ordained him bishop of Caere in order to remove him from Rome. He was his factions unsuccessful candidate for the papacy in 896. WhenPope John IX(898900) was elected instead, he excommunicated Sergius, who had to withdraw from his see at Cerveteri for safety. Elected pope in 897, Sergius III was forcibly exiled by Lambert, duke of Spoleto, and all the official records were destroyed. When Antipope Christopher(903904) seized the seat of St. Peter by force, the Theophylact faction of Romans revolted and ejected him and they then invited Sergius III to come out of retirement. His return is marked as January 29 904. Back in power, Sergius III now annulled all the ordinations of Formosus and demanded all bishops ordained by Formosus be reordained, an unwelcome decision reversed again after his death. Sergius honoured Pope Stephen VI (896-897), who had been responsible for the Cadaver Synod that had condemned and mutilated the corpse of Pope Formosus. He then reportedly had the much-abused corpse of Formosus exhumed once more, tried, found guilty again, and beheaded. His nemeses, Pope Leo V(903) andAntipope Christopher, both died in 904, allegedly strangled in prison on the order of Sergius, He is the first pope to be depicted wearing the triple-crownedpapal tiara. He succeeded Leo V [see 903] and was succeeded by Anastasius III [see 911]. 905 906 907CHRISTODOULUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (907-932) see 870 and 933. During his tenure as patriarch, the renowned Church of Caesarius was burnt down. The see was vacant from 903 to 907 HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Patriarch_Euthymius_I_of_Constantinople" EUTHYMIUS I HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [907-912] succeeded Nicholas I [see 901]. There is no additional information readily available. 908REMIGIUS OF AUXERRE [c.841-908] Leader in the later Carolingian Renaissance who was educated at the Benedictine monastery at Auxerre where he later taught. He also taught at Reims and helped in the revival of classical learning which had begun during the reign of Charlemagne. In addition he wrote a commentary on the philosopher Boethius, and homilies on the Gospel of Matthew. SERGIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [908-911] see 879 and 911. 909CLUNIACS were part of the monastic foundation at Cluny established in 909 as a reform movement based on the Benedictine Rule. Many of the monks became popes, cardinals and bishops and among its notable abbots were Odo, Odilo, Hugh and Peter the Venerable. The order has centres in Germany, Italy Spain and England in addition to France. It emphasised Biblical scholarship and liturgical renewal and at its height manifested the fruits of simplicity. 910FRANCE [see also 732 and 1598] Mediaeval France was also the home of the Cluny reform movement which began in 910 and was to contribute a host of reformers to the church, including several popes. Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1122] was another whose influence extended to every part of the Christian world. It was he who preached the Second Crusade so effectively that he later noted that it had reduced the ratio of women to men in France to 7 to 1. The dominance of the French leadership of the Crusades and in the Holy Land was such that the Crusaders as a whole were simply known as Franks, and the Christians of those lands until very recently looked to France as their protector. The University of Paris was chartered in 1200 but even before the official founding of the university, Paris had been the site of a celebrated cathedral school. Many of the most famous teachers of this period were either French or taught in the French schools such as Anselm [see 1093], Peter Abelard [see1122], and Thomas Aquinas [see 1265]. The church in France in the Middle Ages played a major role in the development of both French and papal politics. The part of Joan of Arc [see 1431] in restoring the credibility of the French monarchy, the challenge of Philip IV [see 1285] to the papacy, and the subsequent removal of the papacy to Avignon for two generations all testify to this development and the later development of what would be called the Gallican Church. GABRIEL I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [910-921] see 880 and 921 after the see had been vacant from 907-910. 911-920 AD 911ANASTASIUS III Pope [911-913]. He was pope from April 911 to June 913 and was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Roman by birth. A Roman nobleman Lucian is sometimes recognised as his father, although other sources assert that he was the illegitimate son of his predecessor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sergius_III" \o "Pope Sergius III" Pope Sergius III (904911). Practically nothing is recorded of Pope Anastasius III, his pontificate falling in the period when Rome and the papacy were under the power of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophylact,_Count_of_Tusculum" \o "Theophylact, Count of Tusculum" Theophylact, count of Tusculum and his wife HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodora" \o "Theodora" Theodora, who approved Anastasius IIIs candidacy. Under his reign the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans" \o "Normans" Normans of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo" \o "Rollo" Rollo were evangelised. He was buried in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" \o "St. Peter's Basilica" St. Peters Basilica. He succeeded Sergius II [see 904] and was succeeded by Landus [see 913]. LEONTIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [911-929] see 908 and 929. 912 913LANDUS Pope [913-914]. He was born in Sabina, Italy. His father was reportedly named Taino and he did not change his name on his accession. Landus is thought to have had powerful friends who helped him to be elected pope. Little more is known about him. He was the last pope to use a papal name which had not been previously used until John Paul I did so in 1978. Landus was pope during the Pornocracy, which lasted from 904 to 964. He succeeded Anastasius III [see 911] and was succeeded by John X [see 914]. 914JOHN X Pope [914-928] from March, 914 to May, 928. He was deacon at Bologna when he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, the most powerful noble in Rome, through whose influence he was elevated first to the see of Bologna and then to the archbishopric ofRavenna. In direct opposition to a decree of council, John X was, at the instigation of Theodora, promoted to the papal chair as the successor ofPope Landus. He endeavoured to secure himself against his temporal enemies through a close alliance with Theophylact and Alberic, marquis ofCamerino, then governor of the duchy of Spoleto. In December 915 John X granted the imperial crown to Berengar of Friuli (915924), and with the assistance of the forces of all the princes of the Italian peninsula took the field in person against the Saracens over whom he gained a great victory on the banks of the Garigliano. However the defeat and death of Berengar in 924 again frustrated the hopes of a united Italy and after witnessing several years of anarchy and confusion, John X perished as a result of the intrigues of Marozia, daughter of Theodora. He succeeded Landus [see 913] and was succeeded by Leo VI [see 928]. 915 916 917JOB II Patriarch of Antioch [917-939] see also 902 and 939. 918 919 920 921-930 AD 921KOSMA III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [921-933] see 910 and 933. According to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Patriarchs_of_Alexandria" \o "History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria" History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria, after HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abuna_Peter&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Abuna Peter (page does not exist)" Abuna Peter of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Church had become embroiled in a civil war and was forced into exile, and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" \o "Emperor of Ethiopia" Emperor of Ethiopia requested a new HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuna" \o "Abuna" Abuna to replace him, Cosmas III refused to ordain a newAbuna because Peter was still alive. This led to strained relations between the two powers. 922 923ATHELM Archbishop of Canterbury [923-926]. He succeeded Piegmund [see 890]. He was an uncle of Dunstans HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athelm" \l "cite_note-DictSaint-1#cite_note-DictSaint-1" [see 960], and was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Abbey" \o "Glastonbury Abbey" Glastonbury Abbey and possibly HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot_of_Glastonbury" \o "Abbot of Glastonbury" Abbot of Glastonbury before his elevation in 909 to bishop of Wells of which he was the first occupant. Between August 923 and September 925 he became archbishop. His translation from the see of Wells set a precedent for the future, and marks a break with historical practice. Previous to this time, the moving of a bishop from one see to another had been held to be against ecclesiastical law however the popes had themselves been translated, and this practice was to become common practice in England after Athelms time. Athelm probably presided over the coronation of King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athelstan_of_England" \o "Athelstan of England" Athelstan of England in 925. It is unclear if the fact that no coins were minted with his name was because of his short term of office or was a sign of a change in policy towards the archbishops of Canterbury minting coins in their own name. He died on 8 January 926. 924ATTO II [885 961] Bishop of Vercelli from 924. He was also grand chancellor to Hugh of Provence, king of Italy. He wrote commentaries on the Epistles of Paul as well as letters and sermon notes. 925STEPHEN II of Amasea Patriarch of Constantinople [925-928] succeeded Nicholas I [see 901]. There is no additional information readily available. 926WULFHELM Archbishop of Canterbury [926-941]. Wulfhelm was translated from the bishopric of Wells to be archbishop of Canterbury in about 926. While he was archbishop, he was a frequent attendee of the royal court, and KingAthelstan of Englandsays in his law code that Wulfhelm was consulted on the drafting of the laws. Wulfhelm also went toRometo receive hispalliumin person fromPope John X. Why he chose to go to Rome in person for his pallium rather than having it sent to him like most of his predecessors is unknown. One suggestion has been that because he had been translated from another see, Wulfhelm felt the need to have papal approval of his translation made explicit. Given the low status of the papacy at the time it is unlikely that the impetus for the change in tradition came from the pope. He died while archbishop on 12 February 941.During his time as archbishop, he received as gifts two gospels that are still extant as Wulfhelm gave them to Christ Church. He succeeded Athelm [see 923] and was succeeded by Oda [see 941]. 927ODO [879-942] Abbot of Cluny who was educated at the Court of William duke of Aquitaine and later in Paris. When 19 years old he became a canon of St Martin of Tours and three years later joined the community at Cluny. Odo succeeded Berno in 924 and became abbot of Cluny in 927. Under his leadership Cluny received a papal privilege from John XI which allowed the spread of Cluniac reforms in numerous French and Italian houses. 928LEO VI Pope [928]. Leo was a Roman and reigned a little over seven months. He was son of Antipope Christopher and held the title of Cardinal-priest of St. Susanna before being elected pope. He succeeded John X [see 914] and was succeeded by Stephen VIII [see 929]. TRYPHON Patriarch of Constantinople [928-931] succeeded Stephen II [see 925]. Tryphon was a monk in Constantinople, he was raised to the patriarchate in 928 by Romanos I on condition that he would resign in favour of the emperors son Theophylaktos when the boy would be of age to be consecrated aspatriarch. Theophylactus turned 16 in 931 and Roman asked Patriarch Tryphon to step down as promised so Theophylaktos could assume the patriarchate. Tryphon refused to hand over the throne to a boy and remained in office. Romanos was infuriated and wanted to arrest him and execute him but Tryphon was very much loved by the people for his virtues. Then the emperors advisors came up with a better plan to remove him from office without causing a rebellion. During a meeting with other bishops, Bishop Basil accused Tryphon of being illiterate, and the patriarch protested that he was not. Bishop Basil had an imperial agent ask him to prove that by signing his name on a blank paper, Tryphon signed the blank paper and then Bishop Basil sent the paper to the palace where the imperial clerks wrote the document of his resignation on the blank paper with Tryphons signature. When he found out that he was deceived it was too late, Theophylactus had been already proclaimed patriarch and Tryphon was forced to retire to monastery where he died after 3 months. 929ATHANASIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [929-937] see 911 and 937. STEPHEN VII Pope [928-931]. He was a Roman by birth and probably handpicked byMaroziafrom theTusculanifamily, the unquestioned mistress of Rome during this period. This was as a stop-gap measure until her son John was ready to assume the throne. He had been beforecardinal-priestof St Anastasia. This was what some sources considered the darkest period of papal history, a period in which clans of the nobility in Rome turned the papacy into a temporal fiefdom. Little is known of Stephens reign, except that he confirmed the privileges of a few religious houses in France and Italy. He may, like several popes in this period, have been assassinated. The validity of his papacy is disputed. Like his predecessor he was elected while Pope John X was still alive and in prison. Thus, if Johns removal from office was invalid then neither the election of Leo nor of Stephen was valid, and they werent genuine popes. He succeeded Leo VI [see 928] and was succeeded by John XI [see 931]. 930 931-940 AD 931JOHN XI Pope [931-935]. The parentage of John XI is still a matter of dispute. According to normally reliable sources he was the natural son ofPope Sergius III (904911). If that is true, John XI would be the only known illegitimate son of a pope to have become pope himself. In this regard it is noted that Silverius was the legitimate son ofPope Hormisdas. His mother was the Roman ruler at the time thus Marozia was allegedly able to exert complete control over the pope. At the overthrow of Marozia, John XI became subject to the control of Alberic II (932-954), his younger brother. The only control left to the pope was the exercise of his purely spiritual duties. All other jurisdiction was exercised through Alberic II. This was not only the case in secular, but also in ecclesiastical affairs. It was at the insistence of Alberic II that thepalliumwas given to Theophylactus, patriarch of Constantinople in 935 and also toArtold, archbishop of Reims two years earlier. It was John XI who granted many privileges to the Congregation ofCluny, which was later on a powerful agent of church reform. He succeeded Stephen VIII [see 929] and was succeeded by Leo VII [see 936]. RATHERIUS [c.890-974] Bishop of Verona who was born in Liege and served sporadically as bishop of Verona for three terms between 931 and 968 and Liege from 953 to 955. His first stay in Verona ended with imprisonment in Como from where he escaped in 939 and returned to Lobbes in 944. He returned to Italy in 946 but soon became a prisoner until he regained his see in the same year but was forced to flee again in 948. Ratherius unsuccessfully joined forces with Ludolph of Saxony to reclaim his position and he eventually retired to a monastery in Flanders where he died. 932 933EUTYCHIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (933-940) see 907 and 941. He was a doctor, he co-wrote in Arabic medical, historical and theological dissertations. His main work was his Chronography, entitled The Binding of Precious Stones, which records history from creation to his day. During the patriarchal tenure of Eutychius the Orthodox were divided into those supporting the patriarch and those not MACARI I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [933-953] see 921 and 953. THEOPHYLACTUS Patriarch of Constantinople [933-956] succeeded Tryphon [see 928]. In 933 he was considered old enough to discharge his duties as patriarch even though he was still only sixteen years old. Theophylactus was the third patriarch of Constantinople to be the son of an emperor and the only one to have become patriarch during the reign of his father. His father had secured the support of Pope John XI for his elevation to the patriarchate, which was unusually long, just over twenty-three years. He supported his fathers policies and pursued ecclesiastical ecumenism, keeping in close contact with the Greek patriarchates of AlexandriaandAntioch. He sent missionaries to theMagyars, trying to help the efforts of imperial diplomacy in the late 940s. At about the same time he advised his nephew-in-law Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria on the new Bogomil heresy. Theophylactus introduced theatrical elements to the Byzantine liturgy, something which was not universally supported by the conservative clergy around him. His detractors describe him as an irreverent man primarily interested in his huge stable of horses, who was ready to abandon the celebration of Divine Liturgy in Hagia Sophia to be present at the foaling of his favourite mare. Perhaps ironically he died after falling from a horse in 956. 934 935 936LEO VII Pope [936-939]. His election to the papacy was secured by Alberic II of Spoleto, the monarch inRome. Alberic wanted to choose the pope so that the papacy would continue to yield to his authority. Leo was the priest of St. Sixtus in Rome and had little ambition towards the papacy, but consented under pressure. As pope, Leo VII reigned for only three years. Most of his bulls were grants of privilege to monasteries, especially including the Abbey of Cluny. Leo called for Odo of Cluny to mediate between Alberic and Hugh of Italy, Alberics stepfather, the king of Italy. Odo was successful in negotiating a truce after arranging a marriage between Hughs daughter Alda and Alberic. Leo VII also appointed Frederick, archbishop of Mainz as a reformer in Germany. Leo allowed Frederick to drive out Jews that refused to be baptised, but he did not endorse the forced baptism of Jews. He succeeded John XI [see 931] and was succeeded by Stephen IX [see 939]. OTTO I the Great [912-973] German king and emperor who succeeded his father Henry I in 936. By emphasising his position as head of the Christians in Germany Otto revived Charlemagnes Alliance of church and state. Ottos policy was that of giving political power to the church in order to counterbalance the secular lords. In foreign affairs he kept France weak and divided, defeated the Magyars at Lechfeld in 955 and pursued a Germanization policy east of the Elbe River and extended his control over Italy. His coronation by John XII in 962 marked the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire and the union of the Roman imperial title with the German kingship which included only Germany and part of Italy. Ottos action in the deposing and replacing of the unpopular John set a clear precedent for imperial control of the papacy. 937CHRISTODOULOS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [937-950] see below and 950. NICHOLAS Patriarch of Jerusalem [937] see 929 and above. 938 939EUSTRATIUS Patriarch of Antioch [939-960] see also 917 and 960. STEPHEN VIII Pope [939-942]. He was a native ofGermany and reigned from mid 939 until his death towards the end of 942. During his pontificate he was subject toAlberic II of Spoleto, prince of the Romans, and did not effectively rule thePapal States. His period as pope was during a brief interruption from the period when the church had been ruled by the so-called pornocracy of Theodora and Marozia,Romannoblewomen. He succeeded Leo VII [see 936] and was succeeded by Marinus II [see 942]. 940 941-950 AD 941ISAAC Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (941-954) see below and 954. He was an ascetic. He declined his election and took refuge on Mount Eyup. However, pressed by the Alexandrian Bishops, he accepted his elevation to the highest office of Patriarch. ODA Archbishop of Canterbury [941-958]. Oda was bishop of Ramsbury (927-941) before being translated to the see of Canterbury. During his time at Ramsbury he acted as mediator in high circles. He arranged a truce betweenOlaf III Guthfrithson, king of Dublin and York, and Edmund I, king of England. In addition Athelstan sent him to France to arrange the return of King Louis IV of France to the throne of France. Louis had been in exile in England for a number of years. As archbishop of Canterbury Oda helped King Edmund of England with his legislation and was present, along with ArchbishopWulfstanof York, at a council held by Edmund that proclaimed the first of Edmunds law codes. The council met at London, over Easter around 945 or 946. He also made constitutions, or rules, for his clergy. His Constitutions of Oda are the first surviving constitutions of a tenth century English ecclesiastical reformer. Items included relations between laymen and the clergy, the duties of bishops, the need for the laity to make canonical marriages, how to observe fasts, and the need for tithes to be given by the laity. The work still exists as the 11th century copy done forWulfstan II,archbishop of York. At the death of KingEadred of England in 955, Oda was one of the recipients of a bequest, in his case a large amount of gold. He crowned King Eadwig in 956, but in early 958 annulled the marriage of Eadwig and his wife Aelfgifu who were too closely related. He was known by contemporaries as The Good and also became known asSeverusThe Severe. He succeeded Wulfred [see 926] and was succeeded by Aelfsige [see 958]. SOPHRONIUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (941) see 933 and above. He was Patriarch for a few months only. 942MARINUS II Pope [942-946]. He was born inRome and was elevated to the papacy through intervention ofAlberic II(932954) ofSpoletoand concentrated on administrative aspects of the papacy. He succeeded Stephen IX [see 939] and was succeeded by Agapetus II [see 946]. 943 944 945 946AGAPETUS II Pope [946-955]. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome, and was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope" \o "Pope" Pope from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_10" \o "May 10" May 10, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/946" \o "946" 946 until his death in October 955. It was at the time when HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberic_II" \o "Alberic II" Alberic II (932954), son of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marozia" \o "Marozia" Marozia, was governing the independent republic of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome under the title of Dux and Senator of the Romans. The position of the papacy at this time was at a particularly low point, and Agapetus II, a man of some force of character, attempted to put a stop to the so-called HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pornocracy" \o "Pornocracy" Pornocracy, which lasted from the accession of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sergius_III" \o "Pope Sergius III" Pope Sergius III (904911) in 904 to the deposition of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_XII" \o "Pope John XII" Pope John XII (955964) in 964. During this period, the popes were influenced strongly by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophylacti" \o "Theophylacti" Theophylacti, and their relatives. The family originated from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophylact_I,_Count_of_Tusculum" \o "Theophylact I, Count of Tusculum" Theophylactus, who held positions of increased importance in the Roman nobility. His wife HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodora" \o "Theodora" Theodora and daughters, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodora_(10th_century)" \o "Theodora (10th century)" Theodora and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marozia" \o "Marozia" Marozia held a great influence over the papal selection and religious affairs in Rome through conspiracies, affairs and marriages. Marozia became the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concubine" \o "Concubine" concubine of Pope Sergius III when she was 15 and later took other lovers and husbands. She ensured that her son John was seated as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_XI" \o "Pope John XI" Pope John XI according to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liutprand_of_Cremona" \o "Liutprand of Cremona" Liutprand of Cremona (c. 920-72) who also affirms that Marozia arranged the murder of her former lover HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_X" \o "Pope John X" Pope John X (who had originally been nominated for office by Theodora) through her then husband HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_of_Tuscany" \o "Guy of Tuscany" Guy of Tuscany possibly to secure the elevation of her current favourite as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_VI" \o "Pope Leo VI" Pope Leo VI. There is no record substantiating that Pope John X had definitely died before Leo VI was elected since John X was already imprisoned by Marozia and was out of public view. Agapetus IIs appeal to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_I_the_Great" \o "Otto I the Great" Otto I the Great (936973) to intervene in Rome remained without immediate effect, since Alberic IIs position was too strong to be attacked, but it bore fruit after his death. He succeeded Marinus II [see 942] and was succeeded by John XII [see 946]. 947 948 949LIUTPRAND [c.920-972] Bishop and church historian. Coming from a noble family and educated at Padua he was ordained deacon in that city. In 949 King Berengar II appointed him envoy to Constantinople. He became estranged from the king and this led him to the court of Emperor Otto I who made him bishop of Cremona in 961. He made diplomatic visits, on Ottos behalf, to Rome and Constantinople in order to contract the marriage of the future Otto II with a Byzantine princess. His reputation as a historian rests on three highly biased works. 950AGATHON Patriarch of Jerusalem [950-964] see 937 and 964. 951-960 AD 951 952 953BRUNO [925965] Archbishop of Cologne [953965] who was educated at the cathedral school in Utrecht and then in the court of his brother Otto I, and as archbishop of Cologne from 953 he contributed greatly to his reign. He was a generous benefactor and encouraged education. As a prince bishop he demonstrated the union of church and state. He participated in the Synod of Verdun in 947 and improved relations between France and Germany. THEOPHANES Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [953-956] see 933 and 956. 954JOB Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (954-960) see 941 and 963. During his tenure as Patriarch, Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, seized cities in Syria, a fact which provoke the destructive anger of Muslims against Christians. 955HUNGARY [see also 1525] In 955 Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, won a great victory over the Magyars at Unstrut. This victory checked the advance the Magyars and their conversion to Christianity followed this major defeat. It took place in the closing years of the 10th century under Stephen who preached to his subjects, urging them to accept Christianity. From Pope Sylvester II Stephen received the royal crown and title as king of Hungary. When he died in 1038 a sharp reaction set in against Christianity. Later in the 11th century however powerful monarchs gave new support to the Christian church and Christianity gained a stronghold in Hungary. The situation changed again when the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453 opened the way for their conquest of Hungary. JOHN XII Pope [955-964]. The son ofAlberic II, patrician of Rome (932-954). He was a seventh generation descendant of Charlemagne on his mothers side. He succeeded his father as patrician of Rome in 954, at only seventeen years of age. After the death of the reigning pontiff, Agapetus II, Octavanius, then eighteen years of age, was actually chosen his successor on 16 December, 955. He was depicted as a coarse, immoral man in the writings which remain about his papacy, whose life was such that the Lateran was spoken of as a brothel, and the moral corruption in Rome became the subject of general disgrace. Enemies defeated him in battle and occupied lands that belonged to the popes. In order to protect himself against the intrigues in Rome and the power of Berengar II of Italy(950963), John made a deal withOtto I, king of the Germans. He pledged allegiance to Otto and crowned him emperor of the Holy Roman Empire on February 2nd 962. In return, Otto promised to recognise only John as pope. Ten days later the emperor became the guarantor of the independence of the papal states. This was the first effective guarantee of such protection since the Carolingian Empire. After Otto left Rome and reconquered the Papal States from Berengar, John became fearful of the emperors power and sent envoys to the Magyars and the Byzantine Empire to form a league against Otto. As a result Otto summoned a council which deposed John XII, who was in hiding in the mountains ofCampania, and elected Pope Leo VIII(963965) in his stead. However Rome rose up and restored John causing Leo to flee. The emperor headed back to Rome but before he reached the city John XII was dead at the age of 27. Pope Benedict V (964) soon succeeded him but was successfully deposed byLeo VIII. He succeeded Agapetus II [see 946] and was succeeded by Benedict V [see 964]. 956MINA II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [956-974] see 953 and 975. It was during this period that the see moved to Cairo in 960. POLYEUCTUS Patriarch of Constantinople [956-970] succeeded Theophylactus [see 933]. From being a simple monk, Polyeuctus was raised to the patriarchate in 956, as successor to the imperial prince,Theophylactus, and remained on the patriarchal throne in Constantinople until his death in 16 January 970. Although he was given his position by Constantine VII he did not show much loyalty to him. He began by questioning the legitimacy of Constantines parents marriage, and then went as far as to restore the good name of Patriarch Euthymius who had so vigorously opposed that union. For his great mind, zeal for the faith and power of oratory, he was called a secondChrysostom. Polyeuctus excommunicated Nikephoros IIfor having marriedTheophanoon the grounds that he had been the godfather to one or more of his sons. He had previously refused Nikephoras communion for a whole year for the sin of having contracted a second marriage. Nikephoras first wife had been dead several years when he married Theophan, but in the religious views prevalent in the Eastern Roman Empire, especially in the 10th Century, remarriage after the death of ones first wife was a sin only begrudgingly tolerated. He at least had the good grace to oppose sin on all fronts. He excommunicated the assassins of the EmperorNikiforos II and refused to crown the new emperor,Ioannes I, nephew of the late emperor and one of the assassins until he punished the assassins and exiled his lover Empress Theofano who organised her husbands assassin. The Russian Princess Olga came to Constantinople in the time of Patriarch Polyeuctus during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, and was baptised there in 957. The patriarch baptised her, and the emperor stood godfather. Polyeuctus prophesied: `Blessed art thou among Russian women, for thou hast desired the light and cast away darkness; the sons of Russia will bless thee to the last generation. He raised Bishop Petrus ofOtrantoin Italy in 958 to the rank of metropolitan, with the obligation for him to establish the Greek Rite throughout the province, which Petrus did, with it remaining in use in several towns of the archdiocese until the sixteenth century. 957 958AELFSIGE Archbishop of Canterbury [958-959]. He became bishop of Winchester in 951 and in 958 he was translated to become archbishop of Canterbury. Aelfsige died of cold in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps" \o "Alps" Alps as he journeyed to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome to be given his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallium" \o "Pallium" pallium by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_XII" \o "Pope John XII" Pope John XII. In his place King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadwig_of_England" \o "Eadwig of England" Eadwig nominated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrhthelm" \o "Byrhthelm" Berthelm, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Bath_and_Wells" \o "Bishop of Bath and Wells" bishop of Wells. His will survives and shows that he was married with a son, Godwine of Worthy, who died in 1001 fighting against the Vikings. He succeeded Oda [see 941] and was succeeded by Berthelm [see 959]. SEDULIUS SCOTUS He was a poet and scholar who spent 10 years in Liege [848-858] where he established an important centre of his native Irish culture. His poetry whether religious or other is unique in its time for a variety of meter. He compiled unoriginal collections on Pauls epistles and the gospel of Matthew which based on grammar exhibit wide reading, and another on Christian Government based on Augustinian authority which held that kings have primacy over religious leaders. 959BERTHELM Archbishop of Canterbury [959-960]. He was the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Bath_and_Wells" \o "Bishop of Bath and Wells" bishop of Wells and was appointed to be the 27th HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" archbishop of Canterbury in 959. A HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Abbey" \o "Glastonbury Abbey" Glastonbury Abbey, he had served as bishop of Wells from 956. In 957 he was instrumental in restoring lands around the Selsey area that had been seized by a man named Aelfsige who is thought to have been the bishop of Winchester [see 958]. In October of 959, King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadwig_of_England" \o "Eadwig of England" Eadwig died and his brother HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_of_England" \o "Edgar of England" Edgar was readily accepted as ruler of the Kingdom of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessex" \o "Wessex" Wessex. One of the last acts of Eadwig had been to appoint a successor to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oda_the_Severe" \o "Oda the Severe" Archbishop Oda, who died on 2 June 958. First he appointed Aelfsige of Winchester but he perished of cold in the Alps as he journeyed to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallium" \o "Pallium" pallium. In his place Eadwig nominated Berthelm. As soon as Edgar became king he reversed this act on the ground that Berthelm had not been able to even govern the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Bath" \o "Diocese of Bath" diocese of Bath properly, saying that he was too gentle to maintain discipline, and was replaced with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunstan" \o "Dunstan" Dunstan [see 960]. Berthelm therefore returned to Wells where he served until he died on 15 May 973. He succeeded Aelfsige [see 958] and was succeeded by Dunstan [see 960]. 960DENMARK Christianity developed in Denmark from about 735 to 1060 partially through influences from the Anglo-Saxon world and partially through direct Christian missions from the south. The baptism of King Harold Bluetooth about 960 gave impetus to the movement and gave the Christian church an official recognition status in the kingdom. Before the end of the 12th century about 1800 parish churches had been built throughout the country. In 1104 the Scandinavian archbishopric was established in Lund. [See 1536] DUNSTAN Archbishop of Canterbury [988]. As a young boy, Dunstan studied under the Irish monkswho then occupied the ruins of Glastonbury abbey. He became so well known for his devotion to learning that he is said to have been summoned by his uncle Athelm, the archbishop of Canterbury, to enter his service and was later appointed to the court of King Athelstan. Dunstan soon became a favourite of the king and was the envy of other members of the court. A plot was hatched to disgrace him and Dunstan was accused of being involved with witchcraft and black magic. The king ordered him to leave the court and as Dunstan was leaving the palace his enemies physically attacked him, beat him severely, bound him, and threw him into a cesspool. He managed to crawl out and make his way to the house of a friend. From there, he journeyed to Winchester and entered the service of his uncle,Aelfheah bishop of Winchester. The bishop tried to persuade him to become a monk, but Dunstan was doubtful whether he had a vocation to a celibatelife. After a severe illness he took holy orders and returned to Glastonbury as a hermit where he worked as a silversmith. He received two major bequests which made him a rich man which he used to further Benedictine monasticism. In 955, Eadred died, and the situation was at once changed. Eadwig, the elder son of Edmund, who then came to the throne, was a headstrong youth wholly devoted to the reactionary nobles. According to one legend, the feud with Dunstan began on the day of Eadwigs coronation, when he failed to attend a meeting of nobles. When Dunstan eventually found the young monarch, he was cavorting with a noblewoman named Aelfgifu and her mother, and refused to return with the bishop. Infuriated by this, Dunstan dragged Eadwig back and forced him to renounce the girl. Later realising that he had provoked the king, Dunstan fled to the apparent sanctuary of his cloister, but Eadwig, incited by the girl whom he married, followed him and plundered the monastery. Dunstan travelled to Flanders and resided in Ghent but soon after Eadwig was deposed and his brother became king, Dunstan was recalled. He became bishop of Worcester in 957, London the following year and Canterbury in 960. Dunstan went to Rome in 960, and received the pallium from Pope John XII. On his journey there, Dunstans generosities were so lavish as to leave nothing for himself and his attendants. His steward complained, but Dunstan suggested that they trust in Jesus Christ. On his return from Rome, Dunstan at once regained his position as virtual prime minister of the kingdom. Bishops were appointed on his recommendation. Dunstan pushed forward his reforms in the English Church with the monks in his communities being taught to live in a spirit of self-sacrifice. He actively enforced the law of celibacy whenever possible and forbade the practices of simony (selling ecclesiastical offices for money) and ended the custom of clerics appointing relatives to offices under their jurisdiction. Monasteries were built, and in some of the great cathedrals, monks took the place of the secular canons; in the rest the canons were obliged to live according to rule. The parish priests were compelled to be qualified for their office; they were urged to teach parishioners not only the truths of the Christian faith, but also trades to improve their position. The state saw reforms as well. Good order was maintained throughout the realm and there was respect for the law. Trained bands policed the north, and a navy guarded the shores from Viking raids. There was a level of peace in the kingdom unknown in living memory. In 973, Dunstans statesmanship reached its zenith when he officiated at the coronation of King Edgar. Edgar was crowned at Bath in an imperial ceremony planned not as the initiation, but as the culmination of his reign. This service, devised by Dunstan himself and celebrated with a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, forms the basis of the present-day British coronation ceremony. Edgar died two years after his coronation, and was succeeded by his eldest son Edward the Martyr. Through the influence of Dunstan, Edward was chosen and crowned at Winchester. In March 978, King Edward was assassinated at Corfe Castle and Ethelred the Unready became king. His coronation on Low Sunday 31st March, 978, was the last state event in which Dunstan took part. Dunstans influence at court was ended and he retired to Canterbury to teach at the cathedral school. Dunstans retirement at Canterbury consisted of long hours, both day and night, spent in private prayer as well as his regular attendance at mass and the daily office. He worked to improve the spiritual and temporal well-being of his people, to build and restore churches, to establish schools, to judge suits, to defend widows and orphans, to promote peace, and to enforce respect for purity. Until Thomas Beckets fame overshadowed Dunstans he was the favourite saint of the English people. St Dunstans, the charity that provides support, rehabilitation, and respite care to blind ex-service personnel of the British armed forces, is named after him, as are many churches all over the world. He succeeded Berthelm [see 959] and was succeeded by Athelgar [see 988]. CHRISTOPHER I Patriarch of Antioch [960-966] see also 939 and 966. 961-970 AD 961ATHANASIUS THE ATHONITE [9201003] Byzantine founder of monasticism on Mt Athos based on the common life ideals of Basil the Great and Theodore the Studite. He was exiled in 969 but was reinstated by John I Tzimisces until his death in a building accident. 962HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE Political entity in mediaeval Europe. In some areas its founding may be dated to Otto I in 962 although the precise term holy was first used in 1157. A long struggle between the emperors and the papacy began with the Investiture Controversy in 1076 undermining the empire, while the growing power of the kings elsewhere in Europe and a deteriorating situation in Italy destroyed it as a supranational institution. The Golden Bull of 1356 delineated the rights of the electors which by that time clearly had become essentially a German institution. The Habsburgs occupied the throne from 1438 except for a short period in the 1740s. After 1648 it was merely a loose federation, and responding to Napoleons expansionist pressures, Francis II dissolved it in August 1806. SWITHIN [d.862] Bishop of Winchester. Probably a secular clerk, he advised Egbert king of Wessex and taught his son Ethelwulf. He was consecrated bishop on Ethelwulfs succession and became one of his chief councillors. By his wishes his body was buried outside the cathedrals north wall. It was moved inside in 971 giving rise to the legend connecting 40 days of rain with St Swithins Day of 15 July. It was moved again in 1093. 963ELIAS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (963-1000) see 954 and 1000. He came to dispute with Agapios, Patriarch of Antioch because of the transfer of Bishops, because of the ascent of Agapios to the Patriarchal Throne from the Diocese of Aleppo 964BENEDICT V Pope [964]. He was pope for a short while in 964 and had been elected by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Romans on the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_XII" \o "Pope John XII" Pope John XII. However the Roman emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor" Otto I (936973) did not approve of the choice and had him deposed after only a month and carried off to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg" \o "Hamburg" Hamburg where he was placed under the care of Adaldag, archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen. There he became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deacon" \o "Deacon" deacon until his death. He was first buried in the cathedral in Hamburg and at a later date his remains were transferred to Rome. At the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod" \o "Synod" synod which deposed him, the pastoral staff was broken over him by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_VIII" \o "Pope Leo VIII" Pope Leo VIII (964965) which is the first mention of the papal sceptre. He succeeded John XII [see 955] and was succeeded by Leo VII [see below]. JOHN VII Patriarch of Jerusalem [964-966] see 950 and 966. LEO VIII Pope [964-965]. He was a Roman by birth, considered by the church an antipope from 963 to 964 and a true pope from 964 to 965. For his history before becoming pope see the outline in the reigns of John XII and Benedict V above. On the sudden death of John XII, the populace chose Pope Benedict V (964966) as his successor; but Otto I, returning and laying siege to the city, compelled their acceptance of Leo VIII. With the consent of all his would-be judges, Benedict was downgraded to the rank of a deacon, Leo himself tearing thepalliumfrom his shoulders in July 964. If it be the fact, as is asserted by a contemporary, that Benedict validly acquiesced in his deposition, and if, as seems certain, no further protest was made against Leos position, he may well be regarded as a true pope from July, 964, to his death in 965, about the month of March. He succeeded Benedict V [see above] and was succeeded by John XIII [see 965]. 965JOHN XIII Pope [965-972]. He was born in Rome and spent his career in the papal court. He was elected Pope John XIII five months after the death of Leo VIII as a compromise candidate, with the agreement of Emperor Otto I(936973). John XIIIs behaviour and foreign backing made him disliked in Rome. There was a revolt resulting in his temporary banishment from December 965 to November 966. After his restoration he worked with the emperor on ecclesiastical improvements, including the creation of thearchbishopric of Magdeburg. On Christmas Day 967 John XIII crowned Otto Is sonOtto II(973983) as co-emperor. Otto II was afterwards married to the niece of the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimisces(969976) Princess Theophano, as part of the ongoing attempt to reconcile Eastern and Western Churches. John XIII created new Latin archbishoprics in southern Italy, thus reducing the influence of the Byzantine Empire and Eastern Orthodox Church there. He succeeded Leo VII [see 964] and was succeeded by Benedict VI [see 973]. 966CHRISTODOULOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [966-969] see 964 and 969. THEODORUS II Patriarch of Antioch [966-977] see also 960 and 977. 967 968 969THOMAS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [969-978] see 966 and 980. The see of Jerusalem was vacant from 978 to 980. 970BASIL I Patriarch of Constantinople [970-974] succeeded Polyeuctus [see 956]. There is no readily available information. 971-980 AD 971 972BENEDICT VI Pope [972-974]. He was installed as pope under the protection of the emperor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor" Otto I (936973), on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_19" \o "January 19" January 19, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/973" \o "973" 973. During his pontificate, Benedict VI confirmed the privileges of some of the monasteries and churches. On the death of the emperor, the people of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome confined him in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castel_Sant%27Angelo" \o "Castel Sant'Angelo" Castel Sant Angelo. After a period of less than two months, the pope was strangled by order of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crescentius_I" \o "Crescentius I" Crescentius I, a Roman aristocrat, to prevent his release by Sicco, the imperial envoy of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_II" \o "Otto II" Otto II (973983). He succeeded John XIII [see 965] and was succeeded by Benedict VII [see 974]. NOTKER [c.940-1008] Bishop of Liege who was the nephew of Emperor Otto I. He entered the monastic life at St Gall in Switzerland and was named imperial chaplain in Italy in 969. Appointed bishop of Liege in Flanders in 972 he was an effective administrator. He played an important role in the establishment of the famous Liege schools, had broad influence on monastic reform and educational affairs, and served in governmental posts under Otto III and Henry II. OSWALD [d.992] Archbishop of York. Oswald was of Danish birth and spent some time in the Benedictine monastery of Fleury in France. In 961 he succeeded Dunstan [see 960] as bishop of Worcester. Oswald was prominent in the introduction of the Benedictine way of life and tightened up the discipline among the clergy. In 972 he was transferred to York but still continue to hold the see of Worcester. With Dunstan as archbishop of Canterbury and Ethelwold bishop of Winchester he played a great part in the revival of monasticism in England in the period before the Norman conquest. 973 974ANTHONY III Patriarch of Constantinople [974-980] succeeded Basil I [see 970]. There is no additional material readily available. BENEDICT VII Pope [974-983]. He was elected by the Roman clergy and people under the influence of Sicco, imperial envoy of Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_II" \o "Otto II" Otto II (973983). He governed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome quietly for nearly nine years, a somewhat rare thing in those days. Benedict VII was related to Prince HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberic_II" \o "Alberic II" Alberic II (932954), and connected to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crescenti_family" \o "Crescenti family" Crescenti family. He succeeded to the papacy as a compromise candidate, to replace HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Boniface_VII" \o "Antipope Boniface VII" antipope Boniface VII (974, 984985). Boniface VII was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunicate" \o "Excommunicate" excommunicated and unsuccessfully attempted to retake the papacy. He promoted HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monasticism" \o "Monasticism" monasticism and ecclesiastical reform along with Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_II" \o "Otto II" Otto II. He also consecrated the priest James, who had been sent to him by the people of Carthage to help the wretched province of Africa. Benedict VII visited the city of Orvieto with his nephew, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Filippo_Alberici&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Filippo Alberici (page does not exist)" Filippo Alberici, who later settled there and became Consul of the city state in 1016. The Alberici family live there to this day. In March 981, he presided over a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod" \o "Synod" synod in St Peters that prohibited HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" simony. In September 981, Benedict VII convened a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateran" \o "Lateran" Lateran Synod. He succeeded Benedict VI [see 972] and was succeeded by John XIV [see 983]. 975ABRAHAM Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [975-978] see 956 and 979 Abraham was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" \o "Syria" Syrian by birth. He was a wealthy merchant who visited HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt several times, and finally stayed there, residing in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" \o "Alexandria" Alexandria. He was known for his goodness, devoutness, and love of the poor. After his ordination, he distributed half of his wealth to the needy and used the other half for building pools throughout Egypt. While the Copts were choosing a suitable candidate for Pope Abraham walked into the meeting and he was chosen reluctantly as he was led in iron fetters to Alexadrai for his ordination. Immediately upon taking office, Abraham suppressed the practice of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" simony which had become a significant problem during the last several patriarchates. He then turned his attention to the often degraded morals of the church leaders, who frequently kept concubines as well as their legal wives. He went so far as to threaten anyone continuing to violate the sanctity of marriage with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunication. He was challenged by the local governor about faith moving mountains and Abraham was told that he was to prove it or the Copts would be subjected to the sword. At Mokattam Mountain it is said that a miracle occurred which satisfied the ruler when earthquakes hit the mountain after three days of fasting and prayer. The Caliph offered money to Abraham to rebuild churches but Abraham declined. 976 977AGAPIUS Patriarch of Antioch [977-995] see also 966 and 995. 978RUSSIA [see also 1589] Christianity was introduced into Russian lands in the first century and had some success, however very little penetration of Christianity took place for the next 700 years until in the ninth century the Church of St Elias was established in Kiev where there was a minority of Christians. The first ruler of Kiev to accept Christianity is usually considered to be Olga who was regent between 945 and 964. Vladimir [see 988], the grandson of Olga reigned from 978-1015 and was the man responsible for the Christianising of Russia. After a strong pagan revival the story is that Vladimir sent out missions to study the religions of Judaism, Islam, Roman Christianity, and Greek Christianity. His acceptance of Greek Christianity was supposedly on the basis of the beauty of its worship. It is however considered that possibly the political and economic ties with Constantinople were advantageous to the state at this time. He married the sister of the Byzantium emperor. In 988 Christianity was proclaimed the official faith of the realm and baptism was ordered for Vladimirs subjects. The upper classes and those in the cities accepted the faith but only slowly did it penetrate the lower classes and the countryside which remained predominantly pagan until the 14th and 15th centuries. Orthodoxy became the state religion and remained so until 1917. Monasticism played an important role in the early Russian Christianity and the church helped keep Russian national consciousness alive during the Mongol invasions which started in 1237. With the rise of Moscow the seat of the church was relocated from Kiev to Moscow in 1326 and after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453 Moscow increasingly advanced the claim of being the third Rome. Ivan IIIs marriage to Sophia the niece of the last Byzantine emperor helped to enhance that claim. The Mongols were finally defeated in 1480 by Ivan IV and a powerful Russian state developed during his reign. 979PHILOTHEOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [979-1003] see 975 and 1004 It was during his office that a conflict between Alexandria and the king of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia that began in the time of Kosma II ended, helped by the efforts of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_II_of_Makuria" \o "Georgios II of Makuria" Georgios II of Makuria. Due to Georgios successful diplomacy, Philotheos ordained a new HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" metropolitan bishop, Abuna Daniel, for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Church after an interregnum of many years. 980JOSEPH II Patriarch of Jerusalem [980-983] see 969 and 983. 981-990 AD 981 982ADALBERT OF PRAGUE [956997] Bishop of Prague [982997] who received much opposition to his attempts of moral reformation and fled to Rome in 990. He shared in the conversion of Hungary and baptised its great king, Stephen. He was martyred by pagan Russians. 983JOHN XIV Pope [983-984]. He was born at Pavia, and before his elevation to the papacy was imperial chancellor of Emperor Otto II (973983), and was the latters second choice. His original name wasPietro but he took the name John XIV to avoid being linked to St. Peter himself. Otto II died shortly after his election; his heir,Otto III(9831002), being only 3years old. Antipope Boniface VII (974, 984985), on the strength of the popular feeling against the new pope, returned from Constantinople and placed John XIV in prison, in Castel SantAngelo, where he died either by starvation or poison. He succeeded Benedict VII [see 974] and was succeeded by Antipope Boniface VII [see 984]. ORESTES Patriarch of Jerusalem [983-1005] see 980 and 1012. The see of Jerusalem was vacant from 1005 to 1012. 984BONIFACE VII Antipope [984-985] who is said to have put Pope Benedict VI to death in 974. A public tumult caused him to flee to Constantinople, with vast treasure. He returned in 984 and murdered John XIV and assumed power in 984 but was assassinated the following year. NICHOLAS II Chrysoberges Patriarch of Constantinople [984-996] succeeded Antony III [see 974]. There is no additional information readily available. 985JOHN XV Pope [985-996]. He was the son of Leo, a Roman presbyter. At the time he mounted the papal chair Crescentius II was patrician of Rome. He significantly hampered the popes influence, but the presence of the EmpressTheophanu, regent for her son, Holy Roman EmperorOtto III (9831002), in Rome from 989 to 991 restrained Crescentiuss ambition. The popes venality and nepotism had made him very unpopular with the citizens, but to his credit, John XV was a patron and protector of the reforming monks ofCluny. During this papacy, however, a serious dispute arose over the king of Frances investing and then deposing Arnulf, archbishop of Rheims, the popes interference leading at first to no definite result. John XV summoned the French bishops to hold an independent synod outside the kings realm, atAachen, to reconsider the case. When they refused, he called them to Rome, but they protested that the unsettled conditions on the way to and in Rome made that impossible. The pope then sent a legate with instructions to call a council of French and German bishops at Mousson, but only the German bishops appeared, the French being stopped on the way by Hugh Capet and Robert. Through the exertions of the legate, the deposition of Arnulf was finally pronounced illegal. After Hugh Capets death (October 23, 996), Arnulf was released from his imprisonment, and soon restored to all his dignities. As for Gerbert, he set out for the imperial court at Magdeburg, and became the preceptor to EmperorOtto III. At a Roman synod held in the Lateran on January 31, 993, John XV solemnly canonised Bishop Ulrich of Augsburg, an event which the pope announced to the French and German bishops in a papal bull dated 3 February. This was the first time in history that a solemn canonisation had been made by a pope. In 996, Otto III undertook a journey toItalyto obtain imperial coronation from the pope, but John XV died of fever early in March 996, while Otto III stayed in Pavia until 12 April to celebrate Easter. The emperor elevated his own kinsman Bruno to the papacy under the name of Gregory V (996999). He succeeded antipope Boniface XII [see 984] and was succeeded by Gregory V [see 996]. 986ABBO [9451004] Intellectual French abbot who after a period in charge of the monastery at Ramsey in England he installed the Cluniac observance at Fleury in France. He was a great arbiter in monastic disputes and was killed while attempting to separate two groups of quarrelling monks in Gascony. 987 988ATHELGAR Archbishop of Canterbury [988-990]. He was a monk at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Abbey" \o "Glastonbury Abbey" Glastonbury Abbey before he became an assistant of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelwold_of_Winchester" \o "thelwold of Winchester" Aethelwold, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Winchester" \o "Bishop of Winchester" bishop of Winchester. He was consecrated bishop of Selsey on 2 May 980 and succeeded HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Dunstan" \o "Saint Dunstan" Dunstan as archbishop of Canterbury in 988. During the short period while archbishop he received two letters from monasteries in Flanders, seeking his support and prayers. One was from the Falrad, the abbot of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saint-Vaast_Abbey&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Saint-Vaast Abbey (page does not exist)" Saint-Vaast Abbey, which requested that relations between the abbey and Canterbury remain good, as they had in Dunstans time and implies that Falrad had given verbal instructions to the messenger carrying the letter to seek further support on other issues. The second letter was from Odbert, the abbot of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saint-Bertin_Abbey&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Saint-Bertin Abbey (page does not exist)" Saint-Bertin Abbey congratulating him on becoming archbishop and soliciting financial aid for his monastery. Athelgar died on 13 February 990. He succeeded Dunstan [see 960] and was succeeded by Sigeric [see 990]. VLADIMIR [956-1015] Vladimir was the Prince of Kiev who was responsible for the Christianisation of Russia. He came to power in 980 after a war with his two brothers at a time when Russia was experiencing a pagan revival. The first Christian ruler of Russia was his grandmother Olga [945-962] whose conversion does not seem to have made a significant impact on her subjects. In addition her son Sviatoslav did not adopt his mothers faith. It is said that Vladimir reviewed all the local religions before adopting Eastern Orthodox faith for himself in 988. Two years later he proclaimed Christianity as the faith of his realm and ordered his subjects to be baptised. In addition he is remembered as an able and successful ruler. 989 990SIGERIC Archbishop of Canterbury [990-994]. He was educated at Glastonbury abbey, where he took holy orders and was elected abbot of St Augustines. He may have been a disciple of Dunstans. Sigeric made the pilgrimage to Rome to receive his pallium and contemporary records of this journey still exist. It was Sigeric who advisedKing Aethelredto pay a tribute to the invading Danish kingSweyn Forkbeardin 991. Aethelred presented Sweyn with 10,000 pounds of silver, in response to which Sweyn temporarily ceased his destructive advance into England, though he later returned for further tribute. Sweyns ever-increasing demands in the following years resulted in a debilitating tax known as theDanegeld, payable by the inhabitants of Aethelreds territories. In 994, Sigeric paid tribute to the Danes to protectCanterbury Cathedral from being burned. Sigeric died on 28 October 994. He succeeded Athelgar [see 988] and was succeeded by Aelfric [see 995]. 991-1000 AD 991 992 993ULRICH [c.890-973] Bishop of Augsburg whose chief source of fame is that he is known as the first saint whose canonisation was decreed by a pope [Pope John XV] after an account of his life and miracles had been submitted to the Lateran Synod in 993. 994 995AELFRIC Archbishop of Canterbury [995-1006]. He was the son of an earl of Kent, before he became a monk of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abingdon_Abbey" \o "Abingdon Abbey" Abingdon Abbey and was transferred from the bishopric of Wiltshire to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/See_of_Canterbury" \o "See of Canterbury" see of Canterbury on 21 April 995 His appointment to Canterbury caused consternation with the clergy of the cathedral chapter who sent two members to Rome attempting to secure the office for one of them. The pope, however, would not appoint either without royal permission and when Aelfric arrived in Rome, he received his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pall" \o "Pall" pallium from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_V" \o "Pope Gregory V" Pope Gregory V in 997. It is said that he introduced monks into the cathedral church of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Canterbury" \o "Christ Church, Canterbury" Christ Church, Canterbury, replacing the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priesthood_(Catholic_Church)" \o "Priesthood (Catholic Church)" secular clerks that had taken over the foundation during the ninth century, apparently on the command of the pope. He probably performed the marriage ceremony of King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethelred_the_Unready" \o "Ethelred the Unready" Ethelred the Unready and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy" \o "Emma of Normandy" Emma of Normandy in 1002. Aelfric died on 16 November 1005 and was buried in Abingdon Abbey, later being translated to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" \o "Canterbury Cathedral" Canterbury Cathedral. His will survives and is a most interesting document. In it he left ships to the people of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiltshire" \o "Wiltshire" Wiltshire and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent" \o "Kent" Kent, with his best one, equipped for sixty men, going to King Ethelred. He succeeded Sigeric [see 990]. And was succeeded by Aelfheah [see 1006]. JOHN V Patriarch of Antioch [995-1000] see also 977 and 1000. 996GREGORY V Pope [996-999] He was a grandson of Emperor Otto I the Great (936973). Gregory V succeededPope John XV when only twenty-four years of age. He was the chaplain of his cousin, EmperorOtto III (9831002), who presented him as candidate. Gregory V was the first German pope. Politically Gregory V acted consistently as the Emperors representative in Rome and granted many exceptional privileges to monasteries within the Holy Roman Empire. One of his first acts was to crown Otto III Emperor on May 21 996. Together they held a synod a few days after Otto IIIs coronation, in which Arnulf was ordered to be restored to the See of Rheims, and Gerbert, the futurePope Silvester IIwas condemned as an intruder. Robert II of France(9961031), who had been insisting on his right to appoint bishops, was ultimately forced to back down, and ultimately also to put aside his wife Bertha, by the rigorous enforcement of a sentence of excommunication on the kingdom. Until the council of Pavia (997) Gregory V had a rival in the person of the antipope John XVI (997998), whomCrescentius II and the nobles of Rome had chosen, in revolt against the will of the youthful Emperor Otto III. The revolt of Crescentius II was decisively suppressed by the Emperor, who marched upon Rome. John XVI fled, and Crescentius II shut himself up in theCastel SantAngelo. The Emperors troops pursued the antipope, captured him, cut off his nose and ears, cut out his tongue, blinded him, and publicly degraded him before Otto III and Gregory V. He was sent to the monastery ofFulda, in Germany, where he lived until 1013. The Castel SantAngelo was besieged, and when it was taken, Crescentius II was hanged upon its walls (998). Gregory V died suddenly, and not without suspicion of foul play, on February 18 999. He succeeded John XV [see 985] and was succeeded by Sylvester II [see 999]. SISINNIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [996-998] succeeded Nicholas II [see 984]. There is no additional information readily available. 997BONIFACE OF QUERFURT [9701009] German missionary and martyr. He was a close friend of Otto III whom he accompanied to Rome in 996 and entered the Benedictine order. In 997 he planned missionary activities after the death of Adalbert, bishop of Prague [see 982]. He visited Kiev and the area north of the Black Sea and also worked in Poland. On returning to Russia in 1009 with a group of eighteen missionaries they were all murdered by the Russians.998 999ODILO [c.962-1049] Fifth abbot of Cluny who became acting abbot in 994 three years after he entered the monastery and was abbot for fifty years from 999. A man of outstanding ability who was responsible for a significant building programme at Cluny, a tremendous expansion of the daughter houses and more centralised control of the daughter houses by the main monastery at Cluny. He was the mediator between Emperor Conrad II and the king of France, Robert II, in 1025. He introduced the commemoration of All Saints Day at Cluny which later extended to the whole Church. Odilo was also responsible for the extension of the Truce of God [see 1015] to southern France and Italy. Known for his concern for the poor he sold treasures of the monastery to aid the poor during the severe famine of 1033. SERGIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [999-1019] succeeded Sisinnius II [see 996]. Little is known of his reign but whatever the reason, this patriarch of Constantinople did not include the new popes name in the Diptychs which are lists, kept by each patriarch, which contain the names of the other patriarchs, living and departed, whom he recognises as orthodox. SYLVESTER II Pope [999-1003]. He was of French origin and was called Gerbert. He was a prolific scholar and teacher who as pope encouraged and promoted Arabic knowledge of arithmetic, mathematics, and astronomy in Europe, reintroducing the abacus and armillary sphere which had been lost to Europe since the end of the Greco-Romanera. He was the first French pope. Due to his efforts to root outsimony and other corruption within the church, and his connection with the science and intellectualism of the Arab world, there were many rumours spread of Sylvester II being a sorcerer in league with the devil. There is also speculation that he had Sephardic-Jewish ancestry. He was taken as a young monk to Spain where he learnt Arabic and mathematics. He became fascinated by the stories of the Christian bishops and judges who dressed and talked like the Arabs who were well-versed in mathematics and natural sciences like the great teachers of the Islamic universities. This sparked Gerberts appreciation for the Arabs and his passion for mathematics and astronomy. For a while he became tutor of the future Emperor Otto II and his son Otto III. Gerbert, as a scientist, was said to be far ahead of his time. Gerbert wrote a series of works dealing with matters of arithmetic,geometry,astronomy,and music, which he taught using the basis of grammar, logic, and rhetoric. He became archbishop of Ravenna in 998 and was elected to succeed Gregory V. As pope, he took energetic measures against the widespread practices of simony and mistresses among the clergy, maintaining that only capable men of spotless lives should be allowed to become bishops. In 1001, the Roman populace revolted against the emperor, forcing Otto III and Sylvester II to flee toRavenna. Otto III led two unsuccessful expeditions to regain control of the city, and died on a third expedition in 1002. Sylvester II returned to Rome soon after the emperors death, although the rebellious nobility remained in power, and died a little later. Sylvester was said to be petrified at the thought of the new millennium: on the last night of the year A.D. 999, Sylvester nervously celebrated mass, thinking the world might end even as he consecrated the bread and wine. He succeeded Gregory V [see 996] and was succeeded by John XVII [see 1003]. 1000ARSENIOS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1000-1010) see 963 and 1010. Brother of Orestis, Patriarch of Jerusalem. Acted as his Vicar during his many years of absence from Jerusalem. He was an uncle of Khalif Al Hakim, known as the Nero of Egypt, because of the terrible destruction he caused to the church buildings and the unbearable pressure he put on Christians. He was secretly put to death in 1010. BURCHARD [9651025] German bishop of Worms [10001025] who entered into service for the church under Archbishop Willigis of Mainz. He was appointed bishop of Worms in 1000 and he built new churches and took a leading part in ecclesiastical reform in Germany with many canon laws. Between 1007 and 1014 he compiled his influential collection of canon law. NICHOLAS III Patriarch of Antioch [1000-1003] see also 995 and 1003. 1001-1010 AD 1001STEPHEN OF HUNGARY [c.975-1038] First king of Hungary who was baptised as a boy by Adalbert of Prague [see 982] and married Gisela sister of the emperor. He was made the first king of Hungary in 1001 and then worked hard to convert his people to Christianity founding both bishoprics and monasteries. However his last years were less glorious due to personal ill-health and quarrels regarding the succession to the throne 1002 1003ELIAS II Patriarch of Antioch [1003-1010] see also 1000 and 1010. JOHN XVII Pope [1003]. Born in Rome his reign lasted less than six months. He was nominated to the papacy by John Crescentius, a Roman noble who held power in the city in opposition to EmperorOtto III (9831002). John died on November 6, 1003, and was buried in the Lateran Basilica between the two doors of the principal faade. He succeeded Sylvester II [see 999] and was succeeded by John XVIII [see below]. JOHN XVIII Pope [1003-1009]. He was the son of a Roman priest named Leo. During his whole pontificate he appeared subordinate to the head of the Crescentii clan who controlled Rome, the aristocratic military leader Johannes Crescentius III. The period was disturbed by the conflicts between the Ottoman Emperor Henry II (100224) and Arduin of Ivrea, who had styled himself king of Italy. Rome was wracked with bouts of plague, andSaracens operating freely out of Sardiniaravaged theTyrrhenian coasts. John occupied his time with details of ecclesiastical administration. He authorised a new see at Bamberg to serve as a base for missionary activity among the Slavs, which was a concern of Henry II. He ruled on a squabble between the abbot of Fleury and the bishops of Sens and Orlans. Ultimately he abdicated and retired to a monastery, where he died shortly afterwards. He succeeded John XVII [see above] and was succeeded by Sergius IV [see 1009]. 1004ZACHARIAS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1004-1032] see 979 and 1032. 1005AELFRIC [955-1020] Abbot of Eynsham from 1005 who was a product of monastic revival in England. Apart from his importance to English literature he made a notable contribution to the education of rural clergy of his own time. He published his work Lives of Saints, and also produced part of the scriptures in English. Aelfric received fresh attention in the 16th century when the Reformers, in search of an English church in the past free from the errors of Rome noticed that his teaching on the Holy Communion, probably influenced by Batramnus, excluded transubstantiation. 1006AELFHEAH Archbishop of Canterbury [1006-1013]. He was born in Weston on the outskirts of Bath and became a monk early in life. He first entered the monastery of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deerhurst" \o "Deerhurst" Deerhurst, but then moved to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" \o "Bath, Somerset" Bath where he became an anchorite. He was noted for his piety and austerity, and rose to become HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot" \o "Abbot" abbot of Bath Abbey. Probably due to the influence of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunstan" \o "Dunstan" Dunstan, the archbishop of Canterbury (959988), he was elected bishop of Winchester in 984, and was consecrated on 19th October that year. While bishop he was largely responsible for the construction of a large HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_organ" \o "Pipe organ" organ in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Minster,_Winchester" \o "Old Minster, Winchester" cathedral, audible from over a mile away and said to require more than 24 men to operate it. He also built and enlarged the citys churches and promoted the cult of St HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swithun" \o "Swithun" Swithun. In 1006 he succeeded HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86lfric_of_Abingdon" \o "lfric of Abingdon" Aelfric as archbishop of Canterbury, taking St Swithuns head with him as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relic" \o "Relic" relic for the new location. He went to Rome in 1007 to receive his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallium" \o "Pallium" pallium, a symbol of his ties to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_See" \o "Apostolic See" Apostolic See, from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_XVIII" \o "Pope John XVIII" Pope John XVIII but was robbed during his journey. While at Canterbury he also promoted the cult of St Dunstan. In 1011 the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking" \o "Viking" Danes again raided England, and from 8-29 September they laid siege to Canterbury. Aelfheah was taken prisoner and held captive for seven months. He refused to allow a ransom to be paid for his freedom, and as a result was killed on 19April 1012 at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich" \o "Greenwich" Greenwich. The account of his death appears in the E version of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" \o "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: the raiding-army became much stirred up against the bishop, because he did not want to offer them any money, and forbade that anything might be granted in return for him. Also they were very drunk, because there was wine brought from the south. Then they seized the bishop, led him to their council and then pelted him there with bones and the heads of cattle; and one of them struck him on the head with the butt of an axe, so that with the blow he sank down and his holy blood fell on the earth, and sent forth his holy soul to Gods kingdom. He was therefore the first archbishop of Canterbury to die a violent death. After the Norman conquest Aelfheah and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury" \o "Augustine of Canterbury" Augustine of Canterbury were the only pre-conquest Anglo-Saxon archbishops kept on Canterburys calendar of saints. He succeeded Aelfric [see 995] and was succeeded by Lyfing [see 1013]. 1007 1008 1009SERGIUS IV Pope [1009-1012] He was born in Rome the son of a shoemaker who rose quickly in the church to become bishop of Albano in 1004 He had an unfortunate name which roughly translated is PeterPigsSnout. It is hardly surprising he chose to change it to Sergius! The power held by Sergius IV was often overshadowed byCrescentius III, the ruler of the city of Rome at the time. Some historians have claimed that Sergius IV was essentially apuppet rulerfor Crescentius III. Others however, claimed that the pope resisted Crescentius IIIs power. There is some evidence that Sergius IV gave political backing to an anti-Crescentius faction in the city. Acts sometimes attributed to Pope Sergius IV include measures to relieve famine in the city of Rome, the exemption of certain monasteries from piscopal rule, and apapal bullcalling for Islam to be driven from theHoly Landafter theChurch of the Holy Sepulchrewas destroyed in 1009 by theFatimidcaliphal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Some historians have suggested that this bull was actually invented around the time of theFirst Crusade, in order to help justify that expedition toJerusalem but more recently historians have forcefully argued for the documents authenticity. Sergius IV died on May 12, 1012, and was followed in the papacy byPope Benedict VIII (101224). There was some suspicion that the pope was murdered, as he died within a week of Crescentius, considered by many to have been his patron. He succeeded John XVIII [see 1003] and was succeeded by Benedict VIII [see 1012]. 1010GEORGE IV LASCARIS Patriarch of Antioch [1010-1015] see also 1003 and 1015. THEOPHILOS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1010-1020) see 1000 and 1021. During his tenure as Patriarch the persecution of Christians by Al Hakim became even more fierce and many of them became Islamists or sought refuge in other countries. During these years, Theophilos was living in Constantinople as he could not stay in Egypt. He intervened in the dispute between Emperor Vasilios Voulgaroktonos (975-1025) and Patriarch Sergios II of Constantinople (999-1019) on whether or not to enforce the law of solidarity, and led the two to conciliation. From that time the Patriarch of Alexandria was given the title of Judge of the Universe, with the added privilege of wearing a second stole (Kritato) 1011-1020 AD 1011 1012BENEDICT VIII Pope [1012-1024]. He was opposed by an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Gregory_VI" \o "Antipope Gregory VI" Gregory VI (1012), who compelled him to flee HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome. He was restored by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_Germany" \o "Henry II of Germany" Henry II of Germany (100224), whom he crowned emperor on February 14, 1014, and for his entire pontificate remained on good terms with him. In Benedict VIIIs pontificate, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saracens" \o "Saracens" Saracens renewed their attacks on the southern coasts of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" \o "Europe" Europe and founded a settlement in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinia" \o "Sardinia" Sardinia. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans" \o "Normans" Normans also then began to settle in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy. The pope promoted peace in Italy by allying himself with the Normans, defeating the Saracens, and subjugating the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crescentii" \o "Crescentii" Crescentii. He held a synod in Pavia with the emperor to restrain simony and clerical incontinence. The reformation undertaken by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluny_Abbey" \o "Cluny Abbey" the monastery of Cluny was supported by him. In 1020, he travelled to Germany to confer with Henry II about the renewed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" \o "Byzantine Empire" Byzantine menace in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezzogiorno" \o "Mezzogiorno" Mezzogiorno. Arriving at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberg" \o "Bamberg" Bamberg at Eastertide, he consecrated the new cathedral there, obtained a charter from Henry II confirming the donations of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne" \o "Charlemagne" Charlemagne (768814) and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_the_Great" \o "Otto the Great" Otto the Great (936973), and visited the monastery of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulda" \o "Fulda" Fulda. He convinced the emperor to lead an expedition into the south of Italy and subordinate his vassals who had defected to Greek authority. He succeeded Sergius IV [see 1009] and was succeeded by John XIX [see 1024]. CAMALDOLESE Order of monks founded by Romuald in 1012 near Florence. Romuald had previously been abbot of several Benedictine monasteries but had been expelled by the monks as they were unable to meet his rigorous demands. This austere order observed two Lents in the year, abstaining from meat and lived on bread and water three days a week. Pope Gregory XVI [see 1831] was of this order. GREGORY VI Antipope [1012]. He was in opposition to Pope Benedict VIII. On the death ofPope Sergius IV in June, 1012, a certain Gregory opposed the party of the Theophylae which electedPope Benedict VIII against him, and got himself made pope, seemingly by a small faction. Gregory VI was the first to claim to be pope as successor to Pope Sergius, and that Benedict VIIIs claim was subsequent. Promptly expelled from Rome, Gregory made his way to Germany, and begged the support of the Emperor Henry II. Henry however, after promising him that his case should be carefully examined in accordance with canon law and Roman custom, took away from him the papal insignia which he was wearing, and commanded him to cease to act as pope after which history knows the certain Gregory no more. THEOPHILOS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1012-1020] see 983 and 1020. 1013LYFING Archbishop of Canterbury [1013-1020]. Lyfing was abbot of Chertsey Abbey from about 989 and became bishop of Wells in 998 or 999. In 1013 King Ethelred the Unready appointed him to the see of Canterbury. Lyfing was taken captive by Vikings and held prisoner for a time, but he was released in time to attend the Witenagemot in 1014, and started repairs of the damage the Vikings had done toCanterbury Cathedral. Lyfing was unable to go to Rome for his pallium during King Ethelreds reign, for every bishop that was consecrated during the remainder of the kings reign was consecrated by Archbishop Wulfstan of York. By 1018, however, he was named as archbishop, having returned to England from Rome with letters from Pope Benedict VIII. As archbishop of Canterbury, Lyfing crowned two English kings: Ethelreds son Edmund Ironside in 1016 and Canute the Great in 1017. He died on 12 June 1020. He succeeded Aelheah [see 1006] and was succeeded by Aethelnoth [see 1020]. 1014HENRY II [973-1024] German king and Holy Roman Emperor. He was crowned emperor in 1014 and stressed the consolidation of his position in Germany and paid minimal attention to Italy but did regain some territory lost to the Slavs. He depended heavily on the church, and appointed churchmen to most important administrative positions. He also made large endowments of crown lands to churches and monasteries. By zealously encouraging ecclesiastical reforms he unwittingly paved the way for the destruction of the empire, because a reformed church would not be able to reconcile its spiritual ideals with the political duties imposed on it. 1015MACARIUS THE VIRTUOUS Patriarch of Antioch [1015-1023] see also 1010 and 1023. OLAV [995-1030] A Viking chieftain who fought for Ethelred II in England and for Richard in Normandy. He was baptised in Rouen. In 1015 he became king of Norway. In his zeal for the Christian religion he made considerable use of violence. This caused discontent and his chieftains in co operation with the Anglo Danish king, Canute, turned him out of the country. In 1030 Olav made an attempt to regain his kingdom but died at the Battle of Stiklestad which was viewed as martyrdom. TRUCE OF GOD The suspension of hostilities ordered by the Roman Catholic Church. The custom originated in France in the 10th century and was meant to lessen the impact on the lower orders of society of the incessant quarrelling of the feudal Norman nobles. Since the armistice was ordered by the church it was traced back to the will of God and called the Truce of God. At first it was from Saturday evening to Monday morning but later holy days or seasons were included. After the 11th century the practice died out. 1016 1017 1018 1019EUSTATHIUS HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1019-1025] succeeded Sergius II [see 999]. There is no additional information readily available. 1020 HYPERLINK "http://www.britannia.com/bios/abofc/aethelnoth.html" AETHELNOTH Archbishop of Canterbury [1020-1038]. He was a member of the royal family of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessex" \o "Wessex" Wessex and became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury" \o "Glastonbury" Glastonbury, then was made dean of the monastery of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church_Priory" \o "Christ Church Priory" Christ Church Priory, at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury" \o "Canterbury" Canterbury, the cathedral chapter for the diocese of Canterbury. He was also a chaplain to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canute_the_Great" \o "Canute the Great" King Cnut of England and Denmark, On 13 November 1020 he was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury. In 1022 he went to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome to obtain the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallium" \o "Pallium" pallium and was received by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Benedict_VIII" \o "Pope Benedict VIII" Pope Benedict VIII. On his return trip he bought a relic of St HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" \o "Augustine of Hippo" Augustine of Hippo for 100 silver talents and one gold talent. He gave the relic to Coventry Abbey. He also presided over the translation of Saint HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphege" \o "Alphege" Alpheges relics. In 1022 he consecrated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbrand" \o "Gerbrand" Gerbrand as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Roskilde" \o "Bishop of Roskilde" bishop of Roskilde in Scandinavia. The archbishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg-Bremen" \o "Hamburg-Bremen" Hamburg-Bremen was the metropolitan of Roskilde, and the fact that Gerbrand was consecrated by an English archbishop later caused friction between the bishop and his metropolitan. Cnut was forced to concede that in the future he would not appoint bishops in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Bremen" \o "Archdiocese of Bremen" Bremens archdiocese without the metropolitans advice. The medieval chronicler HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury" \o "William of Malmesbury" William of Malmesbury praised his wisdom. Aethelnoth died in October 1038 and was buried in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" \o "Canterbury Cathedral" Canterbury Cathedral. He succeeded Lyfing [see 1013] and was succeeded by Eadsige [see 1038]. NIKIPHOROS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1020-1084] see 1012 and 1084. During this time IOANNIKIOS, SOPHRONIOS II and EFTHIMIOS I held the post of Patriarch of Jerusalem. 1021-1030 AD 1021GEORGE II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1021-1052) see 1010 and 1052. He was elected during the reign of Khalif Al Zaher, who was well-disposed towards the Christians 1022 1023ELEUTHERIUS Patriarch of Antioch [1023-1028] see also 1015 and 1028. 1024JOHN XIX Pope [1024-1032]. He succeeded his brother Benedict VIII both being members of the powerful house of Tusculum. Prior to being elected pope he was an unordained layman. Therefore, he was ordained a bishop in order to enable him to ascend the papal chair, having previously been a consuland senator. Against the tradition of ecclesiastical history, John XIX agreed, upon being paid with a large bribe, to grant to the Patriarch of Constantinople the title of an ecumenical bishop. However, this proposal excited general indignation throughout the Church, thus compelling him almost immediately to withdraw from his agreement. On the death of the EmperorHenry II(100224) in 1024, he gave his support to Emperor Conrad II(102439), who along with his consort was crowned with great pomp at St. Peters Basilica on Easter of 1027. In 1025 he sent the crown to Poland and blessed the coronation of the Polish king Boleslaw Chrobry. He was said to have been killed by a mob of angry peasants, but no evidence can support the fact, yet the actual cause of death is unknown. He succeeded Benedict VIII [see 1012] and was succeeded by Benedict IX [see1032]. 1025ALEXIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1025-1043] succeeded Eustathius [see 1019]. He was a member of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Stoudios" \o "Monastery of Stoudios" Monastery of Stoudios which had been founded in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/462" \o "462" 462. In HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1034" \o "1034" 1034 he crowned HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_IV_the_Paphlagonian" \o "Michael IV the Paphlagonian" Michael IV the Paphlagonian the favourite of Byzantine empress HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_(empress)" \o "Zoe (empress)" Zo, who, to make way for him, procured the death of her husband, Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanos_III_Argyros" \o "Romanos III Argyros" Romanos III Argyros. He thwarted the attempts of the emperors brother John to gain the patriarchal see in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036" \o "1036" 1036, and died in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1043" \o "1043" 1043. Decrees of his still exist. 1026 1027 1028PETER III Patriarch of Antioch [1028-1051] see also 1023 and 1051. 1029 1030 1031-1040 AD 1031 1032BENEDICT IX Pope [1032-1044]. He was the nephew of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Benedict_VIII" \o "Pope Benedict VIII" Pope Benedict VIII (10121024) and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_XIX" \o "Pope John XIX" Pope John XIX (10241032). His father obtained the papal chair for him, granting it to his son in October 1032. He was around 18 to 20 years old when made pontiff and is said to have led an extremely dissolute life whilst also having few qualifications for the papacy other than connections with a socially powerful family. He was accused by Bishop Benno of Piacenza of many vile adulteries and murders. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Victor_III" \o "Pope Victor III" Pope Victor III in his third book of Dialogues, referred to his rapes, murders and other unspeakable acts. His life as a pope so vile, so foul, so execrable, that I shudder to think of it. He was briefly forced out of Rome in 1036 but returned with the help of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor" Emperor Conrad II. In September 1044 the opposition forced him out of the city again and elected John, bishop of Sabina, as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_III" \o "Pope Sylvester III" Pope Sylvester III. Benedict IXs forces returned in April 1045 and expelled his rival, who however kept his claim to the papacy for years. In May 1045, Benedict IX resigned his office to pursue HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage" \o "Marriage" marriage, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" selling his office to his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godparent" \o "Godparent" godfather, the pious HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest" \o "Priest" priest HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VI" \o "Pope Gregory VI" John Gratian, who named himself Gregory VI. Benedict IX soon regretted his resignation and returned to Rome, taking the city and remaining on the throne until July 1046, although Gregory VI continued to be recognised as the true pope. At the time, Sylvester III also restated his claim. German king, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor" Henry III (1039-1056) intervened, and at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Sutri" \o "Council of Sutri" Council of Sutri in December 1046, Benedict IX and Sylvester III were declared deposed while Gregory VI was encouraged to resign, which he did. The German bishop, Suidger, was crowned HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_II" \o "Pope Clement II" Pope Clement II. Benedict IX had not attended the council or accepted his deposition. When Clement II died in October 1047, Benedict seized the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateran_Palace" \o "Lateran Palace" Lateran Palace in November 1047, but was driven away by German troops in July 1048. To fill the power vacuum, bishop Poppo of Brixen was elected as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Damasus_II" \o "Pope Damasus II" Pope Damasus II and universally recognised as such. Benedict IX refused to appear on charges of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" simony in 1049 and was excommunicated. He succeeded John XIX [see 1024]. Benedict is usually recognised as having had three terms as pope: the first lasting from his election to his expulsion in favour of Sylvester III (October, 1032 September, 1044) the second from his return to his selling the papacy to Gregory VI (April May, 1045) and the third from his return after the death of Clement II to the advent of Damasus II (November, 1047 July, 1048). SHENOUDA II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1032-1046] see 1004 and 1047. 1033 1034 1035DAMIAN, PETER [1007-1072] Roman Catholic reformer born in Ravenna and raised in hardship, he entered the Benedictine hermitage in 1035 and was made prior eight years later. Gaining notice from Henry IIIs court and thus the papal curia he was made a cardinal bishop of Ostia against his will. He upheld Alexander II during the schism with the anti-Pope Honorius II and benefited Cluny by supporting Abbot Hugh against Bishop Drogo of Macon. 1036 1037 1038EADSIGE Archbishop of Canterbury [1038-1050]. He was a royal priest for King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canute_the_Great" \o "Canute the Great" Canute before Canute arranged for him to become a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Canterbury" \o "Christ Church, Canterbury" Christ Church, Canterbury, about 1030. About 1035, he served as a suffragan bishop to Archbishop HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethelnoth" \o "Aethelnoth" Aethelnothof Canterbury and was translated to the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1038 after Aethelnoths death. In 1040, he journeyed to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rometo receive his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallium" \o "Pallium" palliumfrom HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Benedict_IX" \o "Pope Benedict IX" Pope Benedict IX. He crowned Edward the Confessor on 3rd April 1043 along with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelfric_Puttoc" \o "Aelfric Puttoc" Archbishop Aelfric of York. During his occupation of the see, many of the lands of the see were leased, sold, or given to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godwin,_Earl_of_Wessex" \o "Godwin, Earl of Wessex" Godwin, earl of Wessex, an action that angered the monks of the cathedral. In 1044, wishing to withdraw from his see because of ill-health, he appears to have approached King Edward and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godwin,_Earl_of_Wessex" \o "Godwin, Earl of Wessex" Godwin, earl of Wessex, about temporarily consecrating HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siward_(Abbot_of_Abingdon)" \o "Siward (Abbot of Abingdon)" Siward, abbot of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abingdon_Abbey" \o "Abingdon Abbey" Abingdonin his place. This retirement lasted until 1048, when Siward became ill and returned to Abingdon to die within eight weeks. Eadsige died on 29 October 1050. He succeeded Aethelnoth [see 1020] and was succeeded by Robert of Jumiges [see 1051]. 1039HENRY III [1017-1056] Holy Roman Emperor from 1039. He was responsible for the cleansing of the papacy. The 10th and 11th centuries were for the papacy a period of degeneracy; it had become a tool of violent Roman nobles. In 1046 there were three popes. Henry, a deeply religious man was grieved at the situation and responded to an appeal by marching on Rome, summoned the Synod of Sutri which deposed all three popes and installed a German, Clement II, and forcibly subdued the nobles. As a result the papacy began the task of reforming itself and the church generally. Henry appointed the next three Popes, all German, and all zealous reformers. 1040 1041-1050 AD 1041 1042 1043HERMAN OF REICHENAU [1013-1054] Author of the earliest extant universal chronicle. His father who was a noble in Swabia entrusted him at the age of 7 to Abbot Berno in Lake Constance where he took vows in 1043. He was severely handicapped physically but gained the reputation as the most scholarly man in 11th century Germany. He became proficient in theology, Latin, Greek, and Arabic, and became a famous poet, mathematician, astronomer, and a musician. He was a faithful monk and genial teacher, and students flocked to him. His greatest achievement is the chronicle which is more interpretive and less strictly chronological in organisation than its antecedents. It began with the birth of Christ and ended with the year of Hermans death. MICHAEL I Ceroularius Patriarch of Constantinople [1043-1058] succeeded Alexius I [see 1025]. He was born in Constantinople is noted for disputing with Pope Leo IX over church practices where the Roman Church differed from Constantinople, especially the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist. PopeLeo IX sent a letter to the patriarch in 1054 that cited a large portion of the Donation of Constantine believing it genuine. Leo IX assured the patriarch that the donation was completely genuine, not a fable or old wives tale, so only the apostolic successor to Peter possessed that primacy and was the rightful head of all the Church. Little did Leo IX know that he cited and testified to the authenticity of the most stupendous fraud in European history. This letter of Pope Leo IX was addressed both to Michael Crularius, patriarch of Constantinople, and Leo, metropolitan of Achrida, and was in response to a letter sent by Leo, metropolitan of Achrida to John, bishop of Tranum (Bulgaria), that categorically attacked the customs of the Latin Church that differed from those of the Greeks. Especially criticised were the Roman traditions of fasting on the Saturday Sabbath and consecration of unleavened bread. Leo IX in his letter accused Constantinople of historically being the source of heresy and claimed in emphatic terms the primacy of the bishop of Rome over even the patriarch of Constantinople, who would have none of it. In 1054, it can be argued that the patriarchs letter to Pope Leo IX initiated the events which followed because it claimed the title ecumenical patriarch and addressed Pope Leo as brother rather than father. Pope Leo IX sent Cardinal Humbert on a legatine mission to treat with the patriarch. Cerularius refused to meet with Cardinal Humbert and kept him waiting with no audience for months. Thus, Cardinal Humbert delivered a notice of excommunication against Patriarch Michael on July 16th 1054 despite the death of Pope Leo three months prior, meaning that the excommunication was invalid. Michael in turn excommunicated the cardinal and the pope, and subsequently removed the popes name from the diptychs starting the East-West Schism. This schism led to the end of the alliance between the emperor and the papacy, and caused later popes to ally with the Normans against the empire. Patriarch Michael closed the Latin churches in his area which, of course, exacerbated the schism. In 1965, those excommunications were rescinded by Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras when they met in the Second Vatican Council. Michael also quarrelled with EmperorIsaac I Komnenoswho he himself had put on the throne as a puppet. Michael went so far as to wear the purple shoes ceremonially reserved for the emperor over confiscation of church property. Michael was so infuriated that he planned a rebellion to overthrow the emperor and claim the imperial throne for himself. He started wearing the imperial regalia publicly and called for popular uprising in his sermons when he died suddenly in 1059, though there was no suspicion that he was murdered. The emperor claimed that he was punished by God for trying to usurp his temporal powers. 1044 1045ADALBERT of Bremen [1000-1072] who was Archbishop of Bremen from 1045. He consecrated bishops for the Orkneys and Iceland, sent a missionary to the Lapps and divided the Slavic diocese of Oldenburg into three. In 1053 he attempted unsuccessfully to form a patriarch of the north to counter the desire of the Danish Church for independence. He received a lot of pressure from the Saxon dukes after the death of Henry III in 1056. Towards the end of his life the area was ravaged by attacks from Pagan Wends. EDWARD THE CONFESSOR [1003-1066] Son of Ethelred the Unready he was taken into exile by his father and resided at the Norman court until recalled by his half brother Hardicanute in 1041. He married the daughter of Earl Godwin in 1045. He preferred his Norman advisors to the Saxons, however, and one of the favourites, Robert of Jumieges became archbishop of Canterbury in 1051. Civil war seemed imminent, but the kings chief adversary Godwin fled into exile. Reconciliation was affected, the foreigners fled, and the influence of Godwin followed by that of his son was complete. The king suffered failing health so that he was unable to attend the consecration of the new abbey of Westminster late in 1065. Early in 1066 Edward the charming and mild mannered ascetic died. GREGORY VI Pope [1045-1046]. Gratian, the archpriest of St. John by the Latin Gate, was a man of great reputation for uprightness of character. He was also the godfather of the boy Pope Benedict IX who wishing to marry and vacate a position into which he had been thrust by his family consulted his godfather as to whether he could resign the supreme pontificate. When he was convinced that he might do so, he offered to give up the papacy into the hands of his godfather for a large sum of money. Desiring to rid the See of Rome of this undesirable character John Gratian paid him the money and was recognised as pope in his stead. Unfortunately this did not bring peace to the Church as another pope, Sylvester III, had been appointed by that faction of the nobility which had driven Benedict IX from Rome in 1044, and had then installed him in his stead. Though Benedict IX soon returned, and forced Sylvester III to retire to his See of Sabina, his party contrived apparently to keep some hold on a portion of Rome. To complicate matters, Benedict IX, unable, it seems, to obtain the bride on whom he had set his heart, soon repented of his resignation, again claimed the papacy, and in his turn is thought to have succeeded in acquiring dominion over a part of the city. With an empty exchequer and a clergy that had largely lost the taste for righteousness, Gregory VI was confronted by an almost hopeless task. Nevertheless, with the aid of his chaplain, Hildebrand who was destined to be the Pope Gregory VII (107385), he worked to bring about civil and religious order but his rivals were too strong. He called on Henry III to help and Henry crossed the Alps in the autumn of 1046. A council was summoned at Sutri where Sylvester was confined to a monastery and Gregory deposed due to his purchasing the See of Rome even though it had been for a good cause. Hildebrand stayed with Gregory until he died and took the name Gregory for his papacy out of respect for Gregory VI. He succeeded Benedict IX [see 1032] and was succeeded by Clement II [see 1032]. SYLVESTER III Pope [1045]. WhenPope Benedict IX (103244, 1045, 104748) was driven from Rome in September 1044, John, bishop of Sabina, was elected after fierce and protracted infighting and took the title of Sylvester III in January 1045. He was later charged with having bribed his way into the election; a charge that was never confirmed to be true. Benedict IX issued an excommunication of the new pope and within three months returned to Rome and expelled his rival, who himself returned to Sabina to again take up his office of bishop in that diocese. Nearly two years later in December 1046 theCouncil of Sutrideprived him of his bishopric and priesthood and ordered him sent to a monastery. This sentence was obviously suspended because he continued to function and was recognised as bishop of Sabina until at least 1062, having occupied that see for over fifty years from 1011. A successor bishop to the see of Sabina is recorded for October 1063, indicating that John must have died prior to this date. He succeeded and was succeeded by Benedict IX [see 1032]. 1046CLEMENT II Pope [1046-1047]. He was born in Saxony Germany and became bishop of Bamberg in 1040. He participated in the council of Sutri. Henry III nominated him for pope and immediately after his election on Christmas Day 1046 crowned Henry as Holy Roman Emperor. They went on a triumphal tour of south Italy together but the city of Benevento failed to open its gates so Clement interdicted the city. He resolved a problem with three Italian sees giving precedence to Ravenna. He died on 9th October 1047 from lead sugar poisoning as revealed by recent toxicology tests and is uniquely for a pope buried north of the Alps in his beloved Bamberg. He succeeded Gregory VI [see 1045] and was succeeded by Benedict IX [see 1032]. 1047KHRISTOSOLOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1047-1077] see 1032 and 1078 He joined the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paromeos_Monastery" \o "Paromeos Monastery" Paromeos Monastery in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrian_Desert" \o "Nitrian Desert" Nitrian Desert before becoming a Pope. During his tenure HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo" \o "Cairo" Cairo became the fixed and official residence of the Coptic Pope, when he moved the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seat_of_the_Coptic_Orthodox_Pope_of_Alexandria" \o "Seat of the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria" Seat of the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria to Saint Marys HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hanging_Church" \o "The Hanging Church" The Hanging Church in Cairo. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch" \o "Patriarch of Antioch" Patriarchs of Antioch and the Pope of Alexandria had for many years kept in close touch with one another. More than once their relations were strained. In 1169 a new controversy, about the use of auricular HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession" \o "Confession" confession severed the once friendly relations between the two communions. Following the death of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuna" \o "Abuna" Abunaof the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" \o "Emperor of Ethiopia" Emperor of Ethiopiasent an embassy asking Pope Khristodolos to ordain a new one. He replied that he was unable to ordain one due to persecution against the Christians in Egypt at the time. As a result, an adventurer named HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%27Abdun_of_Ethiopia&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "'Abdun of Ethiopia (page does not exist)" Abdun took advantage of this interregnum and presented himself to the Ethiopian Emperor with forged documents, claiming to be the newly appointed Abuna. 1048DAMASUS II Pope [1048]. He was the second of the German pontiffs nominated by Emperor Henry III (103956) after having been requested by Rome. Damasus was a native of Bavaria, the third German to become pope. His original name was Poppo, and he was bishop of Brixen when the emperor raised him to the papacy. During the intervening period before he could take up his position, Benedict IX again set himself up as pope. Damasus made one unsuccessful attempt to get to Rome but was unable to do so as Margrave Boniface who had been instructed to assist Damasus to get to Rome decided not to go saying, I cannot go to Rome with you. The Romans have again installed Benedict, and he has won over the whole city to his cause. Besides, I am now an old man. Damasus returned over the Alps but came back a second time with a terse letter from Henry which at long last forced Boniface to raise troops, eject Benedict IX from the see for the third and last time and install Damasus. Damasus however only reigned for 23 days before dying, perhaps of malaria. He succeeded Clement II [see 1046] and was succeeded by Leo IX [see 1049]. 1049HUGH OF CLUNY [1024-1109] Abbot of Cluny. He was from a noble family but rejected that life for academic training under Bishop Hugh of Auxerre and entered the Cluny novitiate when 14. He was ordained in 1044, appointed prior in 1048 and named successor to Abbot Odilo [see 999] in 1049. He enjoyed the confidence of nine popes several of whom came from Cluny and was very involved with numerous councils and synods including the organisation of the first Crusade in 1095. During this period houses were added to the order in France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and England. He feared secular domination of the church and attacked simony and concubinage within the church. LEO IX Pope [1049-1054]. He is widely considered the most historically significant German pope of the Middle Ages. He was born Bruno, of noble rank, his father, Count Hugo being a relative of Emperor Conrad II(10241039). He became in 1026, a bishop and rendered important political services to his relative Conrad II, and afterwards to Emperor Henry III (1039-1056). He became widely known as an earnest and reforming ecclesiastic by the zeal he showed in spreading the rule of theOrder of Cluny. On the death ofPope Damasus II(1048), Bruno was selected as his successor by an assembly at Worms in December 1048. However, Bruno said that as a condition of his acceptance he should first proceed to Rome and be freely elected by the voice of clergy and people of Rome. Setting out shortly after Christmas, he was joined by the young monk Hildebrand, who afterwards became Pope Gregory VII(107385). They arrived in pilgrim garb at Rome in the following February and Bruno was very well received and at his consecration assumed the name of Leo IX. He favoured traditional morality in his reformation of the Catholic Church. One of his first public acts was to hold the well-known Easter synod of 1049, at which, celibacy of the clergy down to the rank of subdeacon was required anew and also he made clear that he was against simony. At another of his Easter Synods they considered the re-ordination of those who had been ordained under simony. The greater part of the year that followed was occupied in one of those progressions through Italy, Germany and France which form a marked feature in Leo IXs pontificate. After a fourth Easter synod in 1053 Leo IX set out against the Normans in the south with an army of Italians and German volunteers, but his forces suffered total defeat at the Battle of Civitate on June 15th 1053 and while going out to meet the victorious enemy he was received with every token of submission, pleas for forgiveness and oaths of fidelity and homage he was detained from June 1053 to March 1054. Soon after returning to Rome he died on April 19th 1054. The most momentous event in his papacy however was when Leo IX sent a letter to Michael Crularius,Patriarch of Constantinople, in 1054, that cited a large portion of the Donation of Constantine Leo, believing it genuine, stated that the Roman See possessed both an earthly and a heavenly rule the royal priesthood. The patriarch rejected the claims of papal primacy, and subsequently the Catholic Church was split in two in the Great East-West Schism of 1054. To cement the schism both Leo and Michael excommunicated each other although Leo had died in the interim. He succeeded Damasus II [see 1048] and was succeeded by Victor II [see 1055]. 1050BERENGAR OF TOURS [10001088] French theologian who prompted the development of the Roman Catholic teaching about the Eucharist with his teaching on transubstantiation. He stated that one cannot literally eat the flesh or drink the blood of Christ but through faith the Christian can have real communion with the glorified humanity of Christ in heaven. He had to sign a number of statements of recantation, one even asserting that when a believer partakes of the elements he actually masticates the body of Christ. It is thought that if he had died for his beliefs rather than repeatedly recanting he would have had more followers. 1051-1060 AD 1051JOHN VI Patriarch of Antioch [1051-1062] see also 1028 and 1062. ROBERT OF JUMIEGES Archbishop of Canterbury [1051-1052]. He was the first Norman archbishop of Canterbury. He had previously served as prior of the abbey of St Ouen at Rouen in France, before becomingabbotofJumiges abbey, near Rouen, in 1037. He was a good friend and advisor to the king ofEngland,Edward the Confessor, who appointed himbishop of Londonin 1044, and then archbishop in 1051. Roberts time as archbishop lasted only about eighteen months. He had already come into conflict with the powerful EarlGodwin of Wessex, and while archbishop made attempts to recover lands lost to Godwin and his family. He also refused to consecrateSpearhafoc, Edwards choice to succeed Robert as bishop of London. The rift between Robert and Godwin culminated in Roberts deposition and exile in 1052. A Norman medieval chronicler claimed that Robert travelled to Normandy in 1051 or 1052 and told Duke William, the future William the Conqueror, that Edward wished for him to become his heir. The exact timing of Roberts trip, and whether he actually made it, has been the subject of debate among historians. The archbishop died in exile at Jumiges sometime between 1052 and 1055. Robert commissioned significant building work at Jumiges and was probably involved in the first Romanesque building in England, the church built in Westminster for Edward the Confessor, now known as Westminster Abbey. Roberts treatment by the English was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England in 1066.He succeeded Edsige [see 1038] and was succeeded by Stigand [see 1052]. 1052LEONTIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1052-1059] see 1021 and 1059. STIGAND Archbishop of Canterbury [1052-1070]. Stigand served King Canute as a chaplain at a royal foundation at Ashingdon in 1020 and as an advisor then and later. He continued in his role of advisor during the reigns of Canutes sons, Harold Harefoot and Harthacanute. When Canutes stepson Edward the Confessor succeeded Harthacanute, Stigand became Englands main administrator. Monastic writers of the time accused Stigand of extorting money and lands from the church. By 1066, the only estates richer than Stigands were the royal estates and those ofHarold Godwinson. In 1043 King Edward the Confessor appointed Stigand to the bishopric, of Elmham. Four years later, in 1047, he was appointed to Winchester and then in 1052 to Canterbury which he held jointly with that of Winchester. Five successive popes, including Nicholas II and Alexander II, excommunicatedStigand for holding both Winchester and Canterbury. Stigand was present at the deathbed of King Edward and at the coronation of Harold Godwinson as king of England in 1066. After Harolds death at the Battle of Hastings, Stigand submitted to William the Conqueror. However on Christmas Day 1066, it was Ealdred, the archbishop of York who crowned William king of England as Stigands excommunication meant that he could only assist at the coronation. Despite growing pressure for his deposition, Stigand continued to attend the royal court and to consecrate bishops until 1070 when he was deposed by papal legates and imprisoned at Winchester. His intransigence towards the papacy was used as propaganda by Norman advocates of the view that the English Church was backward and needed reform. Stigand died without regaining his liberty. He succeeded Robert Jumiges [see 1051] and was succeeded by Lanfranc [see 1070]. 1053 1054EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH The second stage of the fragmentation of Christendom occurred in 1054 when the great schism divided the Roman Catholic Church of the West from the Orthodox Church of the East. Thus between the Semitic Eastern churches and the Western Latin church there was a Greek speaking world with its Orthodox faith. Central to the Orthodox faith is the belief in the Holy Trinity. This is best defined as one essence in three persons. Although men fell through Adams sin, the Orthodox do not believe that man is entirely deprived of Gods grace, thus the picture of fallen man is not the total depravity of Augustine and Calvin. The schism of 1054 occurred when both pope in Rome and patriarch in Constatinople mutually excommunicated each other. [See 431 and 1612] GREAT SCHISM, THE There were two great schisms, the first being in 1054 which can be called the Eastern Schism which formed a rupture in communion between the churches under the pope of Rome and those under the patriarch of Constantinople. After the schism two very different churches both culturally and theologically have since developed their separate ways: a Greek church becoming Eastern, Greek, and Russian Orthodoxy, with the Roman Latin church becoming Roman Catholicism. The Western Schism [1378-1417] followed the popes Avignon residency [1309-1377], which divided allegiances in a disintegrating Western Christendom between at first two, then three, simultaneous popes each excommunicating the other. Martin Vs election in 1417 ended the schism. The crisis partially arose out of the tensions between the authority of the papacy and feudal monarchies, and of the papacy and cardinals. HUMBERT [d.1061] Cardinal bishop of Silva Candida who became a monk at the monastery of Moyenmoutier where he showed himself to be a good scholar and keen reformer. Leo IX called him to Rome in 1049 and the year after he was made cardinal bishop. In this position he was the principal adviser to three popes with regard to the reform of the church and relations with the East. At the time of the Great Schism he was a leading member of the mission which Leo IX sent to the patriarch, Michael Cerularius, in 1054. Humbert is to be classified with Peter Damian [see 1035] as a leading reformer of the 11th century. 1055EADMER [b. c.1055] Anglo-Saxon biographer and theologian. Placed as a boy in the monastery of Christchurch, Canterbury, he grew up there and ultimately became a leader. Meeting Anselm [see 1093], because the archbishop of Canterbury was also abbot of Christchurch, he became Anselms secretary, chaplain, and constant companion during the latters dispute with William II and Henry I, even sharing his exile. He wrote two books on Anselm in a light favourable to Anselm. Eadmers writings also include biographies of Wilfred and Dunstan. VICTOR II Pope [1055-1057]. After the death ofPope Leo IX, a Roman delegation headed by Hildebrand, travelled to Mainz and asked the emperor for the nomination of a successor. He suggested one of his bishops, Gebhard, who was duly nominated in September 1054 taking the name Victor II. In June 1055, Victor met the emperor at Florence and held a council, which reinforced Pope Leo IXs condemnation of clerical marriage, simony, and the loss of the churchs properties. In the following year, he was summoned to the emperors side, and was with Henry III when he died atBodfeldin theHarzon October 5, 1056. As guardian of Henry IIIs infant son Henry (1056-1105) and adviser of the EmpressAgnes, Henry IVs mother and regent, Victor II now wielded enormous power, which he used to maintain peace throughout the empire and to strengthen the papacy against the aggressions of the barons. He died shortly after his return to Italy, at Arezzo, on July 28, 1057. He was buried at Ravenna. He succeeded Leo IX [see 1049] and was succeeded by Stephen X [see 1057]. 1056HENRY IV [1052-1106] German king and Holy Roman Emperor. His reign was marked by civil strife that instilled in him a resolve to strengthen the monarchy. His hasty actions in extending royal power in Saxony resulted in war and he sought church backing for his struggle. Just as victory was gained in 1075, Pope Gregory VII forbade lay investiture, thus denying Henry a voice in selecting German church officials. Henry deposed Gregory and the pope responded by excommunicating Henry in 1076. Because the German nobles in general supported Gregory, Henry sought absolution before the council met to depose him. Civil war followed as the nobles elected another king and Gregory supported him. In 1080 Henry again deposed Gregory and set up Clement III as an antipope. The end of his reign was a time of turmoil. ICELAND [see also 1540] The first Christians in Iceland were Celtic monks who arrived about 800 after having been introduced to Christianity in Britain. Although missionary efforts in the late 10th century were aborted, this preparatory work laid the groundwork for further missionary labour under the Norwegian king Olaf Tryggvason who introduced Christianity as the national religion in the year 1000. In 1056 Isleifur Gizurarson became the first national bishop and his ancestral estate became the Episcopal residence. His son Gizur as succeeding bishop [1082-1118] established a second see at Holar. Because of political pressure and attempts by Norwegian and other foreign bishops to centralise the organisation of the church and its estates, the Icelandic Church experienced considerable conflict and suffering. Only the reviving breezes of the Lutheran Reformation were to bring new life to this disjointed religious situation. King Christian III introduced the new doctrine into the Icelandic Church. Aided by biblical scholar Oddur Gottskalksson, who translated the New Testament into the native language, Christian III declared to the nation through its legislature that the Lutheran system should be adopted. Determined opposition came from Bishop Jon Aresson [see1524] of Holar who resorted to violence but was eventually himself imprisoned and beheaded. 1057PSELLUS, MICHAEL [1018-1078] Byzantine scholar and statesman who live through fourteen Byzantine administrations and provided character sketches of all the rulers from Basil II [d.1025] to Michael VII who abdicated in 1078. The greatest detail covers Constantine IX. The schism of the Eastern and Western churches in 1054 left no apparent mark for his history but Constantines turning against him at that date and his withdrawal to the monastery of Olympus in Mysia can hardly be unrelated. In 1057 he was recalled by Theodora, and held the office of Imperial secretary which converted to becoming prime minister in 1071. SCOTLAND [see also 1559] The first Christian ministry of whom we have any knowledge is Ninian [see 400] who set up a church in the South West at Whithorn from where he carried out missionary work into the interior and the east coast. In the sixth century other missionaries mainly from Ireland came to Scotland the most famous being Columba [see 546] who founded the monastery on the island of Iona off the west coast of Argyll in 563. The Celtic Church that resulted from this work was different from that around and did not accept the authority of the bishop of Rome. At the Synod of Whitby the king of Northumbria accepted the Roman supremacy with the result that the Celtic Christianity withdrew into Scotland and Ireland. The spread of Roman control in Scotland was brought to its culmination in the reign of Malcolm Canmore 1057-1093 through the influence of his Anglo-Saxon queen, Margaret, and monasticism spread rapidly with the church being organised on a diocesan basis. As there was no primate, the archbishop of York sought to bring the church under his control. The Scots objected and as a result in 1225 Pope Honorius III granted the bishops the right to hold a council without a metropolitan. During the Wars of Independence [1296-1328] under Wallace and Bruce most of the clergy took a stand on the side of Scottish nationalism even against the orders of the pope and did so for some 25 years. Even though they later submitted once again to papal authority their relations with Rome were often strained as indicated with their violent opposition to the papal creation of the archbishopric of St Andrews in 1472. The Scottish Church always adopted a rather independent attitude towards the central administration. John Wycliffe with his reforming views made headway in certain parts particularly in the South West. However, by the late 15th century the Scottish Church was probably one of the most decadent churches in Europe. STEPHEN IX Pope [1057-1058]. He was a younger brother of Godfrey III, duke of Lower Lorraine, who, as marquis ofTuscany played a prominent part in the politics of the period. Frederick, who had been raised to the status of cardinal by Leo IX, was for some time papal legate at Constantinople. He was with Leo IX in his unsuccessful expedition against the Normans and shared his problems. Five days after the death of Pope Victor II who had made him cardinal-priest and abbot of Monte Cassino he was chosen to succeed him as Pope Stephen IX. He showed great zeal in enforcing the policies of theGregorian Reformas to clerical celibacy, and was planning large schemes for the expulsion of the Normans from Italy, and the elevation of his brother to the imperial throne, when he was seized by a severe illness, from which he only partially and temporarily recovered. Stephen IX died atFlorenceMarch 29, 1058. He succeeded Victor II [see 1055] and was succeeded by Nicholas II [see 1058]. 1058BENEDICT X Antipope [1058-1059]. He was cardinal bishop of Velletri and was elected in 1058 with the backing of the count of Tusculum. However a number of Cardinals alleged that the election was irregular and Hildebrand, later HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" \o "Pope Gregory VII" Pope Gregory VII (107385) who had been sent by the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Stephen_IX" \o "Pope Stephen IX" Pope Stephen IX (105758) to the court of Empress HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes_de_Poitou" \o "Agnes de Poitou" Agnes (mother and regent for Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor" Henry IV, then a minor), who had questioned the validity of Stephen IXs election arrived back in Rome and decided to oppose it, and obtained the support of the duke of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Lorraine" \o "Duchy of Lorraine" Lorraine- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscany" \o "Tuscany" Tuscany and Empress Agnes for the election of Gerhard of Burgundy, bishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence" \o "Florence" Florence, as pope instead. Those cardinals who had opposed Benedict Xs election met at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siena" \o "Siena" Siena in December 1058, and elected Hildebrands candidate as pope, who then took the name HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_II" \o "Pope Nicholas II" Nicholas II (105961). Nicholas II proceeded towards Rome, along the way holding a synod at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutri" \o "Sutri" Sutri, where he pronounced Benedict X deposed and excommunicated. The supporters of Nicholas II then gained control of Rome, and forced Benedict X to flee to the castle of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gerard_of_Galeria&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Gerard of Galeria (page does not exist)" Gerard of Galeria. Having arrived in Rome, Nicholas II then proceeded to wage war against Benedict X and his supporters, with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans" \o "Normans" Norman assistance eventually forcing Benedict X to surrender and renounce the papacy. Benedict X was then allowed to go free, and he retired to one of his family estates. Hildebrand however had him imprisoned in 1060 in the hospice of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Agnese&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "St. Agnese (page does not exist)" St. Agnese, where he died some 15 to 20 years later. The most important consequence of the affair of Benedict X was the adoption of new laws on papal elections, at a synod hosted by Nicholas II in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateran_Palace" \o "Lateran Palace" Lateran Palace at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter" \o "Easter" Easter 1059. It should be noted that Pope HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_X" \o "Benedict X" Benedict X is now considered an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope. At the time, however, this status was not recognised and so the man whom the Roman Catholic Church officially considers the tenth true Pope Benedict took the official number XI, rather than X. This has advanced the numbering of all subsequent Pope Benedicts by one. Popes Benedict XI-XVI are, from an official point of view, the tenth through fifteenth popes by that means. 1059ALEXANDER II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1059-1062] see 1052 and 1062. HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Patriarch_Constantine_III_of_Constantinople" CONSTANTINE III Lichoudas HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1059-1063] succeeded Michael I [see 1043]. Born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople, he rose to high court offices: appointed president of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Senate" \o "Byzantine Senate" Senate and was one of the senior aides of Emperors HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_V" \o "Michael V" Michael V and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_IX" \o "Constantine IX" Constantine IX. He also became HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot" \o "Abbot" abbot of the imperial Mangana Monastery, and in 1059, following the dismissal of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_I_Cerularius" \o "Michael I Cerularius" Michael I Cerularius, he was elected into the patriarchal office, which he held until his death. He is considered a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint" \o "Saint" saint of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" \o "Eastern Orthodox Church" Eastern Orthodox Church. NICHOLAS II Pope [1059-1061]. He was at the time of his election the bishop ofFlorence. Benedict Xwas elected in 1058, his election having been arranged by theCount of Tusculum. However, a number of cardinals alleged that the election was irregular, and that votes had been bought; these cardinals were forced to fleeRome. Hildebrand, when he heard of Benedict Xs election, decided to oppose it, and obtained the support for the election of Grard de Bourgogne instead. In December 1058, those cardinals who had opposed Benedict Xs election met atSienain December 1058, and elected Nicholas II as pope. Nicholas II proceeded towards Rome, along the way holding a synod atSutri, where he pronounced Benedict X deposed and excommunicated. The supporters of Nicholas II then gained control of Rome, and forced Benedict X to flee to the castle ofGerard of Galeria. Having arrived in Rome, Nicholas II then proceeded to wage war against Benedict X and his supporters, withNormanassistance. Eventually he attackedGaleria, forcing Benedict X to surrender and renounce the papacy. Nicholas II now proceeded to have a treaty with the Normans where they guaranteed the independence of the papacy from Roman nobility and the emperor. Under his reign Milan was also brought under the control of Rome with the submission of Archbishop Wido. Previously, papal elections had been effectively controlled by the Roman aristocracy, unless the emperor was strong enough to be able to intervene from a distance to impose his will. As a result of the battles with the Antipope Benedict X, Nicholas II wished to reform papal elections. At the synod held in the Lateran at Easter, 1059, Pope Nicholas brought 113 bishops to Rome to consider a number of reforms, including a change in the election procedure. The electoral reform adopted by that synod amounted to a declaration of independence on the part of the church. Henceforth, popes were to be selected by the cardinals, in assembly at Rome. He succeeded Stephen IX [see 1057] and was succeeded by Alexander II [see 1061]. 1060ALDRED [d.1069] Archbishop of York who having previously been a monk and abbot became bishop of Worcester in 1044. He became Edward the Confessors ambassador to Henry III in 1054 before going to the see of York in 1060. Submitting to William the Conqueror after the Battle of Hastings in 1066 he was chosen to crown William and Queen Matilda in 1068. 1061-1070 AD 1061ALEXANDER II Pope [1061-1073]. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan" \o "Milan" Milan. As HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Lucca" \o "Bishop of Lucca" bishop of Lucca he had been active with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" \o "Pope Gregory VII" Hildebrand [see 1073] in endeavouring to suppress HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" simony and to enforce the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerical_celibacy" \o "Clerical celibacy" celibacy of the clergy. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_election,_1061" \o "Papal election, 1061" His election, which Hildebrand [Gregory VII] had arranged was not sanctioned by the imperial court of Germany which nominated another candidate, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadalus" \o "Cadalus" Cadalus, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Parma" \o "Bishop of Parma" bishop of Parma, who was proclaimed at the council of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel" \o "Basel" Basel under the name of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Honorius_II" \o "Antipope Honorius II" antipope Honorius II (106172) who marched to Rome, and for a long time threatened his rivals position. Eventually however he was forsaken by the Germanic court and deposed by a council held at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantua" \o "Mantua" Mantua while Alexander IIs position remained unchallenged. In 1065, he criticised HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landulf_VI_of_Benevento" \o "Landulf VI of Benevento" Landulf VI of Benevento reminding him that the conversion of Jews is not to be obtained by force. In 1066, he received ambassadors from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" \o "William the Conqueror" William the Conqueror which had been sent to obtain his blessing for the Norman conquest of England. This he gave to them, gifting to them a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal" \o "Papal" papal HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(jewellery)" \o "Ring (jewellery)" ring, the standard of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter" \o "St. Peter" St. Peter, and a papal HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict" \o "Edict" edict to present to the English HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy" \o "Clergy" clergy saying that William had been given the papal HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blessing_(Roman_Catholic_Church)" \o "Blessing (Roman Catholic Church)" blessing for his bid for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne" \o "Throne" throne. These favours were instrumental in the submission of the English HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_body" \o "Church body" church and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People" \o "People" people following the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" \o "Battle of Hastings" Battle of Hastings. Alexander II initiated the suppression of the Alleluia during the Latin Churchs celebration of Lent. He was followed by his associate Hildebrand, who took the title of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" \o "Pope Gregory VII" Gregory VII. He succeeded Nicholas II [see 1059] and was succeeded by Gregory VII [see1073]. HONORIUS II Antipope [1061-1064]. He was opposed to Pope Alexander II. After the death of Pope Nicholas II (105961) in July 1061, two different groups met to elect a new pope. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinals met under the direction of Hildebrand, who later becamePope Gregory VII, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_election,_1061" \o "Papal election, 1061" elected Pope Alexander II(106173) on 30th September HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1061" \o "1061" 1061. Alexander II had been one of the leaders of the reform party in his role as Anselm the Elder, bishop of Lucca. Twenty eight days after Alexander IIs election an assembly of German and Lombard bishops and notables, opposed to the reform movement, was brought together at Basle by the empress, Agnes, acting as regent for her son, Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor" Henry IV (10561105), and they elected on 28th October 1061 the bishop of Parma who assumed the name of Honorius II. With the support of the empress and the nobles, in the spring of 1062 Honorius II, with his troops, marched towards Rome to claim the papal seat by force. On 14th Aprila brief but bloody conflict took place at Rome, in which the forces of Alexander II lost and antipope Honorius II got possession of the precincts ofSt. Peters. Duke Godfrey of Lorraine arrived in May 1062, and induced both rivals to submit the matter to the kings decision. Honorius II withdrew to Parma and Alexander II returned to his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_see" \o "Episcopal see" see in Lucca, pending Godfreys mediation with the German court and the advisers of the young German king, Henry IV. In Germany, meanwhile, a revolution had taken place with the chief authority in Germany passed to Anno, who was hostile to Honorius II. As a result Alexander II was recognised as the lawful pontiff, and his rival, Honorius II was excommunicated in 1063. The antipope did not, however, abandon his claims. At a counter- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod" \o "Synod" synod held at Parma he defied the excommunication and gathered an armed force and once more proceeded to Rome. The ensuing war between the rival popes lasted for about a year. Honorius II eventually gave up, left Rome as a fugitive, and returned to Parma but maintained his claim to the papal chair to the day of his death in 1072. 1062AEMILIAN Patriarch of Antioch [1062-1075] see also 1051 and 1075. JOHN VI Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1062-1100] see 1059 and 1100. WULFSTAN [c.1010-1095] Bishop of Worcester who was ordained around 1038 and held various monastic offices in Worcester before becoming bishop in 1062. He was said to be the only bishop who obtained the see on spiritual grounds. Although he was a friend of King Harold, who said that he would go 30 miles out of his way to talk with him, he submitted to William at the Norman Conquest and was the only Saxon bishop not replaced by a Norman. The invaders were appalled at the depths to which the English churches had sunk but Wulfstan was retained because of what William of Malmesbury [see 1140] records as his simple goodness. With Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury he strove against the slave trade until the practice was abandoned. Wulfstan was canonised by Innocent III in 1203. 1063 1064JOHN VIII Xiphilinos Patriarch of Constantinople [1064-1075] succeeded Constantine III [see 1059]. There is no additional information readily available. 1065 1066BENNO [10101106] Bishop of Meissen in Germany [10661106]. He was of noble Saxon birth, and imprisoned [1075-1076] by Henry IV for not supporting him during the Saxon nobles revolt. Benno was temporarily removed from his see [1085-88] by imperial prelates. He was called the Apostle of the Wends for preaching to Slavonic people in his diocese. ENGLAND, CHURCH OF [see also 597 and 1532] William I and his archbishop, Lanfranc [see 1070], brought the church into line with the main features of the Hildebrand reform though William himself managed to avoid a complete subservience to the papacy. The Investiture Controversy [see 1073] had repercussions in England in the conflict between Anselm [see 1093] and lings William II and Henry I. This church-state struggle for supremacy produced the dramatic example of Thomas Becket [see 1162] and his martyrdom. The triumph of Rome was clearly seen in King Johns recognition of the kingdom as a papal fief in 1213, after the lifting of the papal interdict, and during the 13th century extension of the canon law gave the papacy wide influence in England. However with the subsequent decline in the papacy and the distance from Rome to England, English submission to the papacy was nominal rather than real in the later Middle Ages. 1067 1068 1069 1070LANFRANC Archbishop of Canterbury [1070-1089]. He was born in the early years of the eleventh century atPavia but was orphaned at an early age. Lanfranc was trained in the liberal arts, at that time a field in which northern Italy was famous, and for unknown reasons he crossed the Alps from Italy taking up the role of teacher in France and eventually in Normandy. About 1039 he became the master of the cathedral school atAvranches, where he taught for three years with conspicuous success. In 1042 he became a monk and until 1045 he lived at Bec in absolute seclusion. He was then persuaded by Abbot Herluin to open a school in the monastery. His pupils were drawn not only from France and Normandy, but also from Gascony, Flanders, Germany and Italy. Many of them afterwards attained high positions in the Church. The favourite subjects of his lectures were logic and dogmatic theology. He was therefore invited to defend the doctrine of transubstantiation against the attacks ofBerengar of Tours. Berenger stated that one cannot literally eat the flesh or drink the blood of Christ but through faith the Christian can have real communion with the glorified humanity of Christ in heaven. Lanfranc took up the task with the greatest zeal, although Berengar had been his personal friend; he was the protagonist of orthodoxy at the councils of Vercelli (1050), Tours (1054) and Rome (1059) and thus consolidated the Roman Catholic dogma on transubstantiation. To his influence we may attribute the desertion of Berengars cause by Hildebrand and the more broad-minded of the cardinals. Henceforward Lanfranc exercised a perceptible influence on his masters policy. William adopted theCluniacprogramme of ecclesiastical reform, and obtained the support of Rome for his English expedition by assuming the attitude of a crusader against schism and corruption. It was Alexander II, possibly a pupil of Lanfrancs and certainly a close friend, who gave the Norman Conquest the papal benediction which was a notable advantage to William at the moment, but subsequently the cause of serious embarrassments. As soon as Stigand had been canonically deposed on 15 August 1070 Lanfranc was nominated and speedily consecrated on 29 August 1070. The new archbishop at once began a policy of reorganisation and reform. His first difficulties were with Thomas of Bayeux, archbishop elect of York, who was another of his former pupils who asserted that his see was independent of Canterbury and claimed jurisdiction over the greater part of midland England. This was the beginning of a long running dispute between the sees of Canterbury and York, usually known as the Canterbury-York dispute. Lanfranc, during a visit which he paid the pope for the purpose of receiving hispallium, obtained an order from Alexander that the disputed points should be settled by a council of the English Church. This was held at Winchesterin 1072. At this council Lanfranc obtained the confirmation of primacy that he sought; nonetheless he was never able to secure its formal confirmation by the papacy, possibly as a result of the succession of Hildebrand, Gregory VII, to the papal throne in 1073. Lanfranc assisted William in maintaining the independence of the English Church; and appears at one time to have favoured the idea of maintaining a neutral attitude on the subject of the quarrels between papacy and empire. In the domestic affairs of England the archbishop showed more spiritual zeal. His grand aim was to extricate the Church from the fetters of corruption. He was a generous patron of monasticism and also endeavoured to enforce celibacy upon the secular clergy. He accelerated the process of substituting Normans for Englishmen in all positions of importance; and although his nominees were usually respectable, it cannot be said that all of them were better than the men whom they superseded. On several occasions when William I was absent from England Lanfranc acted as his vicegerents. By long tradition the primate was entitled to a leading position in the kings councils; and the interests of the Church demanded that Lanfranc should use his power in a manner not displeasing to the king. Lanfrancs greatest political service to the Conqueror was when he detected and foiled the conspiracy against William in 1075 formed by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford. As a statesman he did something to uphold the traditional ideal of his office; as a primate he elevated the standards of clerical discipline and education. Conceived in the spirit of popes such asLeo IX, his reforms led by a natural sequence to strained relations between Church and State; the equilibrium which he established was unstable, and depended too much upon his personal influence with the Conqueror. On the death of William the Conqueror in 1087 he secured the succession forWilliam Rufus, in spite of the discontent of the Anglo-Norman baronage; and in 1088 his exhortations induced the English militia to fight on the side of the new sovereign against Odo of Bayeux and the other partisans of Duke Robert. He exacted promises of just government from Rufus, and was not afraid to remonstrate when the promises were disregarded. So long as he lived he was a check upon the worst areas of the kings administration. But his restraining hand was removed in 1089 when he was struck down with fever and he died on 24 May. He succeeded Stigand [see 1052] and was succeeded by Anselm [see 1093]. MARGARET [d.1093] Queen of Scotland. This gifted and masterful woman was famous alike for her austerities and her charities. She became in 1070 the second wife of Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland. The wedding took place a few months after she and her brother and sister, of the English royal line, had landed on the coast of Fife after fleeing from the Norman invasion. Margaret exercised remarkable influence over Malcolm and his subjects bringing Scotland fully under the Roman obedience and sweeping away most of what remained of the Celtic Church. Her life of Christian charity included being guardian of the orphans, succour to the prisoners in her husbands dungeons, treating the sores of lepers and washing the feet of beggars with her own hands. SIGEBERT OF GEMBLOUX [1030-1112] Mediaeval chronicler who was educated in the monastery at Gembloux. He taught for 20 years at Metz before returning to his home town of Gembloux in 1070 when he spent the remainder of his life. Sigebert was a highly respected teacher and a prolific writer. He also became involved in the Investiture Controversy [see 1073] and wrote three tracts in support of the imperial position. 1071-1080 AD 1071 1072STANISLAUS [1030-1079] Bishop of Krakw and martyr who was educated at the cathedral school at Gnesen and then at Paris. Alexander II appointed him bishop of Krakw in 1072. Opposing King Boleslaw II because of his long expedition against the Grand Duchy of Kiev in 1069 and other scandalous conduct, Stanislaus excommunicated the king, only to be killed by him during Mass for treason. As a result of miracles and legends he became famous in Eastern Europe where a cult extended to Lithuania and the Ukraine. He became the patron saint of Poland and was canonised by Innocent IV in 1253. 1073ANSELM OF LUCCA [1036-1086] Bishop of Lucca who supported Gregory VII [see below] and became bishop in 1073. Soon he resigned to retire to a Cluniac monastery. Gregory asked for him to return but the austerities he imposed brought expulsion from Henry IV and the antipope Clement III. He spent the rest of his life as spiritual director to Countess Matilda of Tuscany and a papal legate in Lombardy. GREGORY VII Pope [1073-1085]. Known as Hildebrand he was one of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in theInvestiture Controversy, his dispute withHenry IV, Holy Roman Emperoraffirming the primacy of the papal authority and the new canon law governing the election of the pope by the college of cardinals. Hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, Gregory was during his own reign despised by many for his expansive use of papal powers. One commentator describes him as a rough and violent peasant, enlisting his brute strength in the service of the monastic ideal which he embraced. He was a son of a blacksmith who as a youth was sent to Rome for education. He was involved with the papacy in various ways from the time of Gregory VI. Between 1058 and 1059, he was created archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the Papal administration. He was again the most powerful figure behind the election of Alexander II in October 1061. The new pontiff put forward the reformation program devised by Hildebrand and his followers. In his years as papal advisor, Hildebrand had an important role in the reconciliation with the Norman kingdom of southern Italy, and, above all, in the introduction of a law which gave the Cardinals exclusive right on the Papal election. On the death of Alexander II he was elected by acclamation which was criticised by his rivals. In 1074 Gregory also summoned a council in the Lateran palace, which condemnedsimonyand confirmedcelibacyfor the Churchs members. These decrees were further stressed, under menace of excommunication. In the second council Gregory decreed that that the pope alone could appoint or depose churchmen or move them from see to see, an act which was later to cause theInvestiture Controversy. Henry IV was young and inexperienced and was forced to come to amicable terms with the pope at any cost consequently in May 1074 he did penance at Nuremberg in the presence of the papal legates to atone for his continued friendship with the members of his council who had been banned by Gregory, took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in the work of reforming the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him the confidence of the pope, was abandoned as soon as he defeated the Saxons by his victory at the Battle of Hohenburg on June 9th 1075 after which Henry tried to reassert his rights as the sovereign of northern Italy without delay. Gregory resisted this with a strongly worded letter accusing Henry of breaching his word. As a result Henry announced the pope to be deposed. In response Gregory excommunicated Henry. He removed the ban but four years later reimposed it. The second excommunication in 1080 was however seen in a very different light to the first. Henry attacked and Rome surrendered to him in 1084. Gregory fled the city. Guibert of Ravenna was enthroned as Clement III on March 24th 1084 and Henry was crowned emperor by him soon afterwards. In the meantime Gregory had formed an alliance and was already marching on the city so it was Henrys turn to flee towardsCivita Castellana. The pope was liberated, but, the local people were becoming incensed by the excesses of his Norman allies so Gregory was compelled to withdraw to Monte Cassino, and later to the castle of Salerno by the sea, where he died in the following year. His life-work was based on his conviction that the Church was founded by God and entrusted with the task of embracing all mankind in a single society in which divine will is the only law. The Church in her capacity as a divine institution is supreme over all human structures, especially the secular state; and that the pope, in his role as head of the Church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God and a defection from Christianity. However any attempt to interpret this in terms of action would have bound the Church to annihilate not merely a single state, but all states. Thus Gregory, as a politician wanting to achieve some result, was driven in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the existence of the state as a dispensation from God and described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance but at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an equal footing; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted. He wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals were to be addressed to himself; the centralisation of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved a curtailment of the powers of bishops. Since these refused to submit voluntarily and tried to assert their traditional independence, his papacy was full of struggles against the higher ranks of the clergy. INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY This developed into a 50 year struggle after Gregory VII [see 1073] charged Emperor Henry IV of Germany with making ecclesiastical appointments through lay investiture, a practice condemned by Nicholas II in 1059. Henry claimed that an imperial divine right for a century had been withdrawn and sought Gregorys deposition. Excommunication followed; the imperial bishops feared for their own security and hesitated to support their king. Henry therefore found himself isolated and sought reinstatement so strongly as to humiliate himself before the pope at Canossa in 1077. The principle used to terminate the German investiture controversy was restated in several councils and Henry V abandoned lay investiture with ring and staff though he could still demand homage of bishops and abbots in his domains before their ecclesiastical investiture. The struggle kept German churchmen from cultural advances while they attended to political affairs, and Germany fell behind in its intellectual leadership of Western Europe. JOHN GUALBERT [c.990-1073] Founder of the Vallumbrosan Order. Originally he was a member of the Benedictine monastery near Florence but sometime later moved to Vallumbrosa near Florence where he formed his own monastic settlement. The rule of the Vallumbrosa Order was modified Benedictine, in some ways more austere, and in particular excluded manual labour. The order was formally recognised in 1300. 1074 1075KOSMAS (COSMAS) Patriarch of Constantinople [1075-1081]. He crowned the Byzantine Emperor Nicephoros III and also used his influence to try and convinceNikephoros IIIto resign as his popularity declined and the empire entered a period of instability. He was deposed byAlexios I Komnenosin 1081 after Cosmas had imposed a penance on Alexios and his family for a riot their supporters has started. PATARINES A lay reform movement in Northern Italy during the late 11th century directed against clerical immorality. Centring in Milan it was directed primarily at the archbishop and priests appointed by simony but also at the upper-class laity who had crept into the ranks of the religious hierarchy by similar unethical means. By 1075 upon the removal of the more corrupt elements from the northern clergy the movement soon disappeared. The activity of this group strengthened the papal political authority in Lombardy and served also to destroy an ecclesiastical network established upon simony practices. THEODOSIUS II Patriarch of Antioch [1075-1084] see also 1062 and 1084. 1076ANSELM OF LAON [d.1117] A famous schoolman known as Doctor Scholasticus who was educated at Bec under Anselm of Canterbury. From 1076 he taught in Paris and towards the end of the century in cooperation with his brother established a school at Laon. It was famous enough to attract students such as Abelard though he had a low opinion of his teacher. Anselm also made a significant contribution to biblical exegesis. 1077BOGOMILES A group that arose especially in Bulgaria and was considered heretical by the Eastern Orthodox Church. Their views of the sacraments were in some ways similar to the Protestant groups in later centuries both in western Europe and America. They said that the Lords supper was to be practiced spiritually for the bread and wine could not be changed into the body and blood of Christ. They also believed that only things of the Spirit would be considered good. Their non acceptance of the Old Testament bears close resemblance to the views of the Paulicians [see 719] another heretical group in Eastern Christianity. 1078KIRELLOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1078-1092] see 1047 and 1092. He attempted to ordain a properly consecrated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishop to be the new HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuna" \o "Abuna" Abuna of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Church, but Badr al-Jamali, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizir" \o "Vizir" Vizirof HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliph" \o "Caliph" Caliph HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mustansir_of_Cairo" \o "Al-Mustansir of Cairo" Al-Mustansir, forced him to ordain instead HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abuna_Sawiros&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Abuna Sawiros (page does not exist)" Abba Sawiros. Although at first warmly welcomed when he reached HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia, the Caliphs candidate began to openly favour HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" \o "Islam" Islam in that Christian country by building seven HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosques" \o "Mosques" mosques, ostensibly for the use of Muslim traders. This led to a general uproar in Ethiopia. Abuna Sawiros justified his acts by saying a refusal to build these mosques would result in a persecution in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt; nevertheless, the Abuna was imprisoned, the seven mosques destroyed, and restrictions placed on the Muslim traders. Reciprocal acts followed in Egypt, and a rupture in the relations between the two countries took place. THEOPHYLACT Archbishop of Achrida, and Byzantine exegete. He entered a monastery early in his life and was the chosen tutor for Prince Constantine the son of Emperor Michael VII. About 1078 he became Archbishop of Achrida which was an uncivilised area. In his letters he often complained of the wickedness, ignorance, and bad manners of the Bulgars, who composed the majority of his flock. He was a disciple of Michael Psellus [see 1057] the first professor of philosophy at the University of Constantinople and this ensured his mastery of classical learning. He wrote commentaries on all the New Testament books except the Revelation, and several Old Testament ones as well. 1079AUGUSTIAN CANONS Named after Augustine of Hippo and were connected with the reform movement of Gregory VII [see 1073]. The Lateran Synods of 1059 and 1063 had taken note of the revival of the common life in such areas as north Italy and southern France and recommended monastic poverty without making it compulsory. The canons did not belong to a single order but were divided into houses which were further subdivided into congregations. Prominent members included Thomas A Kempis, Gerhard Groote, and Erasmus. Two famous London Teaching Hospitals, St Bartholomews and St Thomas, owe their origin to the Augustian Canons. 1080ADHEMAR LE PUY [d.1098] Bishop of Le Puy from 1080 who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land 1086-7. He was papal legate and deputy on the First Crusade [see 1095]. His role was to give military advice mediating between the rival Christian princes and establishing harmonious relations between the Crusaders and the Easter Christians in the territories conquered by the Crusaders. He also tried to integrate the eastern and western churches into a unified church. CLEMENT III Antipope [1080, 1084-1100] who was opposed to Popes Gregory VII, Victor III, Urban II and Paschal II. He was a cleric who supported HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Honorius_II" \o "Antipope Honorius II" Antipope Honorius II against HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_II" \o "Pope Alexander II" Pope Alexander II. Shortly after Pope Alexander II died Hildebrand was elected the next pope, being installed as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" \o "Pope Gregory VII" Pope Gregory VII on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_29" \o "April 29" April 29th but Clement soon emerged as one of the most visible leaders of opposition to the Gregorian reforms. The main cause of the quarrel was Pope Gregorys insistence of ending clerical HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concubinage" \o "Concubinage" concubinage and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" simony and of ejecting from the ministry refractory bishops and priests who continued to keep their HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concubines" \o "Concubines" concubines. It was in this same year that Emperor Henry IV began his open war on Gregory. At the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Worms" \o "Synod of Worms" synod of Worms in January, 1076, a resolution was adopted deposing Gregory. On account of the action of Henrys 1076 Synod of Worms against Gregory, the latter was compelled to lay Henry IV under excommunication. Gregory in the end died in exile after the Romans had rebelled against the excesses in the city of Gregorys allies, the Normans. During the reigns of Gregorys successors, Clements group held sway or were ousted out of Rome periodically for the next 16 years until his death in 1100. However the conflict continued through antipopes which followed him. 1081-1090 AD 1081EUSTATHIUS II GARIDAS HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1081-1084] succeeded Cosmas I [see 1075]. He was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch" \o "Eunuch" eunuch and uneducated. Due to his illiteracy he was involved in the case of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Italus" \o "John Italus" John Italus, whom his predecessor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Cosmas_I_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch Cosmas I of Constantinople" Patriarch Cosmas I of Constantinoplehad condemned. His involvement in this case cost him the throne in July 1084. LAMBERT OF HERSFELD [c.1025-1085] Benedictine abbot and historian who had sympathy with the Cluny reforms and opposed Emperor Henry IV which facilitated his move to the abbey of Hasungen where he became abbot in 1081. His most significant work was the Annales which chronicled world history from creation to 1077, notable for polished Latin not accuracy. 1082 1083 1084BRUNO THE CARTHUSIAN [10301101] Bruno founded the Carthusian order, was born in Cologne, and completed his studies in Rheims. He became master of the schools of theology and arts in 1056, and chancellor of the archdiocese in 1075. With the aid of Bishop Hugh of Grenoble he founded the order in 1084 at Chartreuse where on a site high above sea level with rugged mountains and severe climate guaranteed silence, poverty, and small numbers. Six years later he was called by Pope Urban II [see 1088], who had been one of his pupils, to construct a hermitage, where he died. CARTHUSIANS The most notable event in the history of the order is the split which occurred between 1378 and 1400 known as the Great Schism. The Carthusians were also subject to persecution with a number being executed during the reign of Henry VIII. The order has had many mystics and devotional writers, among them Hugh, founder of the first English Charterhouse at Witham in 1175-6. NICEPHORUS Patriarch of Antioch [1084-1090] see also 1075 and 1090. NICHOLAS III Grammaticus Patriarch of Constantinople [1084-1111] succeeded Eustathius [see 1081]. He was educated inConstantinople and spent much of his early years in Pisidian Antioch, where it is believed he took his monastic vows. He eventually left the city around 1068 when it was threatened by Seljuk Turkish raiders. Moving to Constantinople, he founded a monastery dedicated toJohn the Baptist. In 1084,Alexios I Komnenosselected him to replace the deposed patriarchEustratius Garidas. Nicholas was immediately presented with a number of delicate and difficult issues. He took the emperors side in the case of Leo of Chalcedon, who protested over Alexios confiscation of church treasures to alleviate the financial strain the Byzantine-Norman Wars had caused, which was resolved when he presided over theCouncil of Constantinople (1094). He was also prominent in the fight against doctrinal heresy, for instance Nicholas condemned as heretical theBogomilleaderBasil the Physician. But he was very cautious in the ongoing conflict between the provincial metropolitans and the patriarchate. In spite of some hostile opposition from the clergy of Hagia Sophia, he ended up supporting Niketas of Ankyraagainst the emperors right to elevate metropolitans, and exerted a great deal of energy trying to restrict the influence of theChartophylax. Nicholas was also very concerned with ecclesiastical discipline. He wrote a monastic rule forMount Athosmonastery, while ordering the removal of theVlachsfrom Mount Athos. He also rigorously enforced the regulations around fasting. Meanwhile, the ongoing political situation in theByzantine Empireespecially inAnatoliaafter the disaster of theBattle of Manzikertforced Nicholas to seek a union with PopeUrban II, though he was firm in his views about the major contentious issues of the day, principally the relationship with the papacy over primacy. He died in 1111. SIMEON II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1084-1106] see 1020 and 1106. Jerusalem fell to the First Crusade in 1099. 1085 1086MANEGOLD OF LAUTENBACH [c.1030-1103] Roman Catholic scholar who entered the monastery at Lautenbach but fled when the followers of Henry IV ravaged it in 1086. He went to Bavaria and his fame and consequent difficulties with the imperial party stem from his staunch defence of papal policy in the Investiture Controversy [see 1096]. Manegold was a delegate to the synod of Tours and in 1098 became an imperial prisoner. VICTOR III Pope [1086-1087]. He was an only son and his desire to embrace the monastic state was strenuously opposed by both his parents. After his fathers death in battle with the Normans in 1047, he fled from the marriage which had been arranged for him and obtained permission to enter a monastery where he adopted the name Desiderius. In 1053 he went to live with hermits before joining the community at Monte Casino being raised to cardinal in 1059. Desiderius was the greatest of all the abbots of Monte Cassino with the exception of the founder and his great reputation brought to the abbey many gifts and exemptions. He also caused many books to be copied to form a great library. He and Henry of Cluny attempted to reconcile Henry IV and Gregory but these approaches were greeted with suspicion. Gregory proposed him as a successor but he was reluctant as he saw himself as a middle man, but with the problems besetting Rome he was seen with his Roman support as the best candidate. Eventually after a twelve month break he was consecrated but spent his papacy retiring to Monte Casino or going to Rome. He was effective as an abbot but his papacy brought little fruit. In August 1087 a synod of some importance was held at Benevento, which renewed the excommunication of the antipope Clement III and the condemnation of lay investiture, proclaimed a kind ofcrusade against the Saracens in northern Africa, and anathematised Hugh of Lyons and Richard, abbot of Marseilles. When the council had lasted three days, Victor became seriously ill and retired to Monte Cassino to die. 1087 1088URBAN II Pope [1088-1089]. He is best known for starting the First Crusade (1095-99) and setting up the modern dayRoman Curia, in the manner of a royal court, to help run the Church. He was one of a few nominees by Gregory VII as a possible successor. He had to cope with Antipope Clement III and in a series of synods renewed declarations of a number of items Clement promoted. Urban II had a lot of correspondence with Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury, to whom he extended an order to come urgently to Rome after the archbishops first flight from England. Urban II received an ambassador from theByzantine EmperorAlexios I Komnenos (1081-1118) asking for help against Muslim Turks, who had taken over most of formerly Byzantine Anatolia. At the Council of Clermont his sermon proved incredibly effective, as he summoned the attending nobility and the people to wrestle theHoly Landand the eastern churches generally from theSeljuk Turks. One of the incentives was given in the following promise All who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins. This I grant them through the power of God with which I am invested. Far more subtle than the Crusades, but far more successful over the long run, was Urban IIs programme of bringing Campania and Sicily firmly into the Catholic sphere, after generations of control from theByzantine Empire and the Aghlabid and Fatimid emirs in Sicily. His agent in the Sicilian borderlandswas theNormanrulerRoger I(1091-1101) upon whom he gave the ability to appoint bishops and collect monies on behalf of the papacy which was a lucrative middle man position. Urban II died on July 29, 1099, fourteen days after thefallofJerusalemto the Crusaders, but before news of the event had reached Italy. 1089 1090IVO OF CHARTRES [1040-1116] Bishop of Chartres. He studied in Paris and then at Bec under Lanfranc [see 1070]. In 1090 having become a celebrated teacher, he was appointed to the see of Chartres which was already famous through its school. As a bishop he showed courage in opposing Philip Is proposal to desert his wife and remarry. As a result he was imprisoned in 1092. He was a moderate in his involvement in the investiture controversy [see 1073] suggesting that while the king could not grant the spiritual office he might bestow the temporalities. He wrote many books and in them he brought together ecclesiastical rules from a wide background in an orderly collection, suggested ways of discovering underlying unity in the face of apparent incompatibility between authorities, and also provided at patristic documentation. In so doing he paved the way for Chartres to continue to flourish. JOHN VII Patriarch of Antioch [1090-1155] see also 1084 and 1155. It was during this period in 1098 that Antioch was captured by the Crusaders. 1091-1100 AD 1091 1092MIKHAEL IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1092-1102] see 1078 and 1102 Originally a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Saint_Macarius_the_Great" \o "Monastery of Saint Macarius the Great" Monastery of Saint Macarius he later went to a place near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singar,_Egypt&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Singar, Egypt (page does not exist)" Singar, where he lived in a cave for more than 20 years. He was ordained HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope of Alexandria" Pope of Alexandria in 1092 and was known for his love of the poor and needy, and for spending the church money on paying the Islamic dues for those HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copts" \o "Copts" Copts who could not afford to pay it, so that they could keep their HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" \o "Christianity" Christianity. The Arabic historian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Makin" \o "Al-Makin" al-Makin is quoted by later historians as recounting that he made a journey to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia to ask that countrys Emperor to allow the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile" \o "Nile" Nile to flood to its normal levels, which would end the current HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famine" \o "Famine" famine but some dismiss this as only a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend" \o "Legend" legend. 1093ANSELM OF CANTERBURY Archbishop of Canterbury [10931109]. Born in Italy, he argued with his father and after wandering for years he became a monk under the influence of Lanfranc and settled in Normandy where he became a great teacher. Anselm came into conflict with William Rufus of England while he was applying reforms to the church and was exiled. He wrote a systematic theology and believed that faith was a necessary foundation and held that the atonement was necessary to satisfy the majesty of God. Anselm sought to understand Christian doctrine through reason and developed intelligible truths interwoven with the Christian belief. He believed that the necessary preliminary for this was possession of the Christian faith. He wrote Nor do I seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand. For this, too, I believe, that, unless I first believe, I shall not understand. He held that faith precedes reason, but that reason can expand upon faith. The groundwork of Anselms theory of knowledge is contained in the tractThe Truth where he affirmed the existence of an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_truth" \o "Absolute truth" absolute truth. This absolute truth, he argues, is God, who is the ultimate ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion of God becomes the foreground of Anselms theory, so it is necessary first to make God clear to reason and be demonstrated to have real existence. He succeeded Lanfranc [see 1070] and was succeeded by Ralph DEscures [see 1114]. 1094 1095Council of CLEMONT was called by Pope Urban II [see 1088] where he called for a Crusade urging the assembly to gain paradise fighting for Gods cause instead of losing their souls in local wars against each other. Thirty two canons were issued including: no bishop or priest should pay homage to a layman, and no flesh should be eaten between Ash Wednesday and Easter. CRUSADES A series of seven major campaigns aimed at retrieving Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims over the period 1095 to 1291. Christians had gone on pilgrimages to the Holy Land for centuries, however with the arrival of the Seljuk Turks who wrested control in the area from fellow Muslims, pilgrimages became very difficult. The Seljuks proceeded to defeat Byzantium at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 and the Eastern emperor called on the Western princes and the pope for mercenaries to assist him getting back his lost territory. Pope Urban II [see 1088] responded and proclaimed the First Crusade in a sermon at Clermont in 1095. This crusade comprised of 5000 fighting men and proceeded overland to Constantinople where Emperor Alexius Comnenus provisioned them. They took amongst others Antioch and Jerusalem which was followed by a frightful slaughter of their enemies and set up a series of states in the area [see 1147]. INDULGENCES In the Roman Catholic Church this is the remission of all or part of the debt of temporal punishment owed to God due to sin after the guilt has been forgiven. Most indulgences granted by the pope are applicable to the souls in Purgatory. Apostolic indulgences are those attached to religious articles such as crucifixes, statues and rosaries or to the performance of certain works on special feast days, or the recitation of certain holy names at the hour of death. Although forms of indulgences, such as a commutation by penance and absolution grants, can be found in the early church, it was not until the 11th century that indulgence grants appeared which relaxed penitential acts on the condition that contributions be made to a church or monastery. The practice of granting indulgences became more widespread with the advent of the Crusades beginning with the First Crusade in 1095 when Urban II promised the remission of all penance to those who set out to liberate the Holy Land. Indulgences eventually touched off the Protestant Reformation when Martin Luther attacked the doctrine itself in his 95 Theses. 1096GODFREY OF BOUILLON [c.1060-1100] French crusader who led a German contingent in the first Crusade of Urban II in 1096. Three years later, after Raymond of Toulouse had marched on Jerusalem, he took a leading part in the siege and capture of the city. When Raymond refused the offer to rule Jerusalem, Godfrey was chosen and took the title Protector of the Holy Sepulchre. In later times Godfrey was often depicted as the personification of the ideal Christian knight. PETER THE HERMIT [c.1052-1115] Preacher of the First Crusade who was an ascetic middle-aged hermit when Urban II announced the crusade. Peter immediately began to preach it with evangelical fervour. He gained a remarkable following mainly among peasants moved by end-time hopes and economic hardship. In 1096 he set out with some 20,000 people towards the Holy Land. However they lacked discipline and therefore alienated many of the areas through which they passed and eventually their lack of military knowledge led to a horrible massacre at the hand of the Turks. Being absent at the time Peter survived and he continued with the Crusade, deserted them at the siege of Antioch in 1098 but was present when Jerusalem was taken the following year. Legends proliferated and he, rather than Pope Urban, became popular as the instigator of the crusade. ROBERT OF ABRISSEL [c.1055-1117] Itinerant preacher and founder of the Order of Fontevrault. He studied at Paris under Anselm and taught at Anger between 1085 and 1090. He then took up a life as a hermit and attracted a number of disciples. He founded a monastic community at La Roe in 1096. Urban II visited him and urged him to become an itinerant preacher. He spent the remainder of his life preaching, and was particularly noted for his work among the poor and prostitutes. Robert gained a reputation for his saintly life. He founded a monastery and in 1116 drew up a constitution for the new order. 1097 1098CISTERCIANS Founded at Citeaux by ROBERT of Molesme emphasising poverty, simplicity, and solitude. Approved by Pope Paschal II [see 1099] in 1100 they were unlike others rejecting all feudal incomes and basing their economy on the labour of the monks and lay brothers. Expansion was early and rapid mainly due to Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1128] who was responsible for organising sixty five houses in France. General decline occurred in the 15th century due to the Reformation and civil wars. 1099PASCHAL II Pope [1099-1118]. A monk of the Cluniac Order who was created a cardinal priest by Pope Gregory VII about 1076. In the long struggle with the emperors over investiture, he zealously carried on the policy of Gregory VII, but with only partial success. In 1104 Paschal II succeeded in instigating the emperors second son to rebel against his father, but soon found Emperor Henry V (110525) even more persistent in maintaining the right of investiture thanEmperor Henry IV(10561105) had been. The imperial Diet at Mainz invited Paschal II to visit Germany and settle the trouble in January 1106, but the pope in the Council of Guastalla in 1106 simply renewed the prohibition of investiture. In the same year he brought to an end the investiture struggle in England, in which Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, had been engaged with Henry I of England (110035), by retaining to himself exclusive right to invest. Henry V eventually imposed his will on Paschal II and was crowned in Rome in 1111 but the Romans revolted and the concessions Henry had extracted from the pope were rescinded. There appears to have been little other than manoeuvring for position during this time. 1100THEODORIC Antipope [1100-1101]. He who was opposed to Pope Paschal II. Theodoric was an antipope after Antipope Clement III died on September 8th 1100. His followers in Rome met secretly at night in St. Peters Basilica and elected and enthroned Cardinal Teodorico, the bishop of Albano, who then went by the name of Theodoric. Forced to abandon Rome, Theodoric was seized three and a half months later and brought before Pope Paschal II, where he was condemned and declared an antipope and then sent to the monastery of La Cava, Salerno, where he died in 1102. TWELFTH CENTURY PATRIARCHS [1100 to 1171]. See 1062 and 1171. The dates of a group of Orthodox Patriarchs of Alexandria in this period are unclear. Those who ruled include EULOGIUS, SABBAS [He participated in the Synod in Constantinople, which censured the Nestorian expressions which were unfortunately used by Efstratios, Metropolitan of Nicaea during the writing up of the refutation of the teaching of the Armenians] CYRIL II [A doctor and secretary] THEODOSIUS II and SOPHRONIUS III [He attended the coronation of Emperor Manuel Komninos [1143-1180] 1101-1110 AD 1101ALBERT Antipope [1101] who was opposed to Pope Paschal II. He was elected as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope in January 1101 by the imperial party in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome following the arrest and imprisonment of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Theodoric" \o "Antipope Theodoric" Antipope Theodoric. Again there was a mock election in St. Peters. But no sooner did word of what was being done there spread abroad than the whole city was in an uproar, and the crowd rushed to the Basilica. In great alarm the assembly hastily broke up and while Albert, the newly elected Antipope, who was the Bishop of Sabina, contrived to make his escape to the Basilica of St. Marcellus, many of his party were seized and were roughly handled. A sum of money quickly bought Antipope Albert from his patron. He was stripped of the pallium that he had just assumed, put on a horse behind its rider, and taken before Pope Paschal II at the Lateran. After a short incarceration in a tower, he was sent to a Monastery and ended his days as a Monk at St. Lawrences at Aversa. 1102MACARI II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1102-1128] see 1092 and 1131. The see was vacant from 1128 to 1131. OTTO [c.1060-1139] Bishop of Bamberg who was born into a noble family and educated in monastic schools. He entered the service of Emperor Henry IV, and in 1102 was appointed bishop of Bamberg but was not consecrated until four years later. He was involved in the Investiture Controversy [see 1073] and suspended from office for a time. Within his diocese Otto was very active in building churches and monasteries of which he is said to have founded 20. Otto was called as an arbiter in several disputes. He was very successful in establishing Christianity among the Slavs inhabiting the region of Pomerania. 1103 1104 1105SYLVESTER IV Antipope [1105-1111]. He was opposed to Pope Paschal II. Members of the Roman aristocracy, with the support of the German king Henry V (110525) set up the antipope to replace Pope Paschal II (10991118), electing the archpriest of St Angelo in Peschiera while Paschal II was outside of Rome. After his election, Maginulfo took the papal name of Sylvester IV and was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthronement" \o "Enthronement" enthroned in the Lateran on November 18, 1105. When Paschal II returned to Rome the next day, Sylvester IV left for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tivoli,_Italy" \o "Tivoli, Italy" Tivoli and finally settled under the protection of Count Guarniero di Ancona. On April 11, 1111, Paschal II and King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor" Henry V reached an agreement about the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investiture" \o "Investiture" investiture of Catholic bishops. Then the king, who had used Sylvester IV to exercise pressure on Paschal II, made the antipope abandon his claim to the office of pope and submit to Paschal II. Sylvester was allowed to live out the rest of his life in Ancona with his patron. 1106JOHN VIII Patriarch of Jerusalem [1106-1156] see 1084 and 1156. 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111-1120 AD 1111JOHN IX Agapetus Patriarch of Constantinople [1111-1134] succeeded Nicholas III [see 1084]. There is no additional information readily available. ROBERT OF MOLESME [c.1027-1111] Abbot of Molesme in Burgundy. Robert entered the abbey of Moutier-la-Celle at 15 years of age and later became prior. Responding to a call by some hermits living in the forests of Colan he joined them and founded a monastery at Molesme based on strict principles. Under Roberts rule this became a famous Benedictine house. 1112 1113WILLIAM OF CHAMPEAUX [c.1070-1121] Mediaeval philosopher, theologian and reforming bishop. He is best known for his controversy with Peter Abelard on the question of universals. Reacting against the Nominalist position of universals, William taught an extreme Realist doctrine. Peter Abelard, his pupil, attacked that position, while teaching at the Cathedral School in Paris, by illustrating the ludicrous logical results of this teaching. William left his post shortly afterwards and retired to the Abbey of St Victor where he modified his teaching and started a school of theology. He was consecrated bishop of Champeaux in 1113 and was responsible for the reform of the clergy in his diocese. 1114RALPH OF ESCURES Archbishop of Canterbury [1114-1122]. Ralph d Escures was a medieval abbot of Sez, bishop of Rochester on the death of Gundulf, and then archbishop of Canterbury. He studied at the abbey of Bec, before he entered the abbey of St Martin at Sez in 1079 and became abbot of the house in 1091. He was not chosen archbishop of Canterbury by the chapter of Canterbury alone. His election involved an assembly of the lords and bishops meeting with King Henry I of England. Ralph then received his pallium from Pope Paschal II, rather than travelling to Rome to retrieve it. As archbishop, Ralph was very assertive of the rights of the see of Canterbury and of the liberties of the English Church. He claimed authority in Wales and Scotland. Ralph also quarrelled for a time withPope Paschal II. Ralph suffered a stroke on 11 July 1119 and was left partially paralysed and unable to speak clearly from that time until his death on 20 October 1122. A surviving English translation of a sermon delivered by Ralph is preserved in a manuscript in the British Library. The sermon survives in some fifty Latin manuscripts. In June 1108 he succeeded Gundulf as bishop of Rochester, having been nominated by Gundulf before his death. Ralph was consecrated on 9 August 1108. He was at Anselms deathbed in April 1109 and, afterwards, Ralph acted as administrator of the see of Canterbury until April 1114, when he was chosen archbishop atWindsor. The king had wanted his doctor, Faricus, who was an Italian and abbot of Abingdon, but the nobles and the bishops objected to anyone but a Norman being appointed. The bishops also desired someone who was not a monk, or at least not one who was so close to Henry. Although Ralph was a monk he had not previously been a royal clerk and had even been a disciple of Anselms. It was only with difficulty, however, thatPope Paschal IIwas persuaded to grant the pallium, as the papacy was attempting to again assert papal jurisdiction over the English Church. It was Anselm of St Saba who brought the pallium to England, along with letters from Paschal complaining that the English Church was translating bishops from see to see without papal permission. In 1116 the pope even demanded the payment ofPeters Pence, a payment direct to the papacy of a penny from every household in England. Ralph, when he took the pallium, professed fidelity and canonical obedience to the pope, but did not submit to the papal demands and, in fact, supported King Henry in opposing the popes demands. As archbishop, Ralph championed the rights of the see of Canterbury and the English Church. He claimed authority inWalesand Scotland, writing to the pope that the church of Canterbury has not ceased to provide pastoral care for the whole of Britain and Ireland, both as a benevolence and from its rights of primacy. Ralph was regarded as a witty, easygoing man. The struggle with York, however, along with his illnesses and the effects of the stroke, turned Ralph in his last years into a quarrelsome person. Even William of Malmesbury, no lover of ecclesiastics and always ready to find fault with them, could only find fault with him for his occasional lapses into unbecoming frivolity. Ralph suffered astrokeon 11 July 1119 as he was removing his vestments after celebrating Mass. From then until his death, Ralph was partially paralysed and unable to speak clearly. He was still involved in decision making and, in 1120, he agreed to KingAlexander I of Scotlands suggestion thatEadmerbecome the nextbishop of St Andrews. Ralph was one of the lords consulted about the remarriage of Henry I to Adeliza of Leuven at London in 1121. He also successfully asserted his right to celebrate the kings new marriage, over attempts byRoger of Salisburyto officiate instead. Due to the damage from the stroke, Ralph was unable to perform the ceremony but, when Roger made an attempt to do so, Ralph successfully insisted on choosing the officiant andWilliam Giffardbishop of Winchesterperformed the marriage. Ralph died on 20 October 1122. He succeeded Anselm [see 1093] and was succeeded by William de Corbeil [see 1123]. 1115 1116 1117 1118COMNENA, ANNA [1083-1148] Byzantine historian who was the eldest daughter of Emperor Alexjus Comnenus who had saved the empire against hostile tribes and participated in the First Crusade [see 1095] and was keen to persecute the Bogomiles [see 1077]. Aided by her mother, Anna sought in vain to persuade her father in his last illness to appoint her husband Nicephorus his successor instead of her brother John. As a result she was retired to a convent in 1118 where she wrote favourably about her fathers reign. GELASIUS II Pope [1118-1119] who became a monk of Monte Cassino and was taken to Rome by Pope Urban II(108899), and made cardinal deacon in 1088. As chancellor of the Holy Roman Church from 1089 to 1118, he drastically reformed the papal administration, establishing a permanent staff of clerks for the papacy, overcoming the previous custom of relying on Roman notaries to write papal documents, and introducing the minuscule curial script. His tenure also established the precedent that the papal chancellor should always be acardinal, and should hold the office for life or until he was elected pope. Shortly after his unanimous election to succeed Paschal II he was seized by Cencio II Frangipane, a partisan of the Emperor Henry V (110525), but freed by a general uprising of the Romans on his behalf. Henry V sought to enforce the privilege of investiture to the papacy conceded to the emperor by Paschal II, but then revoked. He drove Gelasius II from Rome in March 1118, pronounced his election null and void, and set up Burdinus, archbishop of Braga, as antipope under the name of Gregory VIII (111821). Gelasius II fled to Gaeta, where he was ordained priest on 9 March 1118 and on the following day received piscopal consecration. He at once excommunicated Henry V and the antipope, and under Norman protection was able to return to Rome in July, but the disturbances of the imperialist party, especially of the Frangipani, who attacked the pope while celebrating Mass compelled him to go once more into exile. He set out for France, consecrating the cathedral of Pisa on the way, and arrived at Marseille in October. He was received with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpellier and other cities, and held a synod at Vienne in January 1119, and was planning to hold a general council to settle the investiture contest when he died at Cluny. He succeeded Paschal II [see 1099] and was succeeded by Calixitus II [see 1119]. GREGORY VII Antipope [1118-1121] who was opposed to Popes Gelasius II and Calixtus II. He was born Maurice Bourdin in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France and was archbishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braga" \o "Braga" Braga in 1111. In 1116, when Emperor Henry V (110525) invaded Italy during the confrontations over the emperors HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investiture_controversy" \o "Investiture controversy" rights of investiture of clerics, Paschal II sent him on an embassy to Henry while the pope and the curia fled south. He defected to the emperors side. Henry V went to Rome, and on Easter Sunday, March 23rd 1117, was crowned HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Holy Roman Emperor" Holy Roman Emperor by Maurice. Paschal II deposed and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunicate" \o "Excommunicate" excommunicated Henry V and removed Maurice from office. When Paschal II died on 24 January HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1118" \o "1118" 1118, he was succeeded by Pope Gelasius II (111819). Henry V went to Rome but Gelasius II escaped to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeta" \o "Gaeta" Gaeta and refused to meet the emperor to discuss German affairs. Partly in reprisal the imperial party among the cardinals then annulled Gelasius IIs election, and on March 1st 1118 Maurice was proclaimed pope, taking the name Gregory VIII. Gelasius II proceeded to excommunicate both Gregory VIII and Henry V on April 7th HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1118" \o "1118" 1118. After Gelasius IIs death, whenCalixtus IIhad been elected pope in 1119, Henry V was induced to change papal allegiance, in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordat_of_Worms" \o "Concordat of Worms" Concordat of Wormsof 1122. Calixtus II entered Rome, and Gregory VIII left, going to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutri" \o "Sutri" Sutri, where he was in April 1121, when papal troops of Calixtus II closed up the city for eight days until its citizens surrendered. Antipope Gregory VIII was taken to Rome and imprisoned. After having been moved in confinement from monastery to monastery, he finally died atLa Cava,Salerno, some time after August 1137. ZONARAS, JOHANNES Byzantine historian, who was at first the commander of the bodyguard of Alexius Comnensus, the emperor. He later became secretary of the chancery and then left Constantinople to become a monk. His most important work was a chronicle which extended to 1118 dealing with church history. 1119CALIXTUS II Pope [1119-1124]. He was made archbishop of Vienne in 1088 where in a council in 1112 he denounced lay investiture. He excommunicated Emperor Henry V with whom he clashed again when after his election as pope he was opposed by antipope Gregory VIII who had Henrys support. However after the Concordat of Worms in 1122 Henry abandoned his protg. At the Concordat, which was confirmed in the Lateran council the following year, decrees were issued against clerical marriage, and simony. Calixtus also gave judgement for the independence of York in the dispute between the sees of York and Canterbury. He succeeded Gelasius II [see 1118] and was succeeded by Honorius II [see 1124]. HENRY OF LAUSANNE A monk and theologian who later lapsed into heresy as he rejected the objective efficacy of both the priesthood and the sacraments. His message was the evangelical life of poverty and penance which he himself practiced. He preached in various parts of southern France and was condemned by the Council of Toulouse in 1119. In 1145 Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1128] was sent to combat Henrys preaching. Henry was arrested and died at Toulouse shortly afterwards. WILLIAM OF ST THIERRY [c.1085-1148] Scholastic philosopher who studied under Anselm of Laon [see 1076] and entered the Benedictine abbey of St Nicasius of Reims in 1113. He was elected as the abbot of St Thierry in 1119. William formed a lasting friendship with Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1122] but was refused admission there. He took part in the first general chapter of the Benedictines of Reims province in 1130 but resigned his abbacy in 1135 to enter a strictly contemplative life joining the Cistercian at Signy where his output of writings increased including an unfinished biography of Bernard. 1120HUGH OF ST VICTOR [1096-1141] Exegete and theologian. From 1120 until his death he was the leading master in the school of St Victor where he was also prior of the Abbey for a time after 1133. He was concerned about the distinction between natural reason and divine faith and the objects of each, the nature of philosophy, scientific classification, the importance of the literal interpretation of Scripture, and rules for exegesis. In the belief that original sin was contracted at birth, his theological system begins with Adam and goes through Advent and the final consummation, defining faith as a certainty about things absent, above opinion and below science. He wrote on mystical union and believed that as the soul ascends to God it acquires the gift of wisdom or contemplation which original sin had cancelled. NORBERT [c.1080-1134] Founder of the Premonstratensians [see below]. Norbert was born of a noble German family and after a period as a member of Henry Vs imperial court he gave away his goods, received ordination and went about preaching in poverty. In 1120 he founded a community at Premontre which grew into the Premonstratensian Order. In 1126 Pope Honorius II confirmed his order. Norbert preached in Germany, France, and Belgium where his fame was responsible for his summons to Antwerp to win back its inhabitants from the heretic Tanchelm in 1124. Norbert became archbishop of Magdeburg and won great respect for his clerical reform. He travelled to Rome with Emperor Lothair in 1132 and successfully supported Innocent II against the anti-Pope Anacletus II. PREMONSTRATENSIANS More commonly known as White Canons. Norbert [see above] founded the first community of White Canons in 1120. They adhered strictly to the Augustinian rule but Norbert, a friend of the Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1128], also adopted certain monastic features in the Cistercian federal organisation. The order undertook an apostolic role of parochial work and preaching, and their order rapidly spread throughout Christendom. Their missionaries played an important part in the conversion and colonisation east of the Elbe. At first they admitted women to double monasteries but this practice had ceased by 1200. The Reformation and the French Revolution seriously affected the orders size. RUPERT OF DEUTZ [c.1075-1129] German mediaeval theologian and exegete who entered the Benedictine monastery at Liege and wrote and taught there before being appointed abbot of Deutz near Cologne in about 1120. He was strongly opposed to simony, to strict predestinarianism, and the introduction of logic into theology. He defended the mystical theology traditionally held by the Benedictines especially against the teaching of Anselm of Laon [see 1070] and William of Champeaux [see 1113]. 1121-1130 AD 1121SOISSONS, COUNCIL OF This council was called in 1121 to deal with the writings of Peter Abelard [see 1122] particularly with his radical tendencies which resulted from Abelards insistence on applying reason or logic to the doctrine of the Trinity. The council forced him to retract his position and ordered his books to be burnt but the root of the problem lay in his insistence that unless we understand we cannot believe. 1122ABELARD, PETER [10791142] Controversial French philosopher and theologian. He was a brilliant lecturer whose career was threatened after an affair with Heloise which produced a son, Astrolabe. He entered a monastery in 1119 and was condemned at the Council of Soissons for his views on the Trinity which caused animosity with Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1128]. He produced Sic et Non [1122] which arranged contradictory statements between the Scriptures and Church Fathers. His influence lived on through his students among whom were a number of future popes and cardinals. PETER THE VENERABLE [c.1092-1156] French abbott and scholar who was educated at Cluny. He was prior at Vezelay and finally chief abbot from 1122 over 2000 dependent houses across Europe. He made financial and educational reforms but could not halt the general decline. His interests in studies at Cluny brought him opposition from his close friend Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1128] who wanted only prayer and manual work enforced. He won reconciliation for Peter Abelard after the Council of Sens in 1140. Peters sermons and poems show a careful knowledge of Scripture. He was also the first have the Koran translated into Latin. Both Bernard of Cluny [see 1140] and Frederick Barbarossa called him venerable. 1123ECUMENICAL COUNCILS Seven mediaeval councils were convoked and controlled by the papacy and consist of Lateran I [1123]; Lateran II [1139]; Lateran III [1179]; Lateran V [1215]; Lyon I [1245]; Lyon II [1274]; Vienne [1131-1312]. Three late mediaeval councils which were held during the period when the conciliar movement was challenging the power of the papacy and which witnessed both the initial success of the movement and its final defeat: Constance [1414- 1418]; Basle- Florence [1431 -1437]; Lateran IV [1512 -1517]. [See 325-1545] LATERAN COUNCIL 1 [see also 1138] These councils were held in the Church of St John Lateran in Rome and there were five such councils the first which was summoned by Callistus II in 1123 to signal the end of the Investiture Controversy [see 1073] at which time the Concordat of Worms was confirmed. The council dealt with ecclesiastical ordinations and offices in keeping with the Gregorian Reform, and with crusading indulgences. WILLIAM DE CORBEIL Archbishop of Canterbury [1123 -1136]. He was educated as a theologian and taught briefly after finishing his education. He then served the bishops of Durham and London as a clerk. After the death of Ralph dEscures in October of 1122, King Henry I decided to allow a free election, and the new primate was chosen by the leading men of the realm, both ecclesiastical and secular. William was the first Augustinian canon consecrated archbishop in England, a striking break with tradition that had favoured monks in the see of Canterbury. As such, he caused some concern in the monks of the Canterbury chapter, who were alarmed at the appointment, since he was a non-monastic clergy-member. He was enthroned at Canterbury on 22 July 1123. William was soon involved in the Canterbury-York dispute over primacy withThurstan, the archbishop of York, which continued throughout his reign. A temporary solution was imposed by the papacy when William was made papal legate for England, which made his powers superior to those of York. William also concerned himself with the morals of the clergy. In ecclesiastical matters, William called councils in 1125, 1127 and 1129 all of them being held at Winchester. The one in 1125 met under the direction of John of Crema, and prohibited simony, purchase of the sacraments, and the inheritance of clerical benefices. In 1127 the council condemned the purchase of benefices, priesthoods, or places in monastic houses. Lastly, in 1129 the clergy were once more admonished to live a celibate life and to put aside their wives. At the end of his life, William was instrumental in the selection of Count Stephen of Boulogne as king of England instead of theEmpress Matilda, daughter of KingHenry I of England who William swore to Henry I that he would support in her claim to the English throne. He succeeded Ralph DEscures [see 1114] and was succeeded by Theobold of Bec [see 1139]. 1124CELESTINE II Antipope [1124] who was opposed to Pope Honorius II. He was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope for one day, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_16" \o "December 16" December 16th HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1124" \o "1124" 1124. He was considered legitimate, but nonetheless submitted to the opposing pope, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorius_II" \o "Honorius II" Honorius II. He was selected as pope in a confused and chaotic election, in which Theobald and another cardinal, Saxo, were supported by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierleoni_family" \o "Pierleoni family" Pierleoni family. During the process of Celestines investment, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Frangipani&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Robert Frangipani (page does not exist)" Robert Frangipani and a body of troops broke into the church and proclaimed Lamberto Cardinal Scannabecchi, a man of considerable learning, pope. On Celestines resignation Scannabecchi became Honorius II. GERHOH OF REICHERSBERG [1093-1169] Prominent Augustinian and a leading advocate of Gregorian reforms in Germany. He trained at Augsburg and came into conflict with the bishop to whom he was later reconciled and acted as his adviser at the First Lateran conference in 1123. Gerhoh attempted unsuccessfully to persuade the council to adopt his program of the reform of the secular clergy through the introduction of communal life. He returned in 1124 to Germany and entered the cloister off the Augustinian Canons [see 1050] Regular in Rottenbuch. He established friendly relations with Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1128]. Always a champion of theological orthodoxy he attacked the Christology of Peter Abelard [see 1122] and Gilbert de la Porree. He became alienated to Frederick I because of a treatise he wrote on the relation of imperial and papal power, and also for his unwillingness to support an imperialist antipope. HONORIUS II Pope [1124-1130]. He came from a simple rural background, and in the 12th century such a successful career from humble beginnings is a mark of outstanding abilities. His learning recommended him to Paschal II who called him to Rome. Appointed cardinal priest in 1099 he was one of the cardinals who accompanied Gelasius II in exile in 1118-1119. As a tested opponent of the emperors right to select bishops in his territories, i.e. the Investiture Controversy, he was a natural choice for papal legate. He was sent in 1119 to deal withHenry V, Holy Roman Emperor(110525), and delegated with powers to come to an understanding concerning the right of investiture. The struggle came to a successful conclusion with the Concordat of Worms in 1122 which was ratified on September 23rd 1123. During his pontificate the Premonstratensian Order which is also known as the Norbertines and also that of the Knights Templar, received papal sanction. He succeeded Calixtus II [see 1119] and was succeeded by Innocent II [see 1130]. 1125ROSCELLINUS [c.1050-1125] He is regarded as the founder of mediaeval Nominalism. He was born in France and taught there for a while before going to England where he came into conflict with Anselm and returned to France. His whole life was spent in controversy particularly in relation to the Trinity. His reasoning applied to theology implied that the three persons of the Trinity were three separate gods. Roscellinus does appear however to have tried to preserve unity by maintaining that the three persons had one will and power. 1126 1127 1128BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX [10901153] French monastic reformer and theologian who was born of a noble family and entered the Cistercians around 1111, and four years later as abbot founded a new house at Clairvaux. In 1128 he secured recognition of the Knights Templar [see 1118]. He was the dominant figure in twelfth century Latin Christendom and had one of his students elected as Eugenius III [see 1145]. He entered into controversy with Peter Abelard [see 1122] and Henry of Lausanne [see 1119], and obtained condemnation of Arnold of Bressicas [see 1141] reforms. He also wrote a number of hymns including O sacred head now wounded, Jesus thou joy of loving hearts, and Jesus the very thought of thee. 1129HENRY OF BLOIS [d.1171] Bishop of Winchester who trained at Cluny and in 1126 became abbot of the wealthy Glastonbury Abbey. He became bishop of Winchester in 1129. Proud and ambitious, he was instrumental in his brother Stephens accession to the throne in 1135 but was frustrated when he failed to become archbishop of Canterbury in 1139. He became papal legate but this was not renewed after the death of Innocent II in 1143 and because of this Henry was prepared to support Stephens resistance to the papal will, especially in 1148. Under Henry II age lost him Canterbury to Beckett [see 1162]. He is famous also as a builder of churches and castles. 1130ADAM OF ST VICTOR [11101180] Mediaeval hymn writer famous for his composition of 45 rhythmic pieces to be used in the liturgy of the Mass preceding the Gospel which was approved at the Fourth Lantern Conference in 1215. The melodies for his hymns were composed by a fellow monk, H Spnake. ANACLETUS II Antipope [1130-1138] who was opposed to Pope Innocent II. He was an antipope who ruled from 1130 to his death, in a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schism_(religion)" \o "Schism (religion)" schism against the contested hasty election of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_II" \o "Pope Innocent II" Pope Innocent II. He was of Jewish descent of a powerful HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Roman family. As a second son with ambitions he was destined for an ecclesiastical career. He studied in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" \o "Paris" Paris and entered the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictine" \o "Benedictine" Benedictine abbey of Cluny. Later he went to Rome and occupied several important positions. In 1130, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Honorius_II" \o "Pope Honorius II" Pope Honorius II lay dying and the cardinals decided that they would entrust the election to a commission of eight men, led by papal chancellor Haimeric, who had his candidate hastily elected as Pope Innocent II. He was consecrated on February 14th, the day after Honorius death. On the same day, the other cardinals announced that Innocent had not been canonically elected and chose Anacletus II. He had powerful backers who were strong enough to take control of Rome while Innocent was forced to flee North, legally speaking making Anacletus the canonically elected pope and Innocent the anti-pope. However, north of the Alps, Innocent gained the crucial support of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Bernard_of_Clairvaux" \o "St. Bernard of Clairvaux" St. Bernard of Clairvaux, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Venerable" \o "Peter the Venerable" Peter the Venerable, and other prominent reformers who personally helped him to gain recognition from European rulers such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor_Lothar_III&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Emperor Lothar III (page does not exist)" Emperor Lothar III, leaving Anacletus with few patrons. Anacletus had been a relatively acceptable candidate for the papacy, being well-respected, so rumours centring on his descent from a Jewish convert were spread to blacken his reputation. By 1135 Anacletus position was weak but the schism only ended with his death in 1138, after which Innocent returned to Rome and ruled without opposition. Innocent II quickly convened the Second Lateran Council in 1139 and re-solidified the Churchs teachings against usury, clerical marriage, and other problems. CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL Consecrated, having been rebuilt in Norman style under Archbishop Lanfranc and Anselm. INNOCENT II Pope [1130-1143]. In 1130 as Honorius II lay dying, the cardinals decided to entrust the election to a commission of eight men, led by papal chancellor Haimeric, who had his candidate hastily elected as Pope Innocent II. He was consecrated on February 14, the day after Honorius death. The other cardinals announced that Innocent had not been canonically elected and chose Cardinal Pietro Pierleoni, a Roman whose family were the enemy of Haimerics supporters, the Frangipani. Pierleoni took the namePope Anacletus II. Anacletus mixed group of supporters were powerful enough to take control of Rome while Innocent was forced to flee north. Based on a simple majority Anacletus was the canonically elected pope, and Innocent was the anti-pope, however the legislation of Pope Nicholas II in the famous decree of 1059 pre-empted the choice of the majority of the cardinal priests and cardinal deacons. This rule was changed by the Second Lateran councilof 1139. Anacletus had control of Rome, so Innocent II took a ship and eventually arrived in Germany where in October of the same year he was duly acknowledged by Lothar III of Germany and his bishops at the synod of Wrzburg. In January 1131, he had also a favourable interview withHenry I of England(110035); and in August 1132 Lothar III undertook an expedition to Italy for the double purpose of setting aside Anacletus asantipopeand of being crowned by Innocent. Anacletus and his supporters being in secure control of theSt. Peters Basilica, the coronation ultimately took place in the Lateran Church (June 4, 1133), but otherwise the expedition proved abortive. A second expedition by Lothar III in 1136 was not more decisive in its results, and the protracted struggle between the rival pontiffs was terminated only by the death of Anacletus II on January 25, 1138. Innocent made a number of his close relatives cardinals. By the Second Lateran council of 1139, at which Roger II of Sicily (113054), Innocent IIs most uncompromising foe, was excommunicated, peace was at last restored to the church. On March 22nd 1139, Roger IIs son Roger III, duke of Apulia ambushed the papal troops with a thousand knights and captured Innocent. On March 25, 1139, Innocent was forced to acknowledge the kingship and possessions of Roger with the Treaty of Mignano. Innocent II died on September 24th 1143. He succeeded Honorius II [see 1124] and was succeeded by Celestine II [see 1143]. SWEDEN [see also 1528] Louis the Pious sought further domains and the missionary he chose was Anskar [see 831]. Failing in Denmark Anskar turned to Sweden. King Bjorn gave permission to preach and build a church, the first in Scandinavia. Few Swedes responded and the work faded for a time but in the latter 10th century Christianity became established with bishops. King Olaf Skotonung was baptised and established an archbishopric at Skara in 1020. Later under the Svenkers [1130-1155] paganism was overcome with the help of the Cistercian monks from England and Germany, one of whom, Stephan, became the first archbishop of Uppsala. Soon the Swedish bishops became subordinate to Rome. 1131 -1140 AD 1131GABRIEL II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1131-1145] see 1102 and 1145 When the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliph" \o "Caliph" Caliph was asked by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" \o "Emperor of Ethiopia" Emperor of Ethiopia to appoint more HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishops to his kingdom, Gabriel showed the Caliph that if that country had more than seven bishops, then the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Church would be able, by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law_(Catholic_Church)" \o "Canon law (Catholic Church)" Canon law, to select their own HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuna" \o "Abuna" Abuna or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" metropolitan, thus curtailing the influence the Patriarch, and therefore the Caliph himself would have over HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia. As a result the Emperors request was declined. PETER DE BRUYS [d. c.1131] Radical preacher in France who preached against the church of his day. During a 20 year period he gained considerable influence in southern France and towards the end of his life joined forces with Henry of Lausanne [see1119]. His teaching is known largely from the hostile abbot of Cluny, Peter the Venerable [see 1122] who points to five heretical doctrines. Peter de Bruys taught that infant baptism was not valid as only personal faith could bring salvation; that churches are unnecessary as God hears according to the worthiness of the individual and not of the place; the cross should not be the object of devotion but rather terror as it pointed to Christs torture; that there is not a real presence in the sacrament; and that sacrifices, prayers, and good works on behalf of the dead have no effect. Underlying this teaching is the belief that the Christian should be prepared to interpret the Gospels even against the church and a remarkable emphasis upon personal faith as the sole means of salvation. His followers were a part of a widespread evangelical fervour and his own burning of crosses enraged the conservative devotions of the mob. Peter himself was burned at St Gilles. His teaching relating to salvation is clearer than almost anybody before Luther. 1132 1133 1134HARDING, STEPHEN [d.1134] Abbot of Citeaux. Harding travelled widely as a young man and joined the community in Burgundy but failed to secure acceptance of the Rule of Benedict. Departing in 1098 with 20 others including the abbot and the prior, he established a strict and austere religious house at Citeaux which is a very desolate spot. He became the third abbot there. He founded 13 other houses of the new Cistercian Order [see 1098]. Along with Abbot Robert and Alberic the Prior he should be regarded as the founder of the Cistercian Order. LEO Styppeiotes Patriarch of Constantinople [1134-1143] succeeded John IX [see 1111]. There is no additional information readily available. 1135 1136THIERRY OF CHARTRES [c.1100-1156] Philosopher and theologian who taught at the cathedral school at Chartres while his brother Bernard was chancellor and in 1136 became archdeacon of Dreux. Thierry settled in Paris where John of Salisbury [see 1176] was one of his pupils. He attended the trial of Gilbert de la Porree, whom he had succeeded as chancellor of Chartres when Gilbert was accused of a heretical position on the Trinity, and in the following year attended the Diet of Frankfurt. 1137OTTO OF FREISING [c.1111-1158] Bishop of Freising who was of noble birth and moved in imperial circles all its life. He studied in Paris possibly under Peter Abelard [see 1122]. He entered the Cistercian monastery of Morimund and became abbot there are about 1137 and a year later was consecrated as bishop of Freising in Bavaria. In this capacity Otto instituted diocesan reforms and created several monasteries and stimulated study of Aristotle among his German contemporaries. Otto also joined Conrad III, his stepbrother, in the Second Crusade in 1147. Otto began a contemporary history of Frederick Barbarossa but died before its completion 1138LATERAN COUNCIL 2 [see also 1123 and 1179] Summoned by Innocent II who announced the deposition of all supporters of Ancletus II who had challenged his rule, and the excommunication of Roger II of Sicily, as well as the condemnation of other opponents. Payment for the priestly services of extreme unction and burial was prohibited. The study of civil law and medicine was prohibited. Among other things prohibited were marriage of the clergy, usury, tournaments, and the use of the crossbow, and incendiaries. VICTOR IV Antipope [1138]. He was opposed to Pope Innocent II and was the first of two antipopes with the same title [see 1159]. His original name was Gregorio Conti and he was made a cardinal priest by Pope Paschal II who deposed him in 1112 because he had severely criticised Paschals policy towards Emperor Henry V. He was restored as cardinal by Calixtus II ten years later. In the papal election of 1130 he supported Antipope Anacletus II(1130-38) and after Anacletus death he was chosen as his successor in March 1138. However, through the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux, Victor was induced two months later to make his submission to Pope Innocent II (1130-43). Innocent II initially restored him as a cardinal but in the Second Lateran Council in April 1139 all the former adherents of Anacletus II were condemned and deposed. Then he retired to a priory and died around 1156. 1139COUNCIL OF ANTIOCH deposed the arrogant patriarch Radulf. THEOBOLD OF BEC Archbishop of Canterbury [1139 -1161]. He was a Norman by birth and was chosen by King Stephen of England to be archbishop of Canterbury in 1138. The dispute of the primacy over the Welsh hierarchy was ended in his reign when Pope Eugene III decided in 1148 in favour of Theobald. Among other issues that Theobald faced was Henry of Blois, who wasbishop of Winchester who contested his authority. Theobald was pious and well educated but he had only just become abbot the year before, and his election was probably based on the reputation of his monastery, which had already produced two archbishops of Canterbury, Lanfranc and Anselm. Theobald is also remembered as the patron of his successor Thomas Becket. A number of other future bishops and archbishops also served as clerks for Theobald. In 1141, after the Battle of Lincoln, with Stephen in captivity in Bristol, Theobald did not immediately join the empress. He claimed that he needed to talk to Stephen before switching his oath of fealty. After consulting with Stephen, he secured permission to accept the current conditions, and then joined Henry of Blois at Winchester in April for alegatine councilheld to depose Stephen and crown Empress Matilda. However, the attendance at the council was sparse and they were unable to crown the empress because she did not hold London or Winchester. The conflict between Stephen and Matilda continued to rage with Theobold being banished by the king but re-established after Stephen was put under significant pressure by Pope Eugene III. Theobald was instrumental in the early spread of Roman and canon law to England, inviting the Bologna-schooled juristVacariusto join his administration and advise on legal matters and later taught at Oxford briefly in the 1140s. Soon after his election, he selected his brother Walter to bearchdeaconof Canterbury, and in 1148 promoted Walter to bebishop of Rochester. Theobald was present at Stephens deathbed in October 1154, and Stephen named Theobald regent of the kingdom until Henry arrived to take up his crown. Two months later Theobald crowned Henry and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaineon 19 December 1154. Theobalds household was not monastic in character, although he himself was a monk. As he settled into the role of archbishop, he seems to have left most of his monastic habits behind, although he continued to have a monk as a companion. His nephews and brother benefited from hisnepotism. Theobald died on 18th April 1161 and was assessed as an upright man, but quick tempered, and sometimes spoke far too rashly. He succeeded William de Corbeil [see 1123] and was succeeded by Thomas Becket [see 1162]. 1140BERNARD OF CLUNY Monk and poet from Cluny who wrote De Contempti Mundi in dactylic hexameters which was a poem of 3000 lines that satirised monastic corruption, contrasting the transient nature of worldly pleasures with the peace and glory of heaven. Some of this work has been used as the basis for hymns. WILLIAM OF CONCHES [c.1080-1154] Norman philosopher who was a disciple of Bernard of Chartres where he himself also taught. John of Salisbury [see 1176] was one of his pupils and considered him an accomplished grammarian. After 1140 he was attacked by opponents of classical studies and by William of St Thierry [see 1119] who detected in his writings the influence of Abelards heresies. Withdrawing from public teaching to the court of Geoffrey Plantagenet he taught the future king of England, Henry II. Leaning towards pantheism, he identified the Holy Spirit as the world soul. WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY [c.1090-1143] English historian and monk. He was educated at Malmesbury Abbey and became a monk there, helping to build up the library. He became the abbot in 1140 but relinquished it in favour of a colleague. Taking Bede [see 700] as his pattern William set out to write English history in a popular form. He wrote a record of the kings of England from the end of the sixth century which was published around 1125 and this was followed by a record of the English Church hierarchy covering roughly the same period. His work contains interesting anecdotes and perceptive comments which are presented in a vivid and powerful style. Many know his writing only regarding the moral motives that made men undertake the First Crusade, preached about time that William was born. 1141-1150 AD 1141ARNOLD OF BRESSICA [11001155]. Radical church reformer who joined the Augustine order and rebelled against the power of the pope especially where it involved temporal matters. He helped his teacher Peter Abelard [see 1122] defend himself at Sens [1141]. He was eventually martyred at Rome having been captured by Frederick I. A movement grew up in memory of Arnold called the Arnoldists who stressed apostolic poverty and rejected the power of the hierarchy saying that the sacraments administered by clerics who had worldly goods were invalid. SENS, COUNCIL OF This is the most important of many councils held in the French town. It was called in 1141 to hear the charges of heresy launched against Peter Abelard [see 1122] by Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1122]. In 1121 Abelard had been forced to burn his own works, in particular his work on the Trinity, on the grounds that he was in error. He was later charged by William of St Thierry [see 1119] with 13 errors concerning the doctrines of the Trinity, the person of Christ, the Holy Spirit, and the grace of God in the redemption of man. Abelard refused to defend himself at the Council and appealed the case to Innocent II but Innocent declared Abelard a heretic and imposed on him a penalty of perpetual silence and banishment. 1142PETER OF TARANTAISE [d.1175] Archbishop who was so devoted as a Cistercian monk that he became superior of a new house at Taime before he was 30. In 1142 he unwillingly became archbishop and immediately began to reform his lax diocese. Unwelcome fame as a reformer and miracle worker caused him in 1155 to try to return to monastic life disguised as a lay brother. After a year he was discovered and brought back to his see where he continued to establish hospices for the poor, and sick, and for travellers. He strongly supported Alexander III who sent him on a mission to reconcile Louis VII of France and Henry II of England. He died on the return journey to France. WILLIAM FITZHERBERT OF YORK [d.1154] Archbishop of York who was of noble birth and chaplain to King Stephen of England. By 1114 he had become treasurer and canon of York Cathedral. As Stephens candidate he was elected archbishop in 1142 but was opposed by the Cistercian monks who attributed the election of William to simony and royal pressure. Theobold, archbishop of Canterbury, refused William consecration. There was continuous antagonism between the two sides which resulted in the burning down of the Cistercian Fountains Abbey and the deposing of William due to a succession of Cistercian popes in Rome. On the accession of Pope Anastasius IV in 1154, William was restored but died a month later allegedly by poisoning. He was canonised in 1226 as a martyr. The events of his career give a stark picture of 12th century ecclesiastical politics. 1143CELESTINE II Pope [1143-1144]. He studied under Peter Abelard [see 1122] and was pope for less than six months. In his brief reign he absolved Louis VII of France at the kings request and removed the interdict on his country which had been in place for three years. He succeeded Innocent II [see 1130] and was succeeded by Lucius II [see 1144]. MICHAEL II KOURKOUAS Patriarch of Constantinople [1143-1146]. When at the beginning of 1143 Patriarch Leo and Emperor John II Komnenos died within a few months of each other, the Byzantine Church entered a period of great turbulence. Soon after assuming power, Manuel I saw to the election of a new patriarch, Michael Kourkouas, a monk from the island monastery of Oxeia. Manuel I himself was crowned by the new patriarch next month upon enteringthe capital. Upon taking the office Michael II was involved with religious persecution of Bogomils but after three years he resigned in disillusionment. 1144LUCIUS II Pope [1144-1145]. He was from Bologna and was papal legate in Germany for Honorius II and later for Innocent II. It was due mainly to his efforts that Lothair III made two expeditions to Italy for the purpose of protecting Pope Innocent II against the antipope Anacletus II. Innocent II appointed him papal chancellor and librarian. His stormy pontificate was marked by the arrival of a revolutionary republic at Rome which sought to deprive the pope of his temporal power and by the recognition of papal suzerainty over Portugal. In 1144 he met Roger II of Sicily (113054) at Ceprano to clarify the duties of Roger as vassal of theHoly See. Lucius II was not willing to accept the demands of Roger and rejected them, but Roger II forced him to accept his conditions by sending his generalRobert of Selby against him. The Roman Senate, which practically took all temporal power from the pope during the pontificate of Innocent II and was dissolved by Lucius II, was resurrected, encouraged by his defeat. Lucius II called unsuccessfully for the help of Emperor Conrad III (113852) against the Senate and he finally marched against them with a small army. This fight was lost by his army during which he was seriously injured by a thrown stone and died a few days later from his injuries. He succeeded Celestine II [see 1143] and was succeeded by Eugene III [see 1145]. PULLEN, ROBERT [d. c.1146] English theologian and Sentence writer. He studied in Paris under Peter Abelard [see 1122]. By 1133 he was teaching Scripture at Oxford and was also archdeacon of Rochester but with the trouble following the death of Henry I in 1135 he returned to Paris to teach logic and theology. Among his pupils was John of Salisbury. Innocent II summonsed him to Rome in 1144 where he was made a cardinal. In his sentences he tried to unify theological contradictions. WILLIAM OF NORWICH [1132-1144] Supposed victim of Jewish ritual murder. A pious tanners apprentice in Norwich, William was, according to certain church leaders especially William Turbe, lured from his home in Holy Week and sacrificed by the Jews during the Passover celebrations. In fact he had probably died of a fit and been buried prematurely by his parents. At first the civil authorities refused to believe this tale which was the first accusation of ritual murder in England but Williams reburial in Norwich Cathedral in 1151 raised a wave of superstition and fanaticism. This episode began a whole series of discoveries of boy saints and martyrs elsewhere. 1145EUGENE III Pope [1145-1153]. BornBernardo da Pisa. He was the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistercian" \o "Cistercian" Cistercian to become pope and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Innocent II, who resided at that time in Pisa. Under the influence of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" \o "Bernard of Clairvaux" Bernard of Clairvauxhe entered the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistercian_Order" \o "Cistercian Order" Cistercian Order in the monastery of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairvaux" \o "Clairvaux" Clairvauxin 1138. A year later he returned to Italy as leader of a Cistercian community. In Autumn 1140 Pope HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innocent_II" \o "Innocent II" Innocent II named him abbot of a monastery outside Rome. He was elected pope in February 1145 and took the name Eugene III. He owed his elevation partly to the fact that none were eager to accept an office the duties of which were at the time so difficult and dangerous, but chiefly to his being the friend and pupil of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" \o "Bernard of Clairvaux" Bernard of Clairvaux, the most influential ecclesiastic of the Western Church at that time and a strong advocate of the popes temporal authority. The choice had not, however, the approval of Bernard, who remonstrated against the election on account of the innocence and simplicity of Eugene III; but after the choice was made he took advantage of the qualities in Eugene III which he objected to, so as to virtually rule in his name. During nearly the whole of his pontificate Eugene III was unable to reside in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome. Hardly had he left the city to be consecrated in a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farfa_Abbey" \o "Farfa Abbey" monastery about 40 km north of Rome when the citizens, under the influence of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_of_Brescia" \o "Arnold of Brescia" Arnold of Brescia, the great opponent of the popes temporal power, established the old Roman constitution, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commune_of_Rome" \o "Commune of Rome" Commune of Rome and elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Pierleoni" \o "Giordano Pierleoni" Giordano Pierleoni to be HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" \o "Patrician (ancient Rome)" patrician. Eugene III appealed for help to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tivoli,_Italy" \o "Tivoli, Italy" Tivoli, Italy, to other cities at war with Rome, and to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicily" \o "Roger II of Sicily" Roger II of Sicily who sent his general HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_of_Selby" \o "Robert of Selby" Robert of Selby and with their aid was successful in making such conditions with the Roman citizens as enabled him for a time to hold the semblance of authority in his capital; but as he would not agree to a treacherous compact against Tivoli, he was compelled to leave the city in March 1146 ultimately arriving in France. On hearing of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Edessa" \o "Siege of Edessa" fall of Edessa to the Turks, he had, in December 1145, addressed a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull" \o "Papal bull" bull to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" \o "Louis VII of France" Louis VII of France(113780), calling on him to take part in another HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade" \o "Crusade" crusade; and at a great HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_(assembly)" \o "Diet (assembly)" diet held at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speyer" \o "Speyer" Speyer in 1146 the Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_III" \o "Conrad III" Conrad III (113852) also, and many of his nobles, were, by the eloquence of Bernard of Clairvaux, incited to dedicate themselves to the Crusade. He held synods in northern HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" \o "Europe" Europe, at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" \o "Paris" Paris, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheims" \o "Rheims" Rheims, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trier" \o "Trier" Trier in 1147 and 1149 which were devoted to the reform of clerical life. In 1149, Eugene III returned to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy. Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I_Barbarossa" \o "Frederick I Barbarossa" Frederick I Barbarossa(1152-90) had promised to aid him as the citizens of Rome were still antagonistic but the death of Eugene III at Tivoli, on July 8, 1153, prevented the fulfilment of the promise. He succeeded Lucius II [see 1144] and was succeeded by Anastasius IV [see1153]. MIKHAEL V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1145-1146] see 1131 and 1146. During his papacy, he returned the relics of Saint Macarius from the village of Shabsheer to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrian_Desert" \o "Nitrian Desert" Nitrian Desert. 1146COSMAS II Atticus HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1146-1147] succeeded Michael II [see 1143] There is no additional information readily available. YOANNIS V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1146-1166] see 1145 and 1166 He was initially a monk in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monastery_of_Saint_John_the_Dwarf&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Monastery of Saint John the Dwarf (page does not exist)" Monastery of Saint John the Dwarf. During his papacy, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copts" \o "Copts" Copts were persecuted by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim" \o "Muslim" Muslim governors and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliph" \o "Caliph" Caliphs. Many were killed and sold as slaves. Several churches in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo" \o "Cairo" Cairo, were plundered and destroyed. According to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Patriarchs_of_Alexandria" \o "History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria" History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" \o "Emperor of Ethiopia" Emperor of Ethiopia wrote to the Pope in 1152 for a new HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuna" \o "Abuna" abuna or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" Metropolitan, because Abuna Mikael was too old but his request was denied. Although the name of the Emperor was not recorded, the scholar Carlo Conti Rossini identified him as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mara_Takla_Haymanot" \o "Mara Takla Haymanot" Mara Takla Haymanot, arguing from this exchange that the true reason a new abuna was wanted was that Abuna Mikael refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the new HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagwe_Dynasty" \o "Zagwe Dynasty" Zagwe Dynasty. During Johns papacy, the expression Life-giving was added to the liturgical confession, which became: This is the Life-giving Flesh that Thine Only-Begotten Son, Our Lord, God and Saviour, Jesus Christ, took from our Lady. 1147AILRED [1109-1167] Abbot of Rievaulx who spent his youth in the court of David, king of Scotland, who wished to make him a bishop. However he preferred the monastic life and entered a Cistercian house at Rievaulx in 1131 becoming the abbot at Revesby in 1143 and recalled in 1147 to take up the same position at Rievaulx. He made various evangelical journeys including one among the Picts of Galloway in 1164 and became known as the English St Bernard. CRUSADES The Second Crusade was called by Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1128] as a response to Jerusalem being threatened by the Muslims and after the fall of the county of Edessa founded by Baldwin of Boulogne in 1098, one of the states that had been created under the First Crusade [see 1095]. The crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III [see 1145] and was this time led by two kings, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. They were defeated by the Seljuk Turks with the final battle being at Damascus. The only victory of the second crusade was from a group sailing on the way to the Holy Land who helped the Portuguese take Lisbon and expel the Moors [see 1095 and 1189]. NICHOLAS IV Muzalon Patriarch of Constantinople [1147-1151] succeeded Cosmas II [see 1146]. There is no additional information readily available. 1148GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM [1083-1189] Founder of the Gilbertine Order. He was the son of a Norman knight who had come to England with William the Conqueror. Gilbert as parish priest encouraged seven women to adopt the Cistercian Rule and with the support of the king and many nobles formed a number of houses which, however, the authorities refused in 1148 to incorporate. Accordingly he arranged for them to be supervised by Augustinian Canons, and thus was born the curious mixed Gilbertian communities, the only purely English order. There were nine houses at the time of Gilberts death, and 25 at the Dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII. MALACHY [1094-1148] Archbishop of Armagh who was a zealous reformer. The son of a clergyman he was educated at Armagh and Lismore before becoming successively abbot at Bangor, bishop of Connor, and archbishop of Armagh. Malachy, with four Irish clergy, visited Bernard of Clairvaux [see 1128] and studied the monastic system with the result that a Cistercian abbey, the first in Ireland, was established in County Louth in 1142. He wanted to bring the Celtic Church under the supervision of Rome and with this in view he summoned a synod to Inishpatrick in 1148. He died on his way to Rome as a delegate and to receive the pallium from the pope. He is also the person involved with the St Malachy predictions regarding the line of popes. 1149VICELIN [c.1090-1154] Missionary bishop and Apostle to the Wends. In 1126 he was ordained and sent by Bishop Adalbero of Bremen as a missionary to the Wends. He had little success because of the warfare between pagan and neighbouring Christian princes. After several disappointments he founded a monastery of Augustinian Canons [see 1050] at Neumunster in Holstein [1141] on the border between Germany and Wends. The devastation of Wendish lands by the people of Holstein in 1147 swept away the result of many years labour and destroyed any possibility of a peaceful conversion of the Wends. Vicelin was consecrated bishop of Oldenburg beyond the German frontier in 1149 but died at Neumunster two years after he became completely paralysed. 1150 1151-1160 AD 1151THEODOTUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1151-1153] succeeded Nicholas IV [see 1147]. There is no additional information readily available. 1152FREDERICK I [Barbarossa] [c.1122-1190] German king and Roman emperor. Nephew of the weak Conrad III, he was elected king in 1152. His father was German while his mother was a Guelph and he was able to mediate between the two groups. Frederick issued a proclamation of peace in Germany in 1152 and built up an efficient royal government based on non-noble ministers. He gained control over the German church and enlarged his own family domains. He invaded Italy in 1154-55 and repressed the Lombards. He became allied with Pope Adrian IV and was crowned emperor. The alliance collapsed at the diet of Besancon in 1157 when Frederick firmly rejected the concept of papal feudal overlordship. In his four subsequent Italian campaigns he had limited success. Pope Alexander III turned against him and Frederick supported an anti-pope until his defeat at the battle of Legnano by the Lombard league and the pope in 1176. After the Peace of Constance in 1183 when the Lombard communes recognised his overlordship (but were granted self-government), Frederick arranged a marriage alliance with the kingdom of Sicily depriving the papacy of allies from that quarter, and he exploited legal technicalities to diminish Guelph power in Germany, then to eliminate his Saxon rival he used the hostility of Henry the Lions many enemies. Frederick died at the pinnacle of his success while taking part in the Third Crusade. KELLS, SYNOD OF Held in 1152 the synod made Armagh the primal see of Ireland. Armagh as a Christian centre was founded by Patrick [see 461] in the fifth century. It is the ecclesiastical centre of Ireland in the sense that it is the seat of the primates of both the Church of Ireland and Roman Catholics. Up to the early years of the 12th century Armagh maintained the independence of the Celtic Church from the Roman and English churches. 1153ANASTASIUS IV Pope [1153-1154]. He was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Roman and was created a cardinal-priest by Pope Paschal II. At the time of his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_election,_1153" \o "Papal election, 1153" election to the papacy in July 1153 he was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_of_the_College_of_Cardinals" \o "Dean of the College of Cardinals" dean of the College of Cardinals and probably the oldest member of that body. During his short pontificate he played the part of a peacemaker; he came to terms with the emperor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor" Frederick I, in the question of the appointment to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Magdeburg" \o "Archbishopric of Magdeburg" see of Magdeburg and closed the long quarrel, which had raged through four pontificates, about the appointment of William Fitzherbert, commonly known as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_William_of_York" \o "Saint William of York" St William of York, to the see of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York" \o "York" York, by sending him the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallium" \o "Pallium" pallium, in spite of the continued opposition of the powerful HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistercian" \o "Cistercian" Cistercian order. He succeeded Eugene III [see 1145] and was succeeded by Adrian IV [see 1154]. NEOPHYTUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1153] succeeded Theodotus II [see 1151]. There is no additional information readily available on him. 1154ADRIAN IV Pope [1154-1159]. He was pope from 3 December 1154 to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_1" \o "September 1" 1 September 1159, and the only HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" Englishman who has occupied the papal chair. His father was Robert who later became a monk at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_Abbey" \o "St Albans Abbey" St Albans. He went to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" \o "Paris" Paris and became abbot of St. Rufus monastery near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arles" \o "Arles" Arles where his reforming zeal led to the lodging of complaints against him at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome; but these merely attracted to him the favourable attention of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_III" \o "Pope Eugene III" Pope Eugene III (11451153), who created him HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Cardinal" \o "Catholic Cardinal" cardinal HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Albano" \o "Bishop of Albano" bishop of Albano in December 1149. From 1152 to 1154 Nicholas was in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia" \o "Scandinavia" Scandinavia as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_legate" \o "Papal legate" papal legate. On his return Nicholas was received with great honour by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Anastasius_IV" \o "Pope Anastasius IV" Pope Anastasius IV (11531154). On the death of Anastasius, Nicholas was elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope" \o "Pope" pope. In 1155, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor" \o "Byzantine Emperor" Byzantine emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Comnenus" \o "Manuel Comnenus" Manuel Comnenus invaded HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy from the south, landing his forces in the region of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apulia" \o "Apulia" Apulia. This was welcomed by Adrian as the papacy had not had a good relationship with the Normans of Sicily. There was talk of a reunion of the eastern and western church but Adrian required that Rome would be the ruler. After problems with the leadership of the Byzantines, Sicily won the war at the battle of Brindisi. Adrian is reputed to have granted overlordship of Ireland to Henry II of England. At the time of his death he was in conflict with Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor" Barbarossa and was about to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunicate the emperor when he died at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagni" \o "Anagni" Anagni on 1 September, 1159, reputedly choking on a fly in his wine, but most probably of a complication of a throat complaint. He succeeded Anastasius IV [see 1153] and was succeeded by Alexander III [see 1159]. CONSTANTINE IV [1154-1156] Patriarch of Constantinople succeeded Neophytus [see 1153] There is no additional information readily available. 1155JOHN IX Patriarch of Antioch [1155-1159] see also 1090 and 1159 1156HONORIUS OF AUTUN [1090-1156] Monk and writer. Describing himself as a priest and teacher he was a well-known writer with over 500 of his manuscripts having survived. Although a monk with solitary inclinations, he showed a lifelong interest in the outside world. He wrote books on liberal education, he defended the right of ordained monks to preach and to exercise sacramental functions. He also dealt with astronomy, geography, history, and astrology. He was a Christian Platonist and a great admirer of John the Scot. JOHN IX Patriarch of Jerusalem [1156-1166] see 1106 and 1166. LUKE Chrysoberges Patriarch of Constantinople [1156-1169] succeeded Constantine IV [see 1154]. There is no additional information readily available. 1157 1158 1159ALEXANDER III Pope [1159-1181] was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siena" \o "Siena" Siena. In 1153, he became papal HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor" \o "Chancellor" chancellor, and was the leader of the cardinals opposed to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I_Barbarossa" \o "Frederick I Barbarossa" Frederick I Barbarossa (11521190). He negotiated the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Benevento" \o "Treaty of Benevento" Treaty of Benevento, restoring peaceful relations between Rome and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" \o "Kingdom of Sicily" Kingdom of Sicily. On September 7, 1159, he was chosen the successor of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Adrian_IV" \o "Pope Adrian IV" Pope Adrian IV (11541159). However a minority of the cardinals elected the cardinal priest Octavian, who assumed the name of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Victor_IV_(1159-1164)" \o "Antipope Victor IV (1159-1164)" Victor IV (11591164). This HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope, and his successors HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Paschal_III" \o "Antipope Paschal III" antipope Paschal III (116468) and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Calixtus_III" \o "Antipope Calixtus III" antipope Calixtus III (11681178), had the imperial support; but after the defeat of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Legnano" \o "Battle of Legnano" Legnano (1176), Barbarossa finally (in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Venice" \o "Peace of Venice" Peace of Venice 1177) recognised Alexander III as pope. Apart from Barbarossa, he humbled HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" \o "Henry II of England" Henry II of England concerning the murder of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Becket" \o "Thomas Becket" Thomas Becket in 1170 but in 1172 confirmed the position of Henry as Lord of Ireland. On March 12, 1178, Alexander III returned to Rome, which he had been compelled to leave twice: the first time from 1162, when he was sent into a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campania" \o "Campania" Campanian exile by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddone_Frangipane" \o "Oddone Frangipane" Oddone Frangipane following his brief arrest and detainment, until November 23, 1165; and again in 1167. The first period he spent in France, the latter in Italy. Alexander III was the first pope known to have to paid direct attention to missionary activities east of the Baltic Sea. In 1165, his close friend, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskil_of_Lund" \o "Eskil of Lund" Eskil, the archbishop of Lund, appointed a Benedictine monk HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_Fulco" \o "Bishop Fulco" Fulco as a bishop in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia" \o "Estonia" Estonia. In 1171, he became the first pope to address the situation of the Church in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland" \o "Finland" Finland, with Finns harassing the priests and only relying on God at the time of war. In March 1179, Alexander III held the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" \o "Third Council of the Lateran" Third Council of the Lateran where it was agreed that no one may be elected pope without the votes of two-thirds of the cardinals, a rule only slightly altered in 1996 which allowed a simple majority vote after thirty indecisive ballots. Soon after the close of the synod the Roman republic forced Alexander III to leave Rome which he never re-entered; and on September 29, 1179, some nobles set up the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Innocent_III" \o "Antipope Innocent III" antipope Innocent III (11791180). By the judicious use of money, however, Alexander III got him into his power, so that he was deposed in January, 1180. In 1181, Alexander III HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunicated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_Scotland" \o "William I of Scotland" William I of Scotland and put the kingdom under an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdict_(Roman_Catholic_Church)" \o "Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)" interdict. He died on August 30, 1181. He succeeded Adrian IV [see 1154] and was succeeded by Lucius III [see 1181]. EUTHYMIUS I Patriarch of Antioch [1159-1164] see also 1155 and 1164. HUMILIATI An order of penitents, probably founded by Johannes Oldratus who died in 1159, which was partially suppressed in the 16th century. Following the Benedictine Rule they cared for the poor and mortified their bodies. The order had three types of members, those who lived an ascetic life in their own homes, those who were nuns, and those who were monks. During the late Middle Ages its discipline and devotion deteriorated and when Charles Borromeo [see 1576], who had sought to reform the order, was assaulted in 1571 by one of the monks, the pope suppressed the monasteries but allowed the nuns to continue. PETER LOMBARD [c.1095-1169] Known as the Master of the Sentences he was educated at Bologna and went to Paris where he wrote commentaries on the Psalms and became canon at Notre Dame. In 1159 he was elected bishop of Paris. His fame rests chiefly on his Book of Sentences finished in 1157 which is basically a compilation with numerous citations to the Church Fathers and to near contemporaries such as Anselm of Laon [see 1076], Peter Abelard [see 1122], Hugh of St Victor [see 1120], and Gratian. Lombards great achievement was in organising these materials into a sound, brief, objective summary of doctrine. His work was introduced into theological courses in 1222 by Alexander of Hales [see 1236] as a standard text and was used to the 17th century as a portion of the doctorate degree. After this time it was superseded by the works of Thomas Aquinas [see 1265]. Efforts to have his work condemned were unsuccessful and at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 they were acknowledged as orthodox. VICTOR IV Antipope (1159-1164). He was opposed to Pope Alexander III and was the second of two antipopes with the same title. He was Cardinal Octavianus and elected as an antipope in 1159 following the death ofPope Adrian IV and the election ofAlexander III. His election was supported by the Emperor Barbarossa. He was described byJohn of Salisburyas eloquent and refined, but petty and parsimonious. He died at Lucca on20 April1164. 1160 1161-1170 AD 1161 1162BECKET, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [11621170]. Thomas Becket was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheapside" \o "Cheapside" Cheapside, London. Becket received a brilliant education in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" \o "Civil law (common law)" civil and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law" \o "Canon law" canon law at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton_Priory" \o "Merton Priory" Merton Priory in England, and then overseas at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" \o "Paris" Paris, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna" \o "Bologna" Bologna, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxerre" \o "Auxerre" Auxerre. Upon returning to England he attracted the notice of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theobald_of_Bec" \o "Theobald of Bec" Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, who entrusted him with several important missions to Rome and finally made him archdeacon of Canterbury. He so distinguished himself by his zeal and efficiency that Theobald recommended him to King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" \o "Henry II of England" Henry II when the important office of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" \o "Lord Chancellor" Lord Chancellor was vacant. Henry desired to be absolute ruler of his dominions, both Church and State, and could find precedents in the traditions of the throne when he planned to do away with the special privileges of the English clergy, which he regarded as fetters on his authority. As chancellor, Becket enforced the kings traditional medieval land tax that was exacted from all landowners, including churches and bishoprics. This created both a hardship and a resentment of Becket among the English churchmen. To further implicate Becket as a secular man, he became an accomplished and extravagant HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtier" \o "Courtier" courtierand a cheerful companion to the kings pleasures. Thomas was devoted to Henrys interests with such a firm and yet diplomatic thoroughness that scarcely anyone, except perhaps HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Salisbury" \o "John of Salisbury" John of Salisbury, doubted his allegiance to English royalty. King Henry even sent his son HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_the_Young_King" \o "Henry the Young King" Henryto live in Beckets household, it being the custom then for noble children to be fostered out to other noble houses. The younger Henry was reported to have said Becket showed him more fatherly love in a day than his father did for his entire life. An emotional attachment to Becket as a foster-father may have been one of the reasons the younger Henry would turn against his father. He became a friend and confidant of Henry II who appointed him as archbishop. On assumption of power Thomas adopted a pious lifestyle which separated him from Henry. Arguing over the trials of priests Henry issued the constitution of Claredon stating that the king and not the pope had authority over the English Church. He achieved his final position of power as the archbishop of Canterbury in 1162, several months after the death of Theobald. Henry intended to further his influence by directing the actions of Thomas, his loyal appointee, and diminish the independence and influence of the Church in England. The famous transformation of Becket into an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascetic" \o "Ascetic" ascetic occurred at this time. A rift grew between Henry and Thomas as the new archbishop dropped his chancellorship and consolidated the landed revenues of Canterbury under his control. So began a series of legal conflicts, such as the jurisdiction of secular courts over English clergy, which accelerated antipathy between the two great offices. Attempts by King Henry to transform the opinion and influence of the other bishops against Thomas began in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" \o "Westminster Abbey" Westminsterin October 1163, where the king sought approval of stated royal privileges. This led to Clarendon, where Thomas was officially asked to sign off on the kings rights or face political repercussions. Henry II presided over the assemblies at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarendon_Palace" \o "Clarendon Palace" Clarendon Palace on 30 January 1164. In sixteen constitutions, he sought less clerical independence and a weaker connection with Rome. He employed all his skills to induce their consent and was apparently successful with all but Thomas. Finally even Becket expressed his willingness to agree to the substance of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutions_of_Clarendon" \o "Constitutions of Clarendon" Constitutions of Clarendon, but he still refused to formally sign the documents. This meant war between the two powers. Henry summoned Becket to appear before a great council at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northampton_Castle" \o "Northampton Castle" Northampton Castle on 8 October 1164, to answer allegations of contempt of royal authority. Convicted on the charges, Becket stormed out of the trial and fled to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Europe" \o "Continental Europe" the Continent. Henry pursued the fugitive archbishop with a series of edicts, aimed at all his friends and supporters as well as Becket himself; but HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" \o "Louis VII of France" Louis VII of Francereceived him with respect and offered him protection. He spent nearly two years in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistercian" \o "Cistercian" Cistercianabbey of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontigny_Abbey" \o "Pontigny Abbey" Pontigny, until Henrys threats against the order obliged him to move again. Becket sought to exercise the prerogatives of the Church, particularly the weapons of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunication and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdict_(Roman_Catholic_Church)" \o "Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)" interdict. But HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_III" \o "Pope Alexander III" Pope Alexander III, though sympathising with him in theory, favoured a more diplomatic approach. Differences thus arose between pope and archbishop, and legates were sent in 1167 with authority to act as arbitrators. Beckets firmness seemed about to meet with its reward when in 1170 the pope was on the point of fulfilling his threats and excommunicating Henry II. At that point Henry, alarmed by the prospect, held out hopes of an agreement that would allow Thomas to return to England and resume his place. In June 1170, the archbishop of York and the bishops of London and Salisbury held the coronation of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_the_Young_King" \o "Henry the Young King" Henry the Young King in York. This was a breach of Canterburys privilege of coronation. In November 1170, Becket excommunicated all three. While the three bishops fled to the king in Normandy, Becket continued to excommunicate his opponents in the church. Soon word of this reached Henry who became very angry. Four knights were sent out to inform Becket that he was to go to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchester" \o "Winchester" Winchester to give an account of his actions, but Becket refused. It was not until Becket refused their demands to submit to the kings will that they retrieved their weapons and rushed back inside for the killing. Becket, meanwhile, proceeded to the main hall for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespers" \o "Vespers" vespers. The four knights, carrying naked swords, caught up with him in a spot near a door to the monastic cloister, the stairs into the crypt, and the stairs leading up into thechoirof the cathedral, where the monks were chanting vespers. Here he was killed. As a result Henry had to do penance at Avranches France in 1172. He succeeded Theobold of Bec [see 1139] and was succeeded by Roger de Bailleul [see 1173]. RICHARD OF ST VICTOR [d.1173] Scottish scholar and mystic who at an early age entered the abbey of St Victor in Paris becoming its superior in 1159 and prior in 1162. Learned in Scripture and the Latin Fathers and given to theological questions and contemporary problems, like his esteemed master Hugh of St Victor [see 1120] he possessed great grammatical, linguistic and rational ability. He shared more with Augustine and Anselm of Canterbury than with Abelard and Peter Lombard. Richard understood and practised contemplation breaking it down into six stages with each stage corresponding to the progressive categories of knowledge. 1163INQUISITION, THE The Inquisition was a special tribunal established by the mediaeval church for the purpose of combating heresy. In the Middle Ages the growing threat of radical groups, particularly the Cathari lead to the acceptance by the Church of the use of secular authority, physical penalties, and of inquisitorial methods as means for their suppression. Alexander III at the Council of Tours in 1163 urged secular princes to prosecute heretics, to imprison them, and to confiscate their property. It was Gregory IX however who through a series of actions from 1231 to 1235 imposed on such activities a formal organisation and set of procedures whereby the apprehension and trial of heretics was reserved to the church and the major responsibility for such work was given to the papal inquisitors. He is therefore often credited with having established the Inquisition. In 1478 the Spanish Inquisition was authorised by Sixtus IV. It followed procedures similar to those described. Dominicans and Franciscans were most often chosen as papal inquisitors. Assisted by numerous aides, the inquisitor would begin his work in the town by calling the clergy and people to a solemn assembly at which those who knew themselves to be guilty of heretical views were urged to confess within a period of grace required ranging between two and six weeks. Those who did so were normally given light penalties. After that people were summoned to the tribunal for interrogation, the suspect who was not allowed legal defence, but could have a councillor, was encouraged to confess his errors, and towards this end Innocent IV in 1252 allowed the use of torture. When confessions were not forthcoming the testimony of two witnesses, if it could not be refuted, were considered sufficient for conviction. Those who would not recant were considered obdurate heretics for which the punishment was death. If he was so judged he would be transferred to the secular authorities for burning as the church did not participate officially in the shedding of blood. Milder punishments included imprisonment, confiscation of property, wearing a yellow cross, fasting, almsgiving, flagellation and pilgrimage. ROBERT OF MELUN [d.1167] English scholar and bishop who was the successor of Abelard [see 1122] at St Genevieve. Robert taught John of Salisbury [see 1176] and Thomas Becket [see 1162] at Melun and may have held the chair of theology at St Victor. After teaching in France for 40 years he was summoned home about 1160 by Thomas Becket who hoped for his support and was consecrated bishop of Hereford in 1163. Robert at first cast his weight on Henry IIs side and tried to moderate Beckets rigidity and he also deterred Henry from any violence against the archbishop and was one of the mediators sent by Becket to request the kings permission to leave England. Robert later turned to Beckets side and was intending to join him on the continent but was prevented from doing so by the king and he died soon afterwards. In all his writings Robert exhibited a sturdy intellectual independence. 1164CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON which were articles laid down by Henry II of England at a council called at the hunting lodge near Salisbury involving relations between state and the church. It however included regulations designed to reduce the power of the church in relation to the Crown. After initial opposition the bishops led by Thomas Becket [see1162] gave way but Becket later rescinded his agreement and fled to France. MACARIUS Patriarch of Antioch [1164-1166] see also 1159 and 1166. PASCHAL III Antipope (1164-1168) who was opposed to Pope Alexander III. Paschal III was the second of the antipopes to challenge the reign of Pope Alexander III. In 1164 a small number of cardinals who had elected Victor IV met again to vote Paschal III as his successor. He was established at Viterbo and successfully prevented the legitimate pontiff from reaching Rome. In order to gain more support from Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Paschal canonised Charlemagne in 1165. The Roman Catholic Church has never recognised this canonisation. In 1179, the Third Council of the Lateran annulled all of his ordinances. 1165 1166ATHANASIUS I Patriarch of Antioch [1166-1180] see also 1164 and 1180. MARKOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1166-1189] see 1146 and 1189. Before becoming Patriarch, Mark wrote the entries of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Patriarchs_of_Alexandria" \o "History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria" History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria that cover the years 1131 and following. NIKIPHOROS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1166-1170] see 1156 and 1170. 1167 1168CALIXTUS III Antipope [11681178] who was opposed to Pope Alexander III. He was a strong and early supporter of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa" \o "Frederick Barbarossa" Frederick Barbarossa, and also supported HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Victor_IV_(1159%E2%80%931164)" \o "Antipope Victor IV (11591164)" Antipope Victor IV, who made him a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinal- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Albano" \o "Bishop of Albano" bishop of Albano. He was named successor to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Paschal_III" \o "Antipope Paschal III" Antipope Paschal III by a small number of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schism_(religion)" \o "Schism (religion)" schismatic cardinals. Calixtus was primarily a bargaining chip of Frederick to pressure HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_III" \o "Pope Alexander III" Alexander III, and he had only limited geographical support. Frederick, when it became politically expedient, after the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Legnano" \o "Battle of Legnano" defeat of Legnano, switched his backing to Alexander, in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1177" \o "1177" 1177 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Venice" \o "Peace of Venice" Peace of Venice, Calixtus III eventually accepted the situation, submitting to Alexander in August 1178. After this he was named rector of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benevento" \o "Benevento" Benevento, where he died a few years later. 1169CRUTCHED FRIARS Founded by Gerrard, prior of St Mary of Morello Bologna and confirmed by Pope Alexander III [see 1159] who brought the group into the Augustinian Rule. Initially they carried a cross attached to their staff and were called Crossed Friars. They appeared in England in 1244 and were suppressed by Pope Alexander VII [see 1655] in 1656. PETER COMESTOR [c.1100-1180] Scholar, exegete and historian hence known as Peter the eater of books. He belonged to the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris and became chancellor of the cathedral school and teacher of theology from 1164. His writings include 150 sermons, commentaries on the Gospels, Romans, First and Second Corinthians, and in 1169 he started a Bible history, which earned him the title Master of histories and was popular for several centuries. 1170LEONTIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1170-1190] see 1166 and 1190. Jerusalem fell to Saladin in 1187. MICHAEL III of Anchialus Patriarch of Constantinople [1170-1177] succeeded Luke [see 1156]. There is no additional information readily available. 1171-1180 AD 1171CASHEL, SYNOD OF A meeting of Irish bishops with a representative of Henry II of England to reform the Irish Church. The archbishop of Armagh was recognised as the primate of Ireland directly responsible to the pope but all native liturgies were replaced by that of the Church of England indicating the latter dominance. It dealt with such matters as the collection of tithes, the paying of Peters Pence [see 787] to Rome as well as the regulations of marriages and baptisms ELIAS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1171-1175] see 1100 and 1175. 1172IRELAND [see also 431 and 1642] The Danish invasions ravaged Ireland for more than three centuries before their defeat by Brian Boru at Clontarf in 1014. Though the conquest by the Anglo Normans was never complete the Popes recognition of the sovereignty of Henry II in 1172 was the death knell of the independent Celtic Church, and the dividing of the church into a majority section which accepted oversight from Rome and a minority section which was largely the church of the ruling classes and continued as the Church of Ireland. 1173ROGER DE BAILLEUL Archbishop of Canterbury [1173]. He was archbishop of Canterbury-elect. He was the abbot of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bec_Abbey" \o "Bec Abbey" Bec Abbey when he was elected archbishop by the cathedral chapter of Canterbury after the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Becket" \o "Thomas Becket" Thomas Becket. He declined the election. He was absolved from the election on 5 April 1173. He succeeded Thomas Becket [see 1162] and was succeeded by Richard of Dover [see 1174]. 1174RICHARD OF DOVER Archbishop of Canterbury [1174-1184]. He was a Benedictine monk who was employed by Thomas Becketimmediately before Beckets death. Much of Richards time as archbishop was spent in a dispute with Roger, archbishop of York over the primacy of England, and with St Augustines abbey in Canterbury over the archbishops jurisdiction over the abbey. Richard enjoyed better relations with King Henry II of England than Becket had, and was employed by the king on diplomatic affairs. He attended the royal councils, and more than once was with the king in Normandy. As part of his diplomatic efforts on the kings behalf, Richard escorted Henrys daughter Joan to Provence on her journey in 1176 to marry King William II of Sicily. He also spent part of 1177 in Flanders on diplomatic business for King Henry. Richard was less dogmatic on the rights of the clergy than his great predecessor had been; but his compromises were regarded by the monastic writers and the followers of Becket as a sign of weakness. Richard also enjoyed the trust of the papacy, and served as a judge for the papacy. Richard attractedcanon lawyersto his household, includingGerard la Pucelle,Peter of Blois, and Henry Pium of Northampton, all of whom advised him on legal matters. At theCouncil of Westminsterthat Richard convened in May 1175, nineteencanonswere put forth, dealing with clerical marriage, the oversupply of ordained clergy, the behaviour of the clergy and their dress andtonsure, and simony. Another canon dealt with clandestine marriages and regulated child marriages. He was also heavily involved with trying judicial cases, both in the actual judgement as well as in the execution of judgements made by others. Four of his questions to Pope Alexander III entered theDecretalsand the other collections of canon law of the 13th century. His patronage of canon lawyers did much to advance the study of canon law in England. Richard died at Halling, Kent on 16th February 1184 of colic. He succeeded Roger De Bailleul [see 1173] and was succeeded by Baldwin of Exeter [see 1184]. 1175ELEUTHERIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1175-1180] see1171 and 1180. GERALD DE BARRI [1147-1223] Archdeacon of Brecon. Born of the Welsh royal family he studied and lectured in Paris before becoming archdeacon in 1175 after which he went again to Paris to read theology, civil and canon law, and was made royal chaplain in 1184. He preached the third Crusade in Wales in 1188. He made expeditions to Ireland, accompanying Henry IIs son John. In 1189 he retired to pray and study at Lincoln. WILLIAM OF TYRE [c.1130-1185] Archbishop of Tyre who was born in Jerusalem of a European merchant family. He went to Europe around 1145 where for twenty years he pursued studies in arts and theology in France and civil and canon law at Bologna. Peter Lombard [see 1159] was among his teachers. After ordination he returned to Palestine in 1165. Diplomatic missions took him to Constantinople and Rome in 1168 and 69, and one year later he was appointed tutor to Baldwin, son of the king of Jerusalem. From 1170 he wrote a history of the Crusades. William was fluent in Latin, Greek, French, and Arabic, and became chancellor of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1174 and was consecrated archbishop of Tyre in 1175. He led the Jerusalem delegation to the Third Lateran Council of 1179, but failed to procure the patriarchate of Jerusalem in 1183. 1176BENEFIT OF CLERGY Legislation introduced for monks and nuns in England as a result of Thomas Beckets murder. Edward III [13271377] included certain lay first offenders who could read Psalm 51:1. It became open to abuse but it was not until 1827 that the privilege was abolished. JOHN OF SALISBURY [c.1115-1180] Mediaeval philosopher and classical scholar. He studied under Peter Abelard [see 1122] at Paris and Chatres. He became papal clerk and was employed on various missions. In 1153 he returned to England to become chief minister and secretary to Theobald and Thomas Becket, archbishops of Canterbury. He supported Becket against Henry II and was present at the archbishops death in 1170. He became bishop of Chatres in 1176. He was a notable man of letters and his latter works demonstrate his acquaintance with Aristotles logical writings. 1177CHARITON HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1177-1178] succeeded Michael III [see 1170]. There is no additional information readily available. 1178ABSALON [11281201] Bishop of Lund [11781201] introduced western religious customs such as clerical celibacy and monasticism into Denmark. In fortifying his diocese against the invasion of the Slavs he built a castle-keep at Havn which became the nucleus of the city of Copenhagen. He supported the arts encouraging Saxo Grammaticus to write the history of Denmark. 1179HILDEGARD [1098-1179] German abbess, mystic, and writer, who became the leader of a convent near Bingen. She experienced visions with increasing frequency as she grew older. A monk was assigned to her to act as a secretary. Pope Eugene III [see 1145] investigated her activities giving her a favourable report. Her principal work is an account of 26 visions. She also wrote an account of the lives of various saints as well as other material. INNOCENT III Antipope [1179-1180] who was opposed to Pope Alexander III. Innocent III came from a noble Lombard family. Opponents ofPope Alexander IIItried to make Innocent pope in September 1179. Alexander however bribed his partisans to give him up, and imprisoned him in the cloister of La Cavain January 1180. LATERAN COUNCIL 3 [see also 1138 and 1215] This also marked the end of a schism and met on the request of Alexander III to confirm the agreement made in Venice in 1177 regarding Frederick Barbarossa. Alexander III was the first great canonist pope of the period of the revived study of law and issued a series of important decisions. Firstly, that it required a two thirds majority of the cardinals for a papal election, and secondly, a majority was also required for decisions in ecclesiastical communities. It also set up cathedral schools with free instruction, attacked simony, pluralism, and clerical vices. There were sanctions against certain groups such as the Jews and Saracens. THEODOSIUS I Boradiotes Patriarch of Constantinople [1179-1183] succeeded Chariton [see 1177]. There is no additional information readily available. 1180MARK III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1180-1209) see 1175 and 1210. He posed 66 questions to Patriarch Theodoros Balsamon of Antioch (1186-1203). During his tenure as Patriarch the most appalling famine broke out in Egypt , due to the waters of the Nile not rising THEODOSIUS III Patriarch of Antioch [1180-1182] see also 1166 and 1182. WALTER OF ST VICTOR [d. c.1180] He was prior of the canons regular of St Augustine at St Victor in Paris. The house was founded between 1108 and 1110 by William of Champeaux [see 1113], teacher of Peter Abelard and officially accepted in 1130. It swiftly began to be home of a series of distinguished theologians, mystics, and biblical commentators. Walter wrote a publication called Against the Four Labyrinths of France which attacked Peter Abelard [see 1122], Peter Lombard [see 1159], Peter of Poitiers, and Gilbert de la Porree, describing their theology as a danger to the church. 1181-1190 AD 1181HISPANA CANONS These were the lengthiest and most significant of several critical revisions of early council and papal decisions. The material from sixty six Eastern, African, French, and Spanish councils is arranged geographically and chronologically. Papal decrees that extend from the reigns of Damasus I who died in 384 to Gregory I [d.604]. After the papacy of Alexander III [d.1181] it was recognised as the official body of Spanish canon law. LUCIUS III Pope [1181-1185]. He was made a cardinal bishop of Ostia in 1158 and became dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals and one of the most influential cardinals underPope Alexander III(11591181). After being elected pope, he lived atRome from November 1181 to March 1182, but dissensions in the city compelled him to pass the remainder of his pontificate in exile. He disputed with the Emperor Frederick I (11521190) over the disposal of the territories of the late Countess Matilda of Tuscany. The controversy over the succession to the inheritance of the Countess had been left unsettled by the peace of 1177, and the Emperor proposed in 1182 that the curia should renounce its claim, receiving in exchange two-tenths of the imperial income from Italy, one-tenth for the pope and the other tenth for the cardinals. Lucius consented neither to this proposition nor to another compromise suggested by Frederick I the next year; nor did a personal discussion between the two potentates at Verona in October 1184 lead to any definite result. In the meantime other causes of disagreement appeared in the popes refusal to comply with Frederick Is wishes as to the regulation of German Episcopal elections which had taken place during the schism, and especially as to the contested election to the see of Treves in 1183. He also declined in 1185 to crown Henry VI (11901197) as Frederick Is destined successor, and the breach between the empire and the curia became wider. In November 1184 he held a synod at Verona which condemned the Cathars, Paterines, Waldensians and Arnoldists, and anathematised all those declared as heretics and their abettors. Contrary to what is often said, he did not institute the Inquisition, which was not created until the reign of Pope Gregory IX in 1234. In 1185 preparations began for the Third Crusade in answer to the appeals of Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (11741185) but before they were completed, Lucius died in Verona. He succeeded Alexander III [see 1159] and was succeeded by Urban III [see 1185]. 1182ELIAS III Patriarch of Antioch [1182-1184] see also 1180 and 1184. 1183BASIL II Patriarch of Constantinople [1183-1186] succeeded Theodosius I [see 1179]. There is no readily available information. 1184ALAIN OF LILLE [11251203] French theologian and rationalist who wrote Contra Haereticos against the Waldensians and Jews, and Anticlaudianos which inspired Dante and Chaucer. He was sometimes known as Doctor Universalis because of his vast learning. He took part in the third Lateran Council [see 1179] and eventually entered a monastery at Citeaux. BALDWIN OF EXETER Archbishop of Canterbury [1184-1190]. Son of a clergyman, he studied both HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law" \o "Canon law" canon law and theology at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna" \o "Bologna" Bologna and was tutor to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_III" \o "Pope Eugene III" Pope Eugenius IIIs nephew before returning to England to serve successive HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Exeter" \o "Bishop of Exeter" bishops of Exeter. After becoming a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistercians" \o "Cistercians" Cistercian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk, he was named abbot of his monastery before being elected to the episcopate at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester" \o "Worcester" Worcester. Before becoming a bishop, he wrote theological works and sermons, some of which survive. He impressed King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" \o "Henry II of England" Henry II of England while bishop, and the king insisted that Baldwin become archbishop. While archbishop, Baldwin quarrelled with his cathedral clergy over the founding of a church, which led to the imprisonment of the clergy in their cloister for over a year. After studying law, he often acted as a judge-delegate for the papacy, hearing cases that had reached the Roman curia and been remanded back to local experts for decision. Baldwin impressed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" \o "Henry II of England" King Henry II with his pious intervention in a secular case, in order to prevent a hanging on a Sunday. He also spent some time in Wales with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_of_Wales" \o "Gerald of Wales" Gerald of Wales, preaching and raising money for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Crusade" \o "Third Crusade" Third Crusade. After the coronation of King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" \o "Richard I of England" Richard the Lionheart of England, Baldwin was sent ahead by the king to the Holy Land, and became embroiled in the politics of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Baldwin died in the Holy Land while participating in the Crusade. His dispute with his clergy led some chroniclers to characterise him as worse for Christianity than HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin" \o "Saladin" Saladin. Baldwin was translated from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Worcester" \o "Anglican Diocese of Worcester" see of Worcester to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" see of Canterbury in December of 1184 after Henry II let it be known that he would only accept Baldwin at Canterbury. The monks had put forth three candidates from within HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" \o "Canterbury Cathedral" Christ Church Prioryat the time of Baldwins transfer. During his time as archbishop there was a dispute with the monks of Christ Church Priory in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury" \o "Canterbury" Canterbury, who resented Baldwins attempts to impose stricter control over them, and who disputed the legitimacy of Baldwins election. For his part, Baldwin did not approve of the luxurious and pampered life that the monks of Christ Church lived and felt that they profited too much from the cult of Saint HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Becket" \o "Thomas Becket" Thomas Becket. The controversy was long and involved and, at one point, the monks were imprisoned within their own buildings for a year and a half, from January 1188 to August of 1189. This lead to the suspension of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgy" \o "Liturgy" liturgyin the cathedral. Eventually all the prominent ecclesiastics and monastic houses of Europe were forced into choosing sides in the dispute. In 1188 King Henry II of England called for a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tithe" \o "Tithe" titheto support a new HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades" \o "Crusades" crusade, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Crusade" \o "Third Crusade" the Third, following the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1187)" \o "Siege of Jerusalem (1187)" fall of Jerusalemto HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin" \o "Saladin" Saladinin 1187. The tithe was proclaimed in Henrys French holdings in 1184 (in French records it was called the Dime meaning 1/10th). The tithe was later ascribed to Richard I, who became notorious for his pre-Crusade fundraising (including his remark about selling London to the highest bidder) although the amount collected (about 1 denarius per adult person) was far outstripped by forced contributions from the Jewish population in England. It was popularly known as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin_tithe" \o "Saladin tithe" Saladin tithe and was the most extensive tax ever collected in England up to that point. Due to the fact that it was a tithe rather than a secular tax, it was collected by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese" \o "Diocese" diocesesrather than by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire" \o "Shire" shires, and Baldwin was especially blamed for its harshness. Baldwin crowned Richard at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" \o "Westminster Abbey" Westminster Abbey on 13th September 1189, which is the first English coronation for which a detailed description survives. In April of 1190 Baldwin accompanied King Richard I of England on crusade. In June of 1190 he arrived at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre,_Israel" \o "Acre, Israel" Acre, at the head of the English forces and died in Palestine in 1190 saddened by the conduct of the Christian armies. He succeeded Richard of Dover [see 1174] and was succeeded by Reginald FitzJocelin [see 1191]. CHRISTOPHER II Patriarch of Antioch [1184-1185] see also 1182 and 1185. 1185SICARD [1160-1215] Bishop of Cremona who studied at Bologna and taught canon law and theology at Paris before teaching in the cathedral school of Mainz and becoming bishop of Cremona in 1185. He won the citys independence from Frederick I, defended it against Brescia and Milan and planned its fortifications. His chief works included a history from creation published in 1213. THEODORE IV Patriarch of Antioch [1185-1199] see also 1184 and 1199. The Patriarchate was in exile in Constantinople. URBAN III Pope [1185-1187]. He was made cardinal and archbishop of Milan by Pope Lucius III, whom he succeeded on November 25, 1185. He vigorously took up his predecessors quarrels with Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, including the standing dispute about the succession of territories of Countess Matilda of Tuscany. Even after his elevation to the papacy, he continued to hold the archbishopric of Milan, and in this capacity refused to crown as king of Italy Frederick Is son Prince Henry, who had married Constantia, the heiress of the kingdom of Sicily. While Henry in the south co-operated with the rebel senate of Rome, Frederick I in the north blocked the passes of the Alps and cut off all communication between the pope, then living in Verona, and his German adherents. Urban III now resolved on excommunicating Frederick I, but the Veronese protested against such a proceeding being resorted to within their walls. He accordingly withdrew to Ferrara, but died supposedly of grief upon hearing news of the Crusader defeat in July 1187 at the Battle of Hattin, before he could give effect to his intentions. He succeeded Lucius III [see 1181] and was succeeded by Clement III [see 1187]. 1186HUGH OF LINCOLN [1135-1200] Bishop of Lincoln who was born in France and joined the Carthusian Order where he remained for 17 years. At Henry II of Englands request he was sent to England as first prior of the Carthusian house at Witham, Somerset, founded by Henry II as part expiation for Beckets murder. Hugh quickly impressed everyone by his personal holiness and integrity. Though a friend of King Henry he could be vehemently critical of his policies toward the English Church yet the king respected his attitude and overriding Hughs objection he appointed him bishop of Lincoln in 1186. The see had been vacant for 18 years and he applied himself tirelessly to improving it. During the popular persecution of the Jews in England he did all he could to protect them. During Johns reign he visited France on the kings behalf. He was much loved, campaigning at all the time for justice. NIKETAS II Mountanes Patriarch of Constantinople [1186-1189] succeeded Basil II [see 1183]. There is no additional information readily available. 1187CLEMENT III [1187-1191] Pope. He was born in Rome around 1130 and after his accession in 1187 was able to resolve problems that had existed for fifty years between the Popes and Rome. He encouraged Henry II of England and Philip II of France to undertake the third crusade [see 1189]. Clement also settled a disagreement between William I of Scotland and the see of York giving independence to the Archbishop of St Andrews making it answerable to Rome itself. He succeeded Gregory VIII [see below] and was succeeded by Celestine III [see1191] GREGORY VIII Pope [1187]. He was the son of a nobleman who became a monk early in life and later became a professor of canon law in Bologna. In 1156 Adrian IV made him cardinal-deacon and in 1158 he became cardinal-priest. As a papal legate of Pope Alexander III, he was sent to teach canon law throughout Europe in the 1160s, and was sent to Portugal to crown Afonso II. He also brought an offer of reconciliation in 1163 toHoly Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, whom Pope Alexander III had excommunicated in 1160. Alexander also sent him to England to investigate the murder of Thomas Becket, and he absolved King Henry II of the murder during the Council of Avranches. In 1178 he was named Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church. It was in this position that he compiled a collection of official papal acts. On October 21, 1187, the day after the death ofPope Urban III, he was elected pope and took the name Gregory VIII, in honour ofPope Gregory VII. He was consecrated on October 25. His previous dealings with Frederick Barbarossa put the church back in a friendly relationship with the Holy Roman Emperor. In response to the defeat of thecrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemat theBattle of Hattin, Gregory issued a papal bull calling for theThird Crusade. Gregory died in Pisa on December 17, 1187 of a fever after holding the papacy for only 57 days. He succeeded Urban III [see 1185] and was succeeded by Clement III [see above]. 1188 1189CRUSADES The Third Crusade is also called the Kings Crusade. It was an attempt by Richard I of England together with continental kings to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin who had recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. After some military success the kings squabbled over the divisions of spoil and as a result Philip II of France returned home in disgust. Richard stayed and on 2 September 1192 made a treaty with Saladin allowing Muslim control of Jerusalem but allowing Christian pilgrimage. The Christian states were protected by the semi monastic orders of Templars [see 1118] and Hospitallers [see 1108] who were also to look after pilgrims [see 1147 and 1202]. LEO Theotokites Patriarch of Constantinople [1189-1190] succeeded Niketas II [see 1186]. There is no additional information readily available. NICETAS ACOMINATOS Byzantine historian and theologian who was born at Colossae into a rich family, and educated in Constantinople. When the members of the Third Crusade in 1189 passed through his region of Philippopolis of which he was the governor he became friendly with Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and this connection allowed him to rise to prominence in the Eastern court of Constantinople. He remained there until it fell in 1204 and then fled to Nicaea. He is noted for two famous writings A Treasury of Orthodoxy and The History of Constantinople [1180-1206]. YOANNIS VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1189-1216] see 1166 and 1235, The see was vacant between 1216 to 1235. In 1210, his envoys reached the city of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalibela" \o "Lalibela" Lalibela in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia, where they met HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" \o "Emperor of Ethiopia" Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebre_Mesqel_Lalibela" \o "Gebre Mesqel Lalibela" Gebre Mesqel Lalibela. He was the last HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Pope" \o "Coptic Pope" Coptic Pope to ordain a bishop for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentapolis_(North_Africa)" \o "Pentapolis (North Africa)" Western Pentapolis as the people converted to Islam under the rule of the Arabs. 1190DOSITHEUS Patriarch of Constantinople (1190-1191) succeeded Leo Theotokites [see 1189]. There is no additional information readily available. 1191-1200 AD 1191CELESTINE III [1106-1198] Pope [1191-1198]. A follower in his youth of Abelard [see 1122]. By the time he became pope he was noted as a theologian, administrator and negotiator. He crowned Henry IV in 1191, and his clever promise to lead a Crusade in 1195 made sure that it had a wide base by having it preached in other countries. He continued the extension of papal jurisdiction particularly by using delegate judges to hear disputed cases. He succeeded Clement III [see 1187] and was succeeded by Innocent III [see 1198]. DOSITHEOS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1191] see 1170 and below. FITZJOCELIN, REGINALD Archbishop of Canterbury [1191]. A member of an Anglo-Norman noble family, he was the son of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishop, and was educated in Italy. He was a household clerk for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Becket" \o "Thomas Becket" Thomas Becket, but by 1167 he was serving King Henry II of England. He was also a favourite of King Louis VII of France, who had him appointed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot" \o "Abbot" abbot of the abbey of Corbeil. After angering Becket while attempting to help negotiate a settlement between Becket and the king, Becket then called Reginald that offspring of fornication, that enemy to the peace of the Church, that traitor. When he was elected as a bishop, the election was challenged by the king, Henrys eldest son, Henry the Young King, and Reginald was forced to go to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rometo be confirmed byPope Alexander III. He attended theThird Lateran Councilin 1179, and spent much of his time administering his diocese. He was elected archbishop of Canterbury in 1191, but died before he could be HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consecration" \o "Consecration" consecrated. He succeeded Baldwin of Exeter [see 1184] and was succeeded by Hubert Walter [see 1193]. GEORGE II (Xiphilinos) Patriarch of Constantinople [1191-1198] succeeded Dositheus [see 1190]. There is no additional information readily available. MARK II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1191-?] see above and 1223. Sometime in the period ending 1223 the see of Jerusalem was vacant. PETER OF BLOIS [c.1130-1204] Author, churchman and royal officer. He was probably a student of Robert of Melun [see 1163] and studied law at Bologna and theology and Scripture at Paris gaining a reputation as a theologian. He acted as tutor and councillor to William II of Sicily before going to England where he became archdeacon of Bath and served also Henry II and Richard, archbishop of Canterbury whom he represented unsuccessfully at Rome. After the death of Henry II he was secretary to Queen Eleanor [1191-1195]. His last years were bitter especially when he was deprived of his offices. Peter of Blois is best known for his letters addressed to such notable contemporaries as Henry II, John of Salisbury, Thomas Becket and Innocent III. RICHARD I [1157-1199] King of England from 1189 who was a leader of the Third Crusade together with Philip Augustus of France, and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa who died on the way. Richard and Philip arrived by sea in 1191 and found Guy of Lusignan besieging Acre and they helped in its capture and the massacre of the inhabitants. They however failed to capture Jerusalem and squabbled continuously. Richard had a series of victories and made a treaty in 1192 by which Christians held the coastal cities as far south as Jaffa and were granted access to the Holy Places. Returning home Richard I was captured and held ransom by Emperor Henry VI. He died in battle in France. SAVA [c.1175-1235] Patron saint of Serbia who was the third son of the Serbian monarch Stephen Nemanya. He retired in 1191 to the monastery at Mount Athos. Five years later his father abdicated and joined him and they founded a monastery at Khilandari which became a centre of Serbian culture. Sava remained there until 1208 when he returned to become active in political affairs. He was the first archbishop of an autonomous Serbian Church and built many churches. He died in Bulgaria while returning from a trip to Palestine. 1192JOACHIM OF FIORE [c.1135-1202] Mystic philosopher of history who was a Cistercian monk and abbot but then retired to a more remote region and founded the order of San Giovanni in Fiore in 1192. He recorded two mystical experiences which he said gave him the gift of spiritual intelligence enabling him to understand the inner meaning of history. At times he prophesied on contemporary events and the advent of Antichrist. He also meditated deeply on the two great menaces to Christianity, the infidel and heretic. He gave a number of prophetic statements as to the timing of the new age which he put at 1260 saying that it would characterise the rise in new religious orders that would convert the world. 1193HUBERT WALTER Archbishop of Canterbury [1193-1205]. He was an influential royal adviser in the positions of chief justice of England, archbishop of Canterbury, and lord chancellor. As chancellor, Walter began the keeping of the Charter Roll, a record of all charters issued by the Chancery. Walter was not noted for his holiness in life or learning, but historians have judged him one of the most outstanding government ministers in English history. After an unsuccessful candidacy to thesee of York, Walter was electedbishop of Salisburyshortly after the accession of King Henrys sonRichard Ito the throne of England. Walter accompanied King Richard on theThird Crusade, and was one of the principals involved in raising Richards ransom after the king was captured in Germany on his return from the Holy Land. As a reward for his faithful service, Walter was selected to become the next archbishop of Canterbury in 1193. Following Richards death in 1199, Walter helped assure the elevation of Richards brotherJohnto the throne. Walter also served John as a diplomat, undertaking several missions to France. In 1195 Walter issued an ordinance by which four knights were to be appointed in every hundred to act as guardians of the peace, a precursor to the office ofJustice of the Peace. His use of theknights, who appear for the first time in political life, is the first sign of the rise of this class who, either asmembers of parliamentor justices of the peace, later became the mainstay of English government. In foreign affairs, Walter negotiated with Scotland in 1195 and with the Welsh in 1197. Negotiations with Scotland were over Scotlands claim toNorthumbria. Negotiations broke down, but relations between the two countries remained good through the rest of Richards reign. Walter was a papal legate of Pope Celestine III from 1195 to 1198, which enabled him to act with the popes delegated authority within the English Church. He actively investigated ecclesiastical misconduct, and deposed several abbots. He was granted the privilege of minting coins at Shrewsbury, and worked to recover lands and manors that had been lost to the archdiocese. He revived the scheme of his predecessor to found a church in Canterbury that would be secular and not monastic. The dispute from the time of Baldwin of Exeter flared up again, with the papacy supporting the monks and the king supporting the archbishop. Finally, Pope Innocent III ruled for the monks and ordered Walter to destroy what had been built. The archbishop held ecclesiastical councils, including one atYorkin 1195 which legislated that the clergy should collect their tithes in full, without any reduction. Another council was held at London in 1200 to legislate the size and composition of clerical retinues and also ruled that the clergy, when sayingMass, should speak clearly and not speed up or slow down their speech. Walter worked closely with Geoffrey Fitz Peter, on the collection of taxation, and both men went to Wales in 1203 on a diplomatic mission. Another joint action of the two men concerned a tax of a seventh part of all movables collected from both lay and ecclesiastical persons. Walter continued to innovate in local government also, as the earliest record of the coroners rolls, or county records, being used to cross-check oral testimony in the county courts date from 1202 and 1203. During his chancellorship under John, Walter continued to be active in ecclesiastical affairs, and in September 1200 held a provincial church council at London. This council set forth 14 canons, or decrees, which dealt with a number of subjects, including doctrinal concerns, financial affairs, and the duties of the clergy. It drew heavily on earlier church decrees, including those of the Third Lateran Councilof 1179. He died on 13 July 1205 after a long illness that permitted a reconciliation with his monks. His death has been said to have taken four days and that he gave vestments, jewellery, and altar furnishings to his monks, which were confiscated by King John after Walters death. Walter was not a holy man, although he was, as an historian and biographer of Richard I, says, one of the most outstanding government ministers in English History. Walter was the driving force behind the administrative changes during Richards reign where due to his lack of interest left all decisions in the hands of his ministers, especially Longchamp and Walter. He succeeded Reginald Fitz Jocelin [see 1191] and was succeeded by Reginald [see 1205]. 1194 1195 1196FREDERICK II [1194-1250] King of Germany and Sicily, and Roman emperor. The grandson of Frederick I [see 1152], his father had him elected German king in 1196. However, when Henry VI died the next year the princes refused to accept the young child. The struggles that followed in Germany in the league, increased by French and English pressures and Pope Innocent IIIs endeavour to restore papal power, resulted in the decline of imperial authority. In 1212 Frederick was again named king through the contrivance of Innocent III and Philip Augustus. He was eventually crowned in 1220 which put him in a dominant position. In the next three decades he was involved in a continuous struggle with the papacy. Frederick was a patron and student of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, zoology, and poetry. A sceptic in religion, he was tolerant of Jews and Muslims. In his dealings with Christian and Muslim leaders alike, he proved to be a brilliant diplomat, administrator and general. 1197 1198INNOCENT III Pope [1198-1216]. One of the great popes of the Middle Ages, elected unanimously to the papacy at the age of thirty seven. He was a member of one of the noble families of Rome He studied theology and canon law and was made a cardinal by Clement II in 1190. He wrote a book entitled On the contempt of the world which was a study of asceticism and contemplation which became popular throughout Europe. He had a keen intellect and knew what had to be done for the Roman Church to dominate all human relationships. His dealings with European monarchs showed his desire to be viewed as the supreme arbiter in all cases and the preserver of unity throughout Christendom. Following the collapse of German rule in Italy after the death of Henry VI he was able to restore and expand the papal states thus preventing the unification of Italy. The Fourth Crusade was launched in 1202 resulting in the Latin Empire of Constantinople but this failed to unify the Empires of East and West. He called the famous Fourth Lateran Conference in 1215 as a result of which seventy decrees were given including the official approval of the word transubstantiation, the suppression of heresy, the role of the church in secular justice, the necessity of paying the tithe and several other items which shaped church policy for centuries. The council also fixed 1217 as the year of a crusade against Islam. In England, Innocent put England under interdict and excommunicated King John for his refusal to allow the papal appointee for archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, to enter the country. John submitted in 1213. Innocent also intervened in the matrimonial affairs of such monarchs as Peter II of Aragon, Alphonso IX of Leon, and Philip II of France. He succeeded Celestine III [see 1191] and was succeeded by Honorius III [see 1216]. JOHN X Kamateros Patriarch of Constantinople [1198-1206] succeeded George II [see 1191]. He fled to Thrace with the deposed emperor Alexios III Angelos after the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. In 1206, Theodore I Laskarisinvited him to Nicaea where Theodore founded the Byzantine successor state of the Empire of Nicaea, but John died in the same year. The Crusaders installed a Latin patriarch in Constantinople, while Theodore simply created a new Greek patriarchate in Nicaea, which was eventually restored in Constantinople with the rest of the empire in 1261. TRINITARIANS Roman Catholic order, which is called the Order of the Most Holy Trinity, founded at Cerfroid in 1198 by John of Matha [see 1213] and Felix of Valois and was approved by Innocent III. It followed an austere form of Augustinian Rule with the participants devoting themselves to redeeming Christian captives. They took a fourth vow whereby they would sacrifice their own liberty if necessary and use one third of their revenue as ransoms. By the 15th century there were 800 houses as collecting centres and hospitals. A reform movement in the form of the Barefooted Trinitarians founded by Juan Bautista of the Immaculate Conception in Spain in 1596 is the only surviving body, engaging in education, nursing and the ransoming of Negro slaves. 1199JOACHIM I Patriarch of Antioch [1199-1219] see also 1185 and 1219. TEUTONIC KNIGHTS, ORDER OF The German religious and military order founded by Lubeck and Bremen merchants during the siege of Acre in the Third Crusade and confirmed by Pope Clement III in 1199. It soon became an important order in Germany. After aiding the Hungarian King Andrew II in repulsing the Cumans, the knights were invited by Polish duke Conrad of Masovia to help crush the heathen Prussians. Frederick II named Grandmaster Hermann of Salza [1209-1239] a prince of the empire in 1226 and authorised the acquisition of East Prussia. The Teutonic Order began the conquest in 1231 and sponsored large-scale colonisation during the next century. The order declined in power in the face of Polish, Lithuanian, and Russian resurgence, and after the defeat at Tannenberg in 1410 and the Treaty of Thorn in 1466 its territory was reduced to a portion of East Prussia. Grandmaster Albert of Hohenzollern [1490-1568] accepted Lutheranism in 1525 and secularised it as the Duchy of Prussia under the Polish king. Although Napoleon dissolved the order in Germany in 1805 its existence continued in Austria with the archduke as grandmaster until 1918. It received a new Rule in 1929 establishing it in a strictly religious character and the order now works chiefly in schools and hospitals. 1200 1201-1210 AD 1201 1202CRUSADES The fourth crusade called by Innocent IV [see 1198] was originally convened to reconquer Muslim controlled Jerusalem. However they were unable to pay the passage charges demanded by the Venetians. This led the two groups to strike a bargain and agree to attack Constantinople. This they did forgetting to attack the Muslims and set up the Latin Empire of Constantinople after sacking the city. This led to the final break between east and west [see 1189 and 1212]. 1203 1204BLEMMYDES, Nicephorus [1197-1272] Greek Theologian. The Fourth Crusade ended with the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 [see below] and three Greek centres were formed while the Latins controlled Constantinople. Blemmydes became a leading figure in Nicea where he founded a monastery, established a school and became a teacher of philosophy. Here he wrote in various areas of church and state. The FOURTH CRUSADE ended with the sacking of Constantinople and the disintegration of the Byzantine Empire. MAIMONIDES, MOSES [1135-1204] A leading Jewish philosopher of the Middle Ages. His Guide to the Perplexed was the basis of mediaeval discussions of the relationship between faith and reason and had an influence on Spinoza [see 1656]. In his view God cannot be known but can be appreciated and loved through an acquaintance with his workings in the natural order. Revelation has the role of educating the believer to know God in knowing nature and not of imparting distinctive truths. 1205REGINALD Archbishop of Canterbury elect [1205-1206]. He was the sub-prior of the cathedral chapter when the monks chose him to succeed Hubert Walter before October 1205. The election was quashed by King John before 20 December 1206. 1206GRAY, JOHN DE Archbishop of Canterbury elect. John entered Prince Johns service in 1196 and was keeper of Johns seal by 1198. After Johns accession in 1199 he was rapidly promoted in the church being elected bishop of Norwich in September of 1200. In 1203 he went with Archbishop Hubert Walterof Canterbury on a diplomatic mission to KingPhilip II of France. He was also instrumental in securing the selection of his nephew as lord chancellorafter Walters death in 1205. King Johns attempt to force him into the office of archbishop of Canterbury in 1205 started the kings long quarrel withPope Innocent III. King John postponed a decision while delegations from both the bishops of England and the monks of the cathedral chapter went to Rome to seek guidance from the pope. However, while the delegations were in Rome, the monks of Canterbury decided to hold a secret election and elected their prior Reginald to be archbishop. Reginald was sent to Rome to join the delegation. When King John found out that the monks had elected someone without any regal input he forced the monks to elect John de Gray as archbishop. His nomination was quashed by Pope Innocent III about 30 March 1206, along with Reginalds claim. The monks then elected, with Innocents approval, Stephen Langton. During the interdict that Innocent III placed on England during Johns reign, de Gray stayed in the England and helped govern the kingdom, even after the king was excommunicated, along with Peter des Roches,bishop of Winchester. After Johns reconciliation with Innocent, de Gray was one of those exempted from the general pardon, and was forced to go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome he so completely gained over Innocent that the pope sent him back with papal letters recommending his election to the bishopric of Durham in 1213 but he died in France on his homeward journey on 18 October 1214. PRAEPOSITINUS OF CREMONA [c.1140-1210] Paris theologian who studied theology and canon law at Paris and became involved with the Mainz Cathedral. Here he sought to convert the Cathari to orthodox Catholicism. By 1206 he was chancellor of the University of Paris. His influential teaching contains material which reveals that as yet Paris had not absorbed the philosophy of Aristotle that was beginning to be accepted in Europe. 1207ACOLYTES First came into history around 250 at Rome where they were listed as subdeacons among the clergy. They became increasingly prominent in Rome during the 7th century as the chief of four minor orders which was formalised by Innocent III [see 1198] in 1207 with special papal duties. Their work nowadays is generally carried out by laymen. AMALRIC [d.1207] French mystic and philosopher whose teaching which was somewhat pantheistic was influenced by Erigena [see 862]. He evidently held that God is in all things and that Christians are to accept that they are in the body of Christ and to walk in love in order to be forgiven. He was summonsed before Innocent III [see 1198] to give account of his beliefs. Returning to Paris he died soon after. His followers the Amalricians extended his teaching and seven of them were burnt at the stake soon after his death. LANGTON, STEPHEN Archbishop of Canterbury [1207-1228]. Langton was a central figure in the dispute between King John of England and Pope Innocent III, which ultimately led to the issuing of Magna Carta in 1215. He had a brother, Simon Langton, who was elected archbishop of York in 1215, but that election was quashed by Pope Innocent III, although he later served his brother as archdeacon of Canterbury in 1227. He studied at the University of Paris and lectured there on theology until 1206 when Pope Innocent III, with whom he had formed a friendship at Paris, called him to Rome and made him a cardinal-priest. His piety and learning had already won him accolades at Paris and York and he was recognised as the foremost English churchman. After the confusion following Hubert Walters death Langton was chosen by the pope, which resulted in John protesting saying anyone who recognised Stephen was a public enemy. Innocent placed England under an interdict in March 1208 and it was not until May 1213 that John yielded to the pope. Stephen returned home where he now became a leader in the struggle against King John. At a council of churchmen atWestminster on 25th August 1213, to which certain lay barons were invited, he read the text of the charter of Henry I and called for its renewal. In the end Stephens energetic leadership and the barons military strength forced John to sign theMagna Carta on 15th June 1215. Innocent III now excommunicated the barons for not asking him before the signing of the Magna Carta and Stephen was suspended for not publishing the excommunication and sent into exile. In May 1218 after the deaths of both John and Innocent he returned to England and under Henrys reign continued to work for the political independence of England. In 1223 he again appeared as the leader and spokesman of the barons, who demanded that King Henry confirm the charter. He went to France on Henrys behalf to call on Louis VIII of France for the restoration of Normandy, and later he supported Henry against rebellious barons. He obtained a promise from the new pope, Honorius III, that during his lifetime no resident legate should be again sent to England, and won other concessions from the same pontiff favourable to the English Church and exalting his see of Canterbury. Of great importance in the ecclesiastical history of England was a council which Stephen opened at Osneyon 17 April 1222; its decrees, known as the Constitutions of Stephen Langton, are the earliest provincial canons which are still recognised as binding in English church courts. He died on 9 July 1228. Stephen was a prolific writer with commentaries on almost all the books of the Old Testament, and many sermons many of which are preserved in manuscript at Lambeth Palace, at Oxford and Cambridge, and in France. He was succeeded by Walter de Hempsham [see 1228]. MICHAEL IV Autoreianos Patriarch of Constantinople [1207-1213] succeeded John X [see 1198]. There is no additional information readily available. 1208 1209ALBIGENSIANS were adherents to a religion derived from the third century teaching of Mani of Persia. By following the trade routes they appeared in northern Italy and the south of France by the 11th century. This religion was dualistic with a battle between the god of light and the god of darkness. The followers of this religion were divided into the few, the clergy and the many, other believers. In the 12th century the area inhabited by the sect in Southern France was a pleasant, tolerant and prosperous land with one of the rulers in the area, Raymond VI of Toulouse, being a supporter. However one of Raymonds agents murdered a papal legate and as a result Pope Innocent III [see 1198] initiated a crusade which crushed the Albigensians in the 20 years commencing 1209. FRANCISCANS An order founded by Francis of Assisi [see 1212] in 1209 when he gave his followers a simple rule advocating a life of apostolic poverty, preaching, and penance. Innocent III gave his oral approval to the Franciscans and the brothers became known as the Order of Friars Minor. The order increased greatly in numbers which created a conflict within the order which lasted for almost 4 centuries. This arose between those who wished to adhere strictly to the rules of Francis of Assisi and those who felt modification was necessary in the practical administration of a large organisation. Elias of Cortona [see 1221] was instrumental in expanding the order, but he was disliked for his worldliness and overbearing methods. As the Franciscans grew in material wealth, laxity increased and a general decline occurred in the 14th century, aided by the Black Death and the Great Schism. In addition reform movements occurred and a group of friars known as the Observants, who wished to live austere lives were granted ecclesiastical recognition in 1415 and became a separate order in 1517. Another branch called Capuchins came into being who also adhered to absolute poverty and added a reclusive element. Altercations and divisions within the branches occurred over the following three centuries until they were united under a uniform constitution in 1897. The Franciscans consist of three orders: the Conventuals, the Observants, and the Capuchins. Five of their number have become popes: Nicholas IV, Sixtus IV, Julius II, Sixtus V and Clement XIV. 1210ANTONY OF PADUA [11951231] Portuguese teacher who joined the Augustinians in 1210. Francis of Assisi encouraged his appointment as the first leader in that order. Seeking to emulate the first Franciscan martyrs in Morocco he joined that order changing his name of Ferdinand to Antony and left for Africa but ill health forced his return. His open air preaching in Italy at the end of his life enjoyed large congregations with the Lenten series in Padua attracting a crowd of 30,000 with resultant reconciliations and restitutions so great that their was insufficient priests for the needs of the people. MENDICANT ORDERS Mendicant monks are of the group of orders whose source of income is begging from the Latin mendicare to beg. The early Mendicant orders developed during the 13th century when both contrast between the churchs wealth and the poverty of the primitive church and the churchs weakness in meeting the pastoral requirements of many people was being underscored by groups outside the church such as the Albigenses and the Waldenses. Orders such as the Franciscans [1210] the Dominicans [1216] the Carmelites [1247] the Augustinians [1256] and the Servites [1256] provided a response to those challenges by uniting the concepts of apostolic poverty and obedience to the church, and often by proving quite effective in their ministry particularly to the poor and destitute in the towns. Francis of Assisi at least intended the members of his order to support themselves normally by work rather than by begging, however growth in numbers and specialisation led to an increasing reliance on begging which gave them the name Mendicants. NICHOLAS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1210-1243) see 1180 and 1243. He maintained contacts with Pope Innocent III of Rome (1210-1243), who invited him to participate in the Lateran Synod (1215). Following the Siege of Damietta by the Crusaders, the Christians underwent the most terrible tortures by the Arabs in retaliation. Patriarch Nicholas waited in vain for help from Pope Honorius III of Rome (1216-1227). He died in abject poverty WALDENSES The key dates in Waldensian history are: the Albigensian-Waldensian Crusade in 1210; the Synod of Chanforans in 1532; and the Albertine Statue of Emancipation in 1848. Commencing in 1210 the so called First Reformation took place over a three-hundred year period but it was the Second Reformation in the 16th century which turned the Waldensians from a movement into a church with the Synod of Chanforans being the focal point. Their history in the 300 years before 1848 illustrates the tragic side of an unbroken sequence of persecution, guerrilla war, exile and return. Since 1848 it is the story of the cultural and evangelical penetration of the Italian nation and its overseas dependencies. The supreme court of the church meets annually and elects a moderator. Although the Waldenses have a small number of members the church has schools, orphanages, homes for the aged, hospitals, and publishing houses, as well as supporting missions in Africa and Italy. 1211-1220 AD 1211 1212CRUSADES The Childrens Crusade was a mass migration of tens of thousands of children in an effort to reach the Holy Land as a result of a vision by a French boy named Stephen which was promoted. None arrived at the Holy Land, some got to Genoa, another group to Marseilles from where they were shipped and sold into slavery in North Africa. The complete debacle of this crusade is regarded as a forerunner to the heresies and revolts of the 14th century. [See 1202 and 1221] FRANCIS OF ASSISI [1182-1226] Founder of the Franciscan Order. He received the usual education for his time and enjoyed the carefree life as a popular youth of Assisi. While taking part in a feud with the nearby city of Perugia he was imprisoned for a year in 1202. Upon release he joined the army and went on a campaign against Apulia but through illness could not complete it. In 1205 he made a pilgrimage to Rome after which he had a vision where he believed God told him to rebuild the church of St Damian near Assisi. Selling his horse together with some of his fathers cloth goods, he gave the proceeds to the priest for that purpose. His father disowned him, and Francis renounced his worldly possessions, taking up begging to provide for the reconstruction of more churches. He began preaching brotherly love and repentance, attracting a number of followers, which was the beginning of the Franciscans [See 1209] but at the time they called themselves the Friars Minor. Clare, an heiress of Assisi founded an order for women, the Poor Clares [see 1213]. Francis began missions to Syria and Morocco but was unable to complete them due to illness or other misfortune. After his abdication of leadership in 1223, Francis spent the remaining years of his life in solitude and prayer. 1213JOHN OF MATHA [1160-1213] One of the founders of the Order of Trinitarians. He became a priest and consecrated himself to the redemption of Christian captives in the hands of the Turks. To further this purpose, with Felix of Valois [d.1212], he founded the Trinitarian Order in the diocese of Meaux in 1198. POOR CLARES The second Order of St Francis founded by him and St Clare about 1213. Beginning at the church of St Damien the order spread rapidly through Italy, France and Spain. Cardinal Ugolino (who became Gregory IX) placed Clare and her nuns under the Rule of Benedict with very strict austerities added such as perpetual fasting, lying on boards, and almost complete silence. In 1224 Francis gave a written rule to Clare easing some of the restrictions. However, in 1247 restrictions of complete poverty were again placed on the order until 1263 when Urban IV sanctioned a rule which was less severe and was followed by the majority, known as the Urbanists. The minority who adhered to the stricter rules were known as Clarisses. The life of the Poor Clares is contemplative and most austere, including penance, manual work, and severe fasts. They wear a dark frieze habit, black veil, and cloth sandals on their feet. THEODORE II Eirenikos Patriarch of Constantinople [1213-1215] succeeded Michael IV [see 1207]. There is no additional information readily available. 1214 1215CLARE [1193-1253] First Abbess of the Poor Clares. Clare was received as a nun by Francis of Assisi in 1212. Joined by others including her sister Agnes an establishment was formed in 1215 on Franciscan lines with Clare as abbess. The life of the Poor Clares is contemplative and most austere including penance, manual work and severe fasts. CONCOMITANCE is the doctrine held in the Roman Catholic Church that the body and blood of Christ are received even when the communicant receives only one of the elements. Pressure for this doctrine was provided by the withdrawal of the cup from the laity within the Roman Church. LATERAN COUNCIL 4 [see also 1179 and 1512] The council was summoned by Innocent III and marks the pinnacle of the achievements of the most powerful of the mediaeval popes. It confirmed the election of Frederick II; denounced Magna Carta as an affront to the pope and his vassal King John of England; it spelt out the dogma of transubstantiation; made yearly confession and communion mandatory; confirmed the new Franciscan Order; and required distinctive dress for the Jews and Saracens. Condemnations were directed against the Cathari and Waldensians, and against the teachings of Joachim of Fiore [see 1192] and Amalric [see 1207]. Reforming canons stipulated, among others, that no new orders were to be founded. The abuses surrounding indulgences was also to be curbed. MAXIMOS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1215] succeeded Theodore II [see 1215]. There is no additional information readily available. ORDEALS A form of trial whereby according to Gods will and judgement the guilt or innocence of an accused person was determined by some feat of physical endurance. Ordeals have existed since the time of the time of Hammurabi some 4000 years ago. The ordeal was commonly used in mediaeval Europe and held in favour by the church until 1215 when, at the Fourth Lateran Council, the clergy was forbidden to take part in the practice. Up to that time the ordeals were usually preceded by Mass. There were many canonists who had opposed it before 1215 but they had not been able to have it abolished. The ordeal took many forms including ordeals by poison, water, hot iron, fire, or by combat. 1216DOMINIC [1170-1221] Founder of the order of preachers generally known as the Dominicans of Black Friars. He was born in Spain and in 1203 accompanied his bishop as chaplain on a royal embassy to the south of France which had been greatly affected by the Albigensians. Challenged by the need to combat heresy, they obtained papal permission to stay there to preach. They went barefoot practising great abstinence. He opened the first Dominican convent there. During the seven years crusade against the Albigensians launched by Pope Innocent III in 1208 Dominic worked with great zeal to bring the heretics back into the church. The first Dominican monastery was built at Toulouse. In 1216 Pope Honorius III granted overall permission legalising the order. Dominic met Francis of Assisi [see 1212] in Rome in 1218. The first general chapter of the order was held in Bologna in 1220. His refusal three times to accept a bishopric was typical of his humility and austere life. HONORIUS III Pope [1216-1227]. Innocent III raised him to the rank of a cardinal priest in 1200 and on July 18, 1216, seventeen cardinals present at the death of Innocent III assembled at Perugia, where Innocent III had died two days previously, with the purpose of electing a new pope. The troubled state of affairs in Italy, the threatening attitude of the Tatars, and the fear of a schism induced the cardinals to agree to an election by compromise. Their choice fell upon CencioCamerario, who accepted the tiara with reluctance and took the name of Honorius III. He was consecrated at Perugia on July 24, was crowned at Rome 31 August, and took possession of the Lateran 3 September 1216. The Roman people were greatly elated at the election, for Honorius III was himself a Roman and by his extreme kindness had endeared himself to the hearts of all. Like his famous predecessor Innocent III, he set his mind on the achievement of two great things, the recovery of the Holy Land in the Fifth Crusade and a spiritual reform of the entire church; but much in contrast with Innocent III he sought these achievements by kindness and indulgence rather than by force and severity. Honorius III really had too large a task; besides the liberation of the Holy Land, he felt bound to forward the repression ofCathar heresy in the south ofFrance, the war for the faith in the Spanish peninsula, the planting of Christianity in the lands along theBaltic Sea, and the maintenance of the impossible Latin empire in Constantinople. The Fifth Crusade was endorsed by the Lateran Councilof 1215, and he started preparations for the crusade to begin in 1217. Honorius III was aware that there was only one man in Europe who could bring about the recovery of the Holy Land, and that man was his former pupil Frederick II (121250) of Germany. Like many other rulers, Frederick II had taken an oath to embark for the Holy Land in 1217 but he hung back, and Honorius III repeatedly put off the date for the beginning of the expedition. In April 1220, Frederick II was elected emperor, and on November 22, 1220 he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome. In spite of the insistence of Honorius III, Frederick II still delayed, and theEgyptiancampaign failed miserably with the loss ofDamietta on September 8th 1221. Fredericks departure was further delayed by his wedding and it was not until 1227 that he was ready to go. In the midst of it, however, Pope Honorius III died in Rome on March 18, 1227 without seeing the achievement of his hopes. Honorius III gave papal sanction to the Dominican order in 1216 and to the Franciscan in 1223. During his pontificate also many of the tertiary orders first came into existence. He approved in 1221 the Franciscan Brothers and Sisters of Penance Rule and on January 30, 1226, he approved the Carmelite Order. He was keen to educate the clergy approving the religious congregation Valley of scholars which had been founded by four professors of theology at the University of Paris. He deposed two bishops due to their lack of education. He was also an author. He succeeded Innocent III [see 1198] and was succeeded by Gregory IX [see 1227]. MANUEL I Charitopoulos Patriarch of Constantinople [1216-1222] succeeded Maximos II [see 1215]. There is no additional information readily available. 1217HYACINTH [1195-1257] Apostle of the North who studied at Krakw and Bologna. As a priest he entered the Order of the Preachers at Rome in 1217. Having accompanied his uncle, who was to be consecrated in Rome as bishop of Krakw, he is said to have witnessed St Dominics miracle of raising the dead. Hyacinth was an important part of the extensive Dominican missionary efforts and founded several houses of the order as well as making journeys of thousands of miles on foot to preach in Scandinavia, Lithuania, Bohemia, Greece, Russia, Tibet, and his native Poland. MORTMAIN The third re-issue of the Magna Carta in 1217 forbade sub-tenants to donate lands fraudulently to any religious house and then receive them back at a rent. Such donations enabled sub-tenants to evade paying their superior lords feudal incidents like wardships and reliefs legally due from the lands. These donations were known as gifts into mortmain. In 1279 Edward Is famous statute of mortmain forbade any gifts of land to ecclesiastical corporations, regardless of whether they were to be received back or not, or whether the superior lords had consented. In practice a license permitting such gifts was obtainable from the king for a fee, and thousands of licenses were granted. Mortmain Acts were also to pass in 1290, 1391, 1531, 1736, and 1888 with only the 1960 Charities Act finally abolishing it. 1218MERCEDARIANS The order of our Lady of Mercy was founded in 1218 by Peter Nolasco to attend the sick and rescue Christian captives from the Moors. Their white habit facilitated entrance into Muslim territories. They followed the Austin Rule and took a fourth vow pledging themselves as hostages when needed thus liberating some 70,000 captives. They spread through Europe to the Americas changing from a military order to a clerical one in 1319 and becoming mendicant [see 1210]. A post-Reformation discalced or barefoot group arose, and though major setbacks occurred during the 19th century, the order was revived under Valenzuela in the 1880s. There main area of service is now in parishes, charities, schools, and chaplaincies. 1219DOROTHEUS I Patriarch of Antioch [1219-1245] see also 1199 and 1245. 1220VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS [c.1190- 1264] Mediaeval French encyclopaedist who studied in Paris and entered the Dominican Order about 1220. He returned to Beauvais in 1228 and between 1247 and 1259 completed his major work of trying to collect all the knowledge of the day in a great encyclopaedia. The complete work consisted of 80 books and is the most extensive encyclopaedia written during the Middle Ages. Vincent was a close friend of Louis IX of France and became lector in the royal court about 1240. 1221-1230 AD 1221CRUSADES The Fifth Crusade was an attempt to take back Jerusalem and the Holy Land by at first attacking the powerful Ayyubid state in Egypt. The Crusaders allied themselves with their old enemy the Seljuk Turks to fight the northern enemy in Syria. After occupying Damietta, the Crusaders attacked Cairo in 1221 but were forced back when their supplies dwindled. They were attacked by night resulting in a number of Crusader casualties and eventually the army surrendered. Al-Kamil the leader of the Ayyubids eventually agreed to an eight year truce with Europe. [See 1212 and 1228] ELIAS OF CORTONA [11801253] Minister-general of the Franciscan order who had a great mutual affection for Francis of Assisi [see 1212]. He was Franciss spokesman at the 1221 general chapter. Gregory IX entrusted him with the construction of the Basilica at Assisi where Franciss body was to rest. Elias is the most controversial early Franciscan figure, gaining in his own lifetime an evil reputation among the friars which his declining years, spent with the excommunicated emperor Frederick II, only reinforced. Francis death apparently deprived Elias of vital personal inspiration. The official element in the order detested him because he favoured lay brothers equally with clerics as had Francis. They had him deposed by Gregory IX in 1239. 1222 1223ALBERTUS MAGNUS [1193-1280] Dominican Theologian who entered the order in 1223. He became provincial governor of the order in Germany and later bishop of Regensburg. In 1262 he retired to a convent. He was the first mediaeval scholar to master the whole works of Aristotle and wrote 21 massive volumes consisting mainly of commentaries on Aristotles works and theological books based on Aristotelian philosophy. CAESARIUS OF HEISTERBACH [11701240] Cistercian author of Dialogus miraculorum which was published in 1223 and detailed monastic life amongst other items. He was one of the most popular authors of the 13th century. He was educated in Cologne receiving a good grounding in the Fathers and Classics and entered the order in 1199. He criticised the clerical abuses he saw including some in the confessional system. EUTHIMIOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1223] see 1191 and 1224. GERMANUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1223-1240] succeeded Manuel I [see 1216]. There is no additional information readily available. 1224ATHANASIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1224-1236] see 1223 and 1236. Jerusalem was ceded by Ayyubids in 1229. 1225ELIZABETH OF HUNGARY [1207-1231 Ascetic. The daughter of King Andrew of Hungary who was betrothed to Louis IV of Thuringia at the age of four and married to him 10 years later when he was 21. During her husbands short life time she gained a reputation for prayer and charitable works on one occasion in 1225 giving away food and money despite protests from her officials. In 1227 Louis died of the plague while on a Crusade, leaving her widowed with three children. In 1228 she became a member of the third order of St Francis. From then until her premature death she had a life of rigorous self mortification and service to Marburgs poor and sick. Her spiritual adviser and renowned Franciscan inquisitor Conrad of Marburg [see 1232] exercised some restraint over her enthusiasm, but in other ways his methods were very extreme. Germanys first Gothic cathedral the Elizabethskirche was built for her body by her brother-in-law Conrad. ORTLEIB OF STRASBOURG He founded the Ortibarii, an ascetic radical sect in the early 13th century. He taught abstention from material things and guidance by ones inner spirit. Identifying pope and church with the apocalyptic harlot his followers rejected ecclesiastical authority and the necessity for the sacraments. Radical on the doctrines of creation, resurrection, incarnation and the Trinity they were condemned by Innocent III. The movement was seemingly short lived. 1226LOUIS IX [1214-1270] King of France who inherited the throne as a child in 1226 and was long dominated by his mother Blanche of Castille. His lifestyle was characterised by a devotion to justice that led the French to consider him the ideal Christian king. He dressed modestly, avoided luxury and ostentation, was deeply pious and ascetic, and delighted in building churches and hospitals. Louis concept was when in doubt to favour others above himself, and the poor over the rich. Louis commitment to fairness even led him to negotiate a treaty with England more than favourable to them because he felt that the lands had been unjustly gained by his predecessors. In 1270 he led the Eighth Crusade, directed against Tunis in North Africa during which he died of fever. 1227GREGORY IX Pope [1227-1241]. He was a relation to Innocent III who promoted him to cardinal bishop in 1206. He was also cardinal protector of the Order of Franciscans. Gregory IX began his reign by suspending the emperor, then lying sick atOtranto, for tardiness in carrying out the promised Sixth Crusade. Frederick II went to the Holy Land and skirmished with the Saracens to fulfil his vow, but was soon back in Italy, where Gregory IX had taken advantage of his absence by invading his territories. A consequent invasion of the Papal States in 1228 having proved unsuccessful, the emperor was constrained to give in his submission and beg for absolution. Although peace was thus secured (August 1230) for a season, the Roman people were far from satisfied. Driven by a revolt from his own capital in June 1232, the pope was compelled to take refuge atAnagniand invoke the aid of Frederick II. Gregory IX and the Hohenstaufen came to a truce, but when Frederick II defeated theLombard Leaguein 1239, the possibility that he might dominate all of Italy, surrounding thePapal States, became a very real threat. A new outbreak of hostility led to a fresh excommunication of the emperor in 1239, and to a prolonged war. Gregory IX denounced Frederick II as ahereticand summoned a council at Rome to give point to hisanathema, at which Frederick II attempted to capture or sink as many ships carryingprelatesto the synod as he could. Eberhard II von Truchsees, prince-archbishop of Salzburg in 1241 at the Council ofRegensburgdeclared that Gregory IX was that man of perdition, whom they call Antichrist, who in his extravagant boasting says, I am God, I cannot err. The struggle was only terminated by the death of Gregory IX on August 22, 1241. He died before events could reach their climax; it was his successor, aptly namedPope Innocent IV(1243-54) who declared a crusade in 1245 that would finish the Hohenstaufen threat. Pope Gregory IX, being a remarkably skilful and learned lawyer prepared the New Compilation of Papal Decrees in 1234. This was the culmination of a long process of systematising the mass of pronouncements that had accumulated since the Early Middle Ages and provided the foundation for papal legal theory. Gregory IX believed the problem of heresy needed serious attention and was not content with leaving it to the bishops, who might have been lax, but extended central control in this essential area as well. In 1231, he established thePapal Inquisitionto deal with it, although he did not approve the use of torture as a tool of investigation or for penance. Gregory IX was a principal figure in the cementing and institutionalising of Church teaching that discriminated against Jews and condemned them to an inferior status in Christendom. In 1234 he instituted the doctrine of perpetual servitude of the Jews with the force of canonical law. According to this, Jews would have to remain in a condition of political servitude and abject humiliation until Judgement Day. The second-class status of Jews thereby established would last until well into the 19th century. Perhaps his most lasting action was a minor item: saying in his papal letter Vox in Rama of 1232 that cats were an instrument of the devil and a symbol of heresy. This led to a great reduction in the number of cats, which, a hundred years later, contributed to the quick spread of the Black Death plague, which killed 1/3 to 1/2 of the population of Europe. He succeeded Honorius III [see 1216] and was succeeded by Celestine IV [see 1241]. MAGDALENES A name for convents or communities of penitent females founded under the patronage of Mary Magdalene, the converted prostitute. Bulls confirming the privileges of such communities were issued between 1227 and 1251 by Gregory IX and Innocent IV. They were either Augustinian, Franciscan or Dominican Rule. Refuges for fallen women were also established at Marseilles in 1272 and Naples in 1324 but are now virtually extinct. 1228CRUSADES The Sixth Crusade was led by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II who was excommunicated by Gregory IX [see 1227] officially on the basis that he had not gone on the 5th crusade but more likely because he was trying to expand his influence in Italy. Frederick eventually married Yolande of Jerusalem the daughter of the nominal ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. As a result there was little fighting in the crusade which resulted in the peaceful surrender of Jerusalem to Frederick but much greater tension between the Holy Roman Empire and the Crusader states. [See 1221 and 1248] THOMAS OF CELANO [c.1190-1260] He was founder of the Order of Friars Minor but best known for his two biographies on Francis of Assisi [see 1212]. Thomas joined the order in 1215 and was later sent to Germany. In 1228 the Orders protector Gregory IX appointed Thomas as Francis of Assisis biographer. It remains the best single source for the life of Francis. At the 1244 general chapter, the then minister general Crescentius asked all who knew stories about Francis to send them to Assisi and Thomas wrote a second volume which incorporated these reminiscences. Then, in 1266 the orders general chapter directed that all previous lives of Francis be destroyed and that a recent biography by Bonaventure become the official one. Fortunately copies of Thomass two biographies escaped destruction. WALTER DE HEMPSHAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1228-1229]. He was a monk of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church_Priory" \o "Christ Church Priory" Christ Church Priory in Canterbury, when he was chosen to be the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" Archbishop of Canterbury on 3rd August 1228 by his fellow monks of the cathedral chapter. His appointment was overruled by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" \o "Henry III of England" King Henry III and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" \o "Pope Gregory IX" Pope Gregory IX on 5 January 1229. He was examined by a group of cardinals on theological matters and declared to have answered badly, thus allowing the pope to declare him ineligible for the office. He succeeded Stephen Langton [see 1207] and was succeeded by Richard Le Grant [see 1229] WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE [c.1180-1249] Bishop of Paris who studied at Paris and was a lecturer in arts and then in theology there. In 1228 he became bishop of Paris where, because of problems with Aristotle and Augustinian outlooks within the church he tried to synthesise a compromise. This prepared the way for his more successful followers, Alexander of Hales [see 1236], Albertus Magnus [see 1223], and Thomas Aquinas [see 1265]. Pope Gregory IX rebuked him for laxity in dealing with problems in the University. He wrote a number of books. 1229AGNELLUS OF PISA [1194-1236] Franciscan provincial minister who was recruited personally by Francis of Assisi in 1211 and with eight companions introduced the order into England. Ordained a priest in 1229 he exhibited great humility and personal charm. He established a school at Oxford which was the forerunner of Oxford University and successfully defended his orders rights against the bishops in 1231. GRANT, RICAHRD LE Archbishop of Canterbury [1229-1231]. He was a native of Essex and was chancellor of the see of Lincoln when Henry III nominated him to be archbishop of Canterbury in opposition to Walter de Hempsham in 1229. He had been chancellor of Lincoln since at least 16 December 1220 and was also a distinguished writer and teacher. Richard was consecrated on 10th June 1229. On 26th January 1231, at a council at Westminster, Richard, along with other bishops, objected to Henry IIIs earlier demand of a second scutage payment, the payment made to the crown in lieu of military service. Richard then attempted to implement reforms in the clergy over the issue of the employment of the clergy in the royal government. In pursuit of this aim, he journeyed to Rome to enlist the papacys aid, but after a favourable reception at the curia, he died in Italy on his return journey to England on 3rd August 1231. He succeeded Walter de Hempsham [see1228] and was succeeded by Ralph Neville [see 1231]. 1230WILLIAM OF AUXERRE [1150-1231] Philosopher and theologian who was appointed in 1230 by Gregory IX as a member of a commission of three to correct the physical pronouncements of Aristotle in order to bring them into line with Christian thought and to make them acceptable at University of Paris. William died however before he could complete his part in this important assignment. He was largely influenced by Augustine [see 413] and Anselm of Canterbury [see 1093] in his theology and to some degree Hugh [see 1120] and Richard of St Victor [see 1162]. 1231-1240 AD 1231NEVILLE, RALPH Archbishop of Canterbury [1231]. Ralph was keeper of the kings seal under Henry III from November 1218. He received a dispensation for illegitimacy on 25th January 1220. In late October he was named chancellor of the see of Chichester, but was then elected as bishop of Chichester in November 1222 being consecrated on 21 April 1224. Ralph was named lord chancellor of England on 17 May 1226. Ralph was elected archbishop of Canterbury about 24 September 1231 by the monks ofCanterbury, but his election to the archbishopric was quashed in early 1232 by thePope Gregory IX. The rejection was based on Neville being an illiterate, although he had been found to be learned in 1214 when he was appointed dean. He succeeded Richard Le Grant [see 1229] and was succeeded by John of Sittingbourne [see 1232]. SYLVESTRINES A minor monastic order following the Benedictine rule, stressing poverty, founded by Sylvester Gozzolini [1177-1267] in 1231. Centred in Italy they also have a convent for nuns. They have outreaches into Portugal, Brazil and Sri Lanka where they have had a large mission presence since 1855. 1232ADAM OF MARSH [d.1258] An English monk who joined the Franciscans in 1232. He accompanied the bishop of Lincoln Grosseteste to the Council of Lyons [1244-46] and afterwards taught at Oxford for three years. Known as Doctor Illustris he was so learned that his advice was sought by Henry III, Boniface of Savoy [see 1241] and the pope. BLUND, JOHN Archbishop of Canterbury [1232 -1233]. An English scholastic philosopher, known for his work on the nature of the soul, one of the first works of western philosophy. He taught at Oxford. He was a royal clerk by 1227 and studied at Oxford and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" \o "Paris" Paris, and was at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris" \o "University of Paris" University of Pariswhen it was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris_strike_of_1229" \o "University of Paris strike of 1229" dispersed in 1229. He was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(priest)" \o "Canon (priest)" canon of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichester" \o "Chichester" Chichester before 1232. He was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" archbishop of Canterburyduring a brief reign, having been elected on 26 August 1232. He was supported by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_des_Roches" \o "Peter des Roches" Peter des Roches but did not receive papal approval and the election was quashed by Gregory XI because of alleged HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism" \o "Pluralism" pluralism on 1 June 1233. John was later appointed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chancellor_of_York&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Chancellor of York (page does not exist)" chancellor of the see of York and died in 1248. He succeeded John of Sittingbourne [see below] and was succeeded by Edmund Rich [see 1234]. CONRAD OF MARBURG [1180-1233] Inquisitor general of Germany who gained initial fame for his enthusiastic support for the crusade of Pope Innocent III [see 1198]. After showing he was a devoted opponent of every kind of heresy he was nominated by Gregory IX [see 1227] as the first papal inquisitor in Germany. During 1232-3 he used his absolute authority ruthlessly, handing over people on debatable evidence to the secular power for punishment. After accusing Count von Sayn of heresy he was himself condemned by a court of princes and bishops in Mainz and was murdered by Hessian knights on his way home to Marburg. JOHN OF SITTINGBOURNE Archbishop of Canterbury [1232]. He was a monk ofChrist Church Priory, Canterbury, and was selected as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior" \o "Prior" prior of Christ Church in 1222. John was elected as archbishop on 16th March 1232, but his election was quashed by Pope Gregory XI on 12th June 1232 when he resigned the office at the papal court. He died sometime before 1238. He succeeded Ralph Neville [see 1231] and was succeeded by John Blund [see above]. PETER MARTYR [c.1205-1252] Dominican reformer who was converted to Romanism as a student at Bologna and entered the Dominican order in 1221. He was an ardent opponent of the Cathari. He won many back to Roman Catholicism in the cities of northern and central Italy. The papacy recognised his effectiveness and sealed this by appointing him as Inquisitor in 1232 and again in 1251. On his way from Como to Milan in 1252 he was assassinated by Cathari. His martyrdom became a favourite theme in late mediaeval art. 1233JOHN OF PARMA [1209-1289] Franciscan leader who taught logic at Parma and became a Franciscan in 1233. As Minister General of his Order from 1247 he sought to restore its asceticism and original standards. His austerity and adherence to the doctrines of Joachim of Fiore [see 1192] together with a suspect treatise brought his resignation, at Alexander IV insistence in 1257. He suggested that Bonaventure [see 1273] be his successor. The rest of Johns life was spent in penance and contemplation in a solitary at the hermitage of Greccio. He died in 1289 en route for a visit to Greece. JOINVILLE, JEAN [1225-1319] French nobleman and chronicler. After his fathers death in 1233 he was active in French court life and established contacts which enlisted his participation in the Sixth Crusade [1248-54]. He joined Louis IX in Egypt and Palestine and became his friend during their imprisonment. While at Acre he composed a credo which reflects mediaeval piety. Returning to his estates he followed Louis career with interest though he declined the royal invitation to participate in the Crusade of 1270. 1234RICH, EDMUND Archbishop of Canterbury [1234-1240]. He studied at the universities of Oxford and Paris and became a teacher about 1200. For six years he lectured onmathematicsanddialectics, apparently dividing his time between Oxford and Paris, and winning distinction for his part in introducing the study of Aristotle. He is the first known Oxford Master of Arts. Through the influence of a pious mother he had led from boyhood a life of self-denial and austerity; and it is not surprising that he tired of secular subjects and went over to theology. Though for some time he resisted the change, he finally entered upon his new career between 1205 and 1210. He received ordination, took a doctorate in divinity, and soon won fame as a lecturer on theology and as an extemporaneous preacher. After expounding the Lords Law for a number of years, Edmund became disgusted withscholasticismand gave up his chair at Oxford. Ironically, after his death and canonisation, an academic hall was founded in his name at the site where he taught. St Edmund Hall, Oxford, remains the last of the universitys medieval halls. In 1227, he preached thesixth crusadethrough a large part of England. In 1233 came the news of his appointment, byPope Gregory IX, to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The chapter had already made three selections which the pope had declined to confirm, and Edmunds name had been proposed as a compromise by Gregory, perhaps on account of his work for the crusade. He was consecrated 2 April 1234. Before his consecration he allied himself in political life with those who emphasised independence from Rome, maintenance of theGreat Charterand the exclusion of foreigners from civil and ecclesiastical office. A week after his consecration he again appeared before the king with the barons and bishops, this time threatening his sovereign with excommunication, if he refused to dismiss his counsellors, particularlyPeter des Roches,bishop of Winchester. This threat was sufficient. The objectionable favourites were dismissed. In 1237, in order to destroy the authority of Edmund, Henry induced the pope to send Cardinal Otto as legate to England. Through numerous disputes with bishops and monks, not to speak of the rupture with the king, and the excommunication of Simon de Montfort and his bride, Edmund had already made his position a difficult one. As the champion of the national church against the claims of Rome, Edmund now found himself arrayed against the pope. In December, 1237, he set out for Rome, hoping to enlist the pope on the side of ecclesiastical reform. From this futile mission he returned to England in August, 1238, to find himself reduced to a cipher. If he excommunicated his monks, they appealed to Rome and paid no attention to his interdict. Finding himself foiled at every turn he finally submitted to the papal demands; and early in 1240, hoping to win his cause against his monks, he paid to the popes agents one fifth of his revenue, which had been levied for the popes war againstEmperor Frederick II. Other English prelates followed his example. Edmund is one of the most attractive figures of medieval history. His life was one of self-sacrifice and devotion to others. From boyhood he practised restraint and throughout his life he wore sackcloth next his skin, pressed against his body by metal plates. After snatching a few hours sleep without removing his clothing, he usually spent the rest of the night in prayer and meditation. His life inspired the formation of theSociety of St Edmund at Pontigny, France, in 1843 by Rev. Jean Baptiste Muard to keep Saint Edmunds memory and life alive through faithful service by the work of popular missions. The members devote themselves to parochial work, to the education of youth in seminaries and colleges, to the direction of pious associations, and to foreign missions. Members of the Society fled to the United States in 1889 after widespread anticlericalism seized France. They settled in Winooski Park, Vermont, and established Saint Michaels College. He died in France on 16 November 1240. He succeeded John Blund [see 1232] and was succeeded by Boniface of Savoy [see 1241]. 1235GROSSETESTE, ROBERT [1168-1253] Bishop of Lincoln and initiator of the English scientific tradition. He became a member of the arts faculty at Oxford, and a lecturer to the Oxford Franciscans in 1229 before leaving the post take up the bishopric of Lincoln in 1235. Lincoln was Englands largest diocese where he remained until his death. He was a zealous bishop, deposing many abbots and priors because they neglected to staff adequately the parish churches in their care. In 1250 he visited Rome and delivered a sermon in which he declared the papal court was the origin of all evils in the church; he objected also to the appointment of Italian friends and relatives of the pope to rich English benefices. Grosseteste was just as an independent in dealing with the English monarch. He believed churchman should not hold civil office and asserted that a bishop was not in any way to derive his authority from the civil power. Although basically Augustinian in outlook and relying on standard authors, he was heavily influenced by Muslim, Jewish and Aristotelian works. KIRELLOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1235-1243] see 1189 and 1250. In 1238, he issued a new set of canons for the Coptic church and its dependencies in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" \o "Nubia" Nubia, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrenaica" \o "Cyrenaica" Cyrenacia. Due to his influence before he became the Pope it was not possible to ordain any other person except him, which led to about nineteen years of vacancy of that important post. This is the longest vacancy in the history of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" \o "Coptic Orthodox Church" Coptic Orthodox Church. He used the increasing military and political power of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt over HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem" \o "Jerusalem" Jerusalem to appoint a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox" \o "Coptic Orthodox" Coptic Orthodox bishop of that church, which until then had been the prerogative of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch" \o "Patriarch of Antioch" Patriarch of Antioch. This angered Patriarch HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius_III_David" \o "Ignatius III David" Ignatius III David, who retaliated by attempting unsuccessfully to fill the vacancy of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuna" \o "Abuna" Abuna or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" metropolitan for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Church. This was a very rare incident between the two churches, as in general their relationship is one of the strongest between any two churches. Although he started his papacy by abiding to the Coptic Churchs laws forbidding HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" simony, he soon started selling ranks in the church. The Coptic Churchs Bishops gathered in a synod in an attempt to prevent this. They decided to hold a general council of the clergy and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archon" \o "Archon" archons to look into the situation and make recommendations. It is thought that Kirellos bribed the caliphal court with 12,000 dinars and due to this he was able to swing the verdict, continuing the practice of simony. Despite opposition he was able to rule the church in relative peace until his death in 1243. After his death his Throne of Saint Mark remained vacant for seven years. PETER NOLASCO [c.1182-1249] Co-founder of the Order of Our Lady of Ransom [Mercedarians see 1218]. In 1234 he established them on the constitution provided by a Dominican Raymond of Penafort [see 1236] and with his assistance. In 1235 Pope Gregory IX approved the order under the Augustinian Rule, and King James of Aragon gave his help. The order worked in Spain and Africa to ransom Christians who had been overpowered or terrorised by the Moors. Peter himself was imprisoned in Algiers. RICHARD OF CHICHESTER [1197-1253] Bishop of Chichester who was educated at Oxford and Paris before becoming chancellor of Oxford University in 1235. Soon after he was called to be chancellor at Canterbury to Edmund of Abingdon. When Edmund was exiled to France Richard accompanied him and stayed until Edmunds death in 1242. Richard was ordained a priest in France and on his return to England he was elected bishop of Chichester against the wishes of Henry III. He was a good administrator as well as a reforming cleric with no sympathy for simony and other abuses. 1236ALEXANDER OF HALES [1170-1245] English theologian and philosopher who having become a widely celebrated theologian in Paris created a sensation when he joined the Franciscans in 1236. He helped to instigate opposition to the very unsatisfactory Franciscan minister general, Elias. He established a Franciscan school in Paris with very high calibre students. They attempted to understand the rediscovery of Aristotles philosophy and its implications for theology. PARIS, MATTHEW [c.1200-1259] An English Benedictine historian and artist who was a monk at St Albans and became leader in 1236. An unsuccessful attempt to reform the abbey of St Benet Holm in Norway in 1248-49 lead to a friendship with King Haakon IV whom he invited to join in a crusade with Louis IX of France. As a writer Matthew decorated his manuscript with illustrations including coats of arms and the events which he was describing in the text. Some of his work pointed to royal shortcomings, attacked the Mendicants and decried the avarice of the papal court. His account of contemporary times repeatedly mentions the Beguines [see 1311] a new womens movement without rules that originated in the vicinity of Liege but was centred in Cologne. His writings blamed Rome for the schism with the Greeks. RAYMOND OF PENAFORT [c.1175-1275] He was born near Barcelona where he studied and taught rhetoric and logic at the cathedral school until 1210. He then moved to Bologna where in 1216 he was appointed professor of law. In 1222 he joined the Dominicans and returned to Spain where he helped to found the Mercedarians [see 1218], an order dedicated to redeeming Christian captives. He was appointed as confessor and chaplain to Gregory IX who commissioned him to organise the papal decretals, a huge task which he did in four years. In 1236 Raymond returned to Spain where he became general of his order. Resigning from that position he was concerned with the conversion of the Jews and Muslims and set up schools for the study of Hebrew and Arabic. He was associated with Thomas Aquinas. SOPHRONIOS III Patriarch of Jerusalem [1236-?] see 1224 and 1298. At the Battle of La Forbie in 1244 Jerusalem was lost to the Ayyubids. GREGORY I Patriarch of Jerusalem also ruled for some time up to 1298. 1237 1238 1239RAYMOND NONNATUS [1204-1240] He was born in Spain apparently by Caesarean section as his name Nonnatus means not born. Raymond was a member of the Order of Our Lady of Ransom which ransomed Christian prisoners from North Africa and Muslims. At times he was subjected to gross ill treatment by the Muslims. After he returned to Spain, Gregory IX made him a cardinal in 1239. Not surprisingly Raymond is the patron saint of midwives. 1240ELMO [1190-1246] Dominican preacher who was born Peter Gonzalez and educated by his uncle the bishop of Astorga and appointed to a Canon bishopric while still underage. He renounced the easy life however and became a Dominican. As chaplain to Ferdinand III of Leon he helped in his crusade against the Moors. Subsequently he left the court and began to preach among the poor and sailors of Galacia and the Spanish coast. He later came to be known as the patron saint of Spanish and Portuguese sailors. The electrical discharge sometimes seen on the decks of ships is called Elmos Fire as this is regarded as a sign of his protection. HAYMO OF FAVERSHAM [d.1244] English Franciscan who became a master of divinity at Paris and entered the order of Friars Minor around 1226. He took a leading part in the deposition of the Elias of Cortona [see 1221] and was himself elected provisional of the English province, succeeding Albert of Pisa. In 1240 he was elected fourth general of the Franciscan Order, the only Englishman ever to hold that position. METHODIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1240] succeeded Germanus II [see 1223]. There is no additional information readily available on him and the see of Constantinople was vacant from 1240 to 1244. SERVITES The Order of the Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary was founded in 1240 by several influential Florentines who had already withdrawn from the world in order to enter the service of Mary. Servite piety centres on the Sorrowful Virgin. The second order of Servite nuns is principally a contemplative religious community but sections are also engaged in activities of the world, missionaries reaching India by the second half of the 13th century, and another third order devoted themselves to the relief of the sick and the poor and into the training of the young. They received official sanction from Pope Benedict XI in 1304. 1241-1250 AD 1241BONIFACE OF SAVOY Archbishop of Canterbury [1241-1270]. He was a bishop from France and the son of the Count of Savoy, and owed his initial ecclesiastical posts to his father. Other members of his family were also clergymen, and a brother succeeded his father as count. One niece was married to King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" \o "Henry III of England" Henry III of England and another was married to King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" \o "Louis IX of France" Louis IX of France. It was Henry who secured Bonifaces election as archbishop, and throughout his tenure of that office he spent much time on the continent. He clashed with his bishops, with his nephew-by-marriage, and with the papacy, but managed to eliminate the sees debt which he had inherited on taking office. During HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_de_Montfort,_6th_Earl_of_Leicester" \o "Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester" Simon de Montforts struggle with King Henry, Boniface initially helped Montforts cause, but later supported the king. On 1st February 1241 he was nominated to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" see of Canterbury with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_IV" \o "Pope Innocent IV" Pope Innocent IV confirming the appointment on 16 September 1243. Boniface however did not come to England until 1244 and was present, in the following year 1245, at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" \o "First Council of Lyon" First Council of Lyon. There, he was consecrated by Innocent IV on 15th January but it was only in 1249 that he returned to England and was enthroned at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" \o "Canterbury Cathedral" Canterbury Cathedral. The medieval chronicler HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Paris" \o "Matthew Paris" Matthew Paris said that Boniface was noted more for his birth than for his brains. He showed little concern for the spiritual duties of his office. His exactions and his overbearing behaviour, combined with the fact that he was a foreigner, offended the English. He was heavily involved in advancing the fortunes of his family on the continent, and spent fourteen of the twenty-nine years he was archbishop outside England. He made his see debt free by securing the right from the papacy to tax his clergy for seven years. When a number of bishops refused to pay, they were suspended from office. Boniface held church councils to reform the clergy, in 1257 at London, in 1258 at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton_Priory" \o "Merton Priory" Merton, and in 1261 at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambeth_Palace" \o "Lambeth Palace" Lambeth. Boniface was energetic in defending the liberties of his see, and clashed with King Henry over the election of several royal favourites to bishoprics. In 1250 Boniface attempted a visitation of his province, and this disturbed his suffragan bishops, who protested that Boniface was taking exorbitant amounts of money during his visits. They appealed to the pope, who reaffirmed the right of Boniface to conduct his visitation, but set a limit on the amount that could be taken from any monastery or church. After the visitation, Boniface left England again and only returned in 1252, after the pope had decided the bishops appeal in Bonifaces favour. After his return, he continued to assert his rights and settled a number of disputes with his bishops. He secured professions of obedience from all but three of the 37 bishops consecrated during his time as archbishop. Boniface was once more absent from England from October 1254 to November 1256, and spent most of that time in Savoy where he attempted to help his brothers rescue their eldest brother Thomas who was being held captive at Turin. In 1261 Boniface held a church council at Lambeth, where a series of ecclesiastical laws were published which denounced any royal limitations on ecclesiastical courts. These decrees were done without royal consent and thus were tantamount to an ecclesiastical revolt against royal authority similar to the baronial opposition movement that had begun in 1258. During the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Barons%27_War" \o "Second Barons' War" Second Barons War, Boniface seems to have sided first with the English bishops against King Henry, but later he sided with Henry. In 1262, he went to France, where he excommunicated the barons opposing the king. He was not summoned to the Parliament at London in January 1265 because he was abroad. On the triumph of the kings party in 1265, he returned to England, arriving there in May 1266. Boniface left England in November 1268, and never returned. Oddly enough, his official seal included a head of the pagan god HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serapis" \o "Serapis" Jupiter Serapis along with the usual depiction of the archbishop in full vestments. He died in Savoy while waiting to join Prince Edwards crusade [see 1270]. He succeeded Edmund Rich [see 1234] and was succeeded by William Chillenden [see 1270]. CELESTINE IV Pope [1241]. He was born in Milan and elected pope by only seven cardinals amidst rivalry and conflict. He died seventeen days later due to old age and exhaustion. He succeeded Gregory IX [see 1227] and was succeeded by Innocent V [see 1243]. 1242 1243DAVID OF AUGSBURG [1200-1272] He was a mystic who joined the Franciscans at Regensburg where he eventually became novice master. He moved in 1243 to the orders new foundation at Augsburg. An Official Visitor of the Franciscan friaries, and missionary and inquisitor of Waldensian [see 1210] heretics. GREGORY I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1243-1263] see 1210 and 1263. INNOCENT IV Pope [1243-1254]. Born of a family which produced another pope, Adrian V, and several cardinals he was trained in canon and Roman law at Bologna. He was made a cardinal in 1227 and did not rise to the papacy until some eighteen months after the death of Celestine IV due to pressure exerted by Emperor Frederick II. Innocent excommunicated him and charged Frederick with perjury and heresy at the Council of Lyons in 1245. It was only after Innocents death that an agreement was reached between papacy and empire. He succeeded Celestine IV [see 1241] and was succeeded by Alexander IV [see 1254]. 1244MANUEL II Patriarch of Constantinople [1244-1255] succeeded Methodius II [see 1240]. There is no additional information readily available. 1245ANDREW OF LONGJUMEAU [d.1270] French Dominican missionary sent by Louis IX in 1238 to Constantinople to collect a relic, the Crown of Thorns which the Latin Emperor Baldwin II had given to Louis in return for help and money but he had on sold it to the Venetians. In 1245 Pope Innocent IV [see 1243] sent Andrew to the Holy Land to heal a schism. He also accompanied Louis IX from 1248 to 1252 on the ill fated Seventh Crusade [see 1248] which was to Egypt. LYONS, COUNCILS OF Two general church councils were held at Lyons. The first met in 1245 summoned by Innocent IV who told the council that five problems tormented him: the sins of the priests; the loss of Jerusalem; the dangerous situation in the Byzantium empire; the Mongol attack on Europe; and Emperor Frederick IIs persecution of the church and pope. Although the council recommended a new crusade nothing actually happened. The second council was in 1274 convened by Gregory X. It had six sessions and voted 17 canons. Gregory wanted to organise a general crusade, but only one king came to the council and he soon left, convinced like many other European rulers that Gregorys plan were impractical in the current political climate. Gregorys efforts to obtain general peace in Europe, an obvious precondition of the crusade, were not entirely successful either. The council decreed that in the future, on the deaths of popes, the cardinals would wait only 10 days for absent colleagues before going into conclave. Also in an effort to avoid long conclaves they were to receive no salaries or advantages until after the election. Further, the council suppressed a number of Mendicant Orders (those orders who begged rather than worked), but especially commended the Franciscans and Dominicans. They also are considered a crusade against Saracens. SIMEON II Patriarch of Antioch [1245-1268] see also 1219 and 1268. 1246CORPUS CHRISTI, FEAST OF One of the greatest festivals of the Roman Catholic Church celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. The feast honours the presence of Christ in the sacrament of Communion. This enunciation of the dogma of transubstantiation at the 4th Lantern Conference in 1215 inspired the Belgian mystic Julaina of Montcornillon to ask Bishop Robert of Liege to institute a feast in honour of the Eucharist in 1246. The feast was suppressed by the Protestants commencing with Luther. 1247BETHLEHEMITES Obscure Hospital and Military Order. There was a hospital of St Mary of Bethlehem in London for mental patients established in 1247 which three hundred years later became a royal establishment for lunatics hence the word Bedlam. Pius II [see 1458] founded a military order with this name for protecting the Aegean. 1248CRUSADES The Seventh Crusade was as a result of the Muslims again taking Jerusalem in 1244 and was led by Louis IX of France who was captured with his whole army after being defeated by the Muslims. He was ransomed for 50,000 gold bezants which represented the whole annual revenue of France. The status quo was maintained at the end of the war [see 1228 and 1270]. 1249FINLAND [see also 1889] Christianity was first introduced into Finland mainly through the trade relations from Russia in the East and from Sweden in the West. In addition, the bishopric of Hamburg-Bremen did missionary work in Scandinavia. The position of the Western Church and Swedish rule were secured in 1249 through the crusade to Hame led by Birger Jarl of Sweden. Turku was soon made and piscopal seat, and a cathedral was built there during the 13th century. From the beginning of the 14th century until the end of the Middle Ages the bishops were graduates of foreign universities. The Reformation came peacefully to Finland when Peter Sarkilax [see 1523], Mikael Agricola [see 1554] and others, came from Wittenberg and became church leaders at home. 1250ATHANASIOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1250-1261] see 1235 and 1261. BAR HEBRAEUS [12251286] Bishop of the Syrian Monophysite Church. He was a prodigious writer and widely learned whose works are important for their textural and historical content. His output included Bible commentaries, a systematic theology as well as books on canon law, ethics, physics and astronomy among others. 1251-1260 AD 1251CELESTINES An order of hermits who adopted the Rule of St Benedict about 1251. When their leader Peter of Morrone became Pope Celestine V [see 1294] his monks took the name Celestines. Their discipline was severe. At one time there were 150 priories. The German priories perished in the Reformation. In 1785 the last remaining house at Calvino near Trent closed. 1252 1253 1254ALEXANDER IV Pope [1254-1261]. His uncle, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" \o "Pope Gregory IX" Pope Gregory IX [see 1227], made him HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_deacon" \o "Cardinal deacon" cardinal deacon and Protector of the Order of Franciscans in 1227. On the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_IV" \o "Pope Innocent IV" Pope Innocent IV (1243-1254) he was elected pope at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples" \o "Naples" Naples on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_12" \o "December 12" December 12, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1254" \o "1254" 1254. He continued Innocent IV policy of implacable hostility to the House of Hohenstaufen. His pontificate was characterised by efforts to unite the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" \o "Eastern Orthodox Church" Eastern Orthodox and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" \o "Roman Catholic Church" Roman Catholic churches, by the establishment of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition" \o "Inquisition" Inquisition in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France, by favours shown to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendicant_order" \o "Mendicant order" mendicant orders, and by an attempt to organise a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade" \o "Crusade" crusade against the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatars" \o "Tatars" Tatars after their second raid against HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" \o "Poland" Poland in 1259. On 12 April, 1261, shortly before his death, he issued a papal bull for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" \o "Henry III of England" Henry III of England, absolving him of oaths taken in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisions_of_Oxford" \o "Provisions of Oxford" Provisions of Oxford, which was instrumental in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Barons%27_War" \o "Second Barons' War" Second Barons War. He succeeded Innocent IV [see 1245] and was succeeded by Urban IV [see 1261]. 1255ARSENIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [1255-1259, 1261-1267] succeeded Manuel II [see 1244]. He received his education in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaea_(city)" \o "Nicaea (city)" Nicaea at a monastery of which he later became the abbot. Subsequently he gave himself up to a life of solitary asceticism in a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bithynia" \o "Bithynia" Bithynian monastery. From this seclusion he was in 1255 called by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_II_Lascaris" \o "Theodore II Lascaris" Theodore II to the position of patriarch at Nicaea, and four years later, on that emperors death, became joint guardian of his son John. His fellow-guardian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Muzalon" \o "George Muzalon" George Muzalon was immediately murdered by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_VIII_Palaeologus" \o "Michael VIII Palaeologus" Michael Palaeologus, who assumed the position of tutor. Arsenius then took refuge in the monastery of Paschasius, retaining his office of patriarch but refusing to discharge its duties. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patriarch_Nicephorus_II&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Patriarch Nicephorus II (page does not exist)" Nicephorus of Ephesus was appointed in his stead. Michael, having recovered HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople, induced Arsenius to undertake the office of patriarch, but soon incurred his severe censure by ordering the young prince HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_IV_Lascaris" \o "John IV Lascaris" John to be blinded. Arsenius went so far as to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunicate the emperor, who, having vainly sought for pardon, took refuge in false accusations against Arsenius and caused him to be banished to Proconnesus, where some years afterwards he died. Throughout these years he declined to remove the sentence of excommunication which he had passed on Michael, and after his death, when the new patriarch Josephus gave absolution to the emperor, the quarrel was carried between the Arsenites and the Josephists. The Arsenian schism lasted till 1315, when reconciliation was effected by the patriarch HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nephon_I&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Nephon I (page does not exist)" Nephon I.1256 1257BACON, ROGER [12141292] English Franciscan and scientist who joined the order to obtain the experimental equipment he needed. He wrote Opus Maius an encyclopaedia of science for submission to the pope. He also believed that a study of the Bible in the original languages would help one to understand nature better. 1258 1259 1260BOY BISHOP was a name given to the leader of the choirboy revels from St Nicholas day [December 6th] to Holy Innocents day on December 28th where he functioned as a bishop. In England it proved more popular and enduring than the Feast of Fools [see 1435]. This practice was abolished in the reign of Elizabeth I. FLAGELLANTS In the Middle Ages these were groups of people under the influence of a form of religious hysteria, who often went barefoot and inflicted beatings on there bare their shoulders by scourges as an act of penance. They first appeared in Bologna in 1260 following a period of famine and strife. The prophecies of the impending end of the world by Joachim of Flora combined with the state of the times created mass hysteria at the possibility of divine displeasure. The most spectacular appearance of the Flagellants took place in northern Europe in 1349 and was associated with the outbreak of the Black Death. The Flagellants believed that, because of their self-inflicted tortures, they would be saved, that they bore on their bodies the stigmata of Christ, and their blood was mingled with his blood. They also called for the killing of the Jews, whom they believed were the enemies of God and responsible for the plagues. NIKEPHORUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1260-1261] succeeded Arsenius [see 1255]. There is no additional information readily available. OLIVI, PETRUS JOANNIS [1248-1298] Augustinian philosopher and leader of Spiritual Franciscans. He entered the Franciscan Order in 1260, studied in Paris and possibly at Oxford. Accused of heresy at Strasbourg in 1282 he established his orthodoxy at Montpelier in 1287 and in Paris 1292. He was greatly venerated by the Spiritual Franciscans after his death but some of his ideas were condemned at the Council of Vienne in 1311-1312. REGINALD OF PIPERNO [c.1230-1290] Theologian who was born in Italy and joined the Dominican Order of Naples around 1260. He became the confessor of Thomas Aquinas as well as his constant companion. In 1272 Reginald took a teaching post in Naples succeeding Thomas in the chair of philosophy in 1274. WILLIAM OF MOERBEKE [c.1215-1286] Philosopher and translator who was born in Belgium and studied at Cologne and by 1260 had entered the Dominican Order. Urged by Thomas Aquinas [see 1265] he began to edit and translate ancient Greek authors. He was a chaplain and confessor to Popes Clement IV and Gregory X. Zealous for reunion with the Greek Church he participated in the Council of Lyons [see 1274] and was appointed archbishop of Corinth in 1278 where he resided until his death. 1261-1270 AD 1261URBAN IV Pope [1261-1264]. He who was the son of a cobbler of Troyes, France, who studied theology and common law in Paris, and became archdeacon of Lige. At theFirst Council of Lyon in 1245 he attracted the attention of Innocent IV who sent him on two missions in Germany. One of the missions was to negotiate the Treaty of Christburg between the pagan Prussians and the Teutonic Knights [see 1199]. In 1255 Alexander IV made him patriarch of Jerusalem. He had returned from Jerusalem which was in dire straits and was at Viterbo seeking help for the oppressed Christians in the East when Alexander IV died, and after athree-month vacancy he was chosen by the eight cardinals of the Sacred College to succeed him on August 29th 1261, taking the name of Urban IV. The Latin Empire of Constantinople came to an end with the capture of the city by the Greeks led by their Emperor Michael VIII a fortnight before Urban IVs election so he attempted without success to stir up a crusade to restore the Latin Empire. The festival of Corpus Christi(the Body of Christ) was instituted by Urban IV in 1264. During his reign, there were many political shifts in alliances. Negotiations were nearing completion when Urban IV died in 1264. He succeeded Alexander IV [see 1254] and was succeeded by Clement IV [see 1265]. YOANNIS VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1261-1268] see 1250 and 1268. He was restored in 1271 and presided until 1293. With the support from some of the Bishops, Pope Yoannis VII was replaced for three years by Pope HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gabriel_III_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope Gabriel III of Alexandria" Gabriel III who was originally one of the candidates for the post. He was restored as Pope after the death of Gabriel III. This is the only occasion in history when the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" \o "Coptic Orthodox Church" Coptic Orthodox Church had two Popes at the same time. 1262 1263BERTHOLD OF REGENSBURG [1210-1272] who was a Franciscan preacher in the Franciscan monastery in Regensburg from 1240. Afterwards he preached throughout Germany, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. In 1263 Urban IV [see 1261] ordered him to preach against heresy. He went through Germany and Switzerland reaching Paris where he met Louis IX. LULL, RAYMOND [c.1232-1316] Franciscan missionary, mystic, and scholar who was converted from a life of dissipation in 1263. Resolved to dedicate himself to winning Muslims to Christ, Lull learned Arabic. He also had a vision which revealed to him a method of approaching Muslims with the Christian message. He persuaded James II of Majorca to found a monastery at Miramar where Franciscans could study Arabic and prepare for mission work among Muslems. Lull was the first Christian theologian of the Middle Ages to use a language other than Latin for his major works. He wrote in Catalan and Arabic in addition to Latin and produced 290 books of which 240 survive. NICHOLAS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1263-1276) see 1243 and 1276. He stayed in Constantinople. He participated in the issue of Arsenios, Patriarch of Constantinople who was excommunicated by the Synod of 1266, though he did not accept the excommunication. 1264 1265AQUINAS, THOMAS [12241274] Italian Dominican who became the greatest philosopher and theologian of the mediaeval church. Born in Italy he studied at Naples and became a Dominican in 1244. His most important work was Summa Theologiae [12651273], a systemisation of the data of Christian revelation as understood by Thomas in the light of concepts of Aristotle which he had, due to ill health, cease writing the year before his death. The strong modern revival of his influence and of Thomism dates from the publication praising it by Pope Leo XIII [see 1878] in 1879 thus giving it an official though not exclusive place in the thinking of the Roman Catholic Church. He also had a major effect on Protestantism although his unbiblical errors were repudiated by the Reformation. CLEMENT IV Pope [1265-1268]. Clement had a somewhat unusual history prior to being elected pope. He was a widower who had been both a soldier and lawyer before entering the priesthood after the death of his wife. His rise in the church was quick being consecrated in 1265 as the pope only nine years after becoming a bishop. During this time the Vatican was in conflict with Manfred of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Clement sided with Charles of Anjou who eventually defeated the enemy at the battle of Tagliacozzo. Following the death of Clement IV in November 1268 the papacy vacancy remained unfilled because there were many unresolved problems amongst the cardinals. He succeeded Urban IV [see 1261] and was succeeded by Gregory X [see 1271]. 1266SIGER OF BRABANT [c.1235-1282] Radical Aristotelian philosopher who taught philosophy in Paris from around 1266 to 1276 and was attacked by Bonaventura [see 1273] and Thomas Aquinas [see 1265]. Thirteen errors taken from his teaching were condemned by the bishop of Paris in 1270. Summonsed to appear before the Inquisitor in 1276 Siger fled to Italy. He retired to Orvieto where he was reportedly stabbed to death by an insane cleric. 1267GERMANUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1267] succeeded Arsenius [see 1255]. There is no additional information readily available. JOSEPH I Galesiotes Patriarch of Constantinople [1267-1275] succeeded Germanus III [see 1267]. There is no additional information readily available. 1268ETHIOPIA [see also 340 and 1634] In 1268 the old dynasty was restored; bringing the church to new life, but excesses of zeal led to the forcible baptism of conquered tribes. Attempts to bring the church into communion with Rome ended with the martyrdom of Dominican missionaries. Only the Abyssinian monastery in Jerusalem retained relationship with the West. EUTHYMIUS II Patriarch of Antioch [1268-1269] see also 1245 and 1269. GABRIEL III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1268-1271] see 1261 and 1271 He was originally one of the candidates for the Papal post when Pope Yoannis VII was elected. With support from some of the Bishops, Gabriel III replaced John VII and reigned for three years until his death. 1269THEODOSIUS IV Patriarch of Antioch [1269-1276] see also 1268 and 1276. With Theodosius IV the Patriarchate returned to Antioch [see 1185]. 1270CHILLENDEN, ADAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1270-1272]. He was also known as William Chillenden and was a monk who was elected as prior of Christ Church Canterbury in 1264. He was elected as archbishop of Canterbury on 9th September 1270 but King Edward I wanted his chancellor Robert Burnell elected. The pope, Gregory X, set aside Adams election and he was never consecrated in the position. He died in 1274. He succeeded Boniface of Savoy [see 1241] and was succeeded by Robert Kilwardby [see 1273]. CRUSADES The Eighth Crusade was called by Louis IX of France who was concerned with the Muslim advance on the remnants of the Crusader states. Louis landed near Tunis and due to disease by drinking polluted water he and many of army died. There was no change other than opening up trade with Tunis. [See 1248 and 1271] KINGS EVIL, THE Scrofula, a tubercular disorder affecting the skin with draining sores and ugly scars. It was regarded by French and English tradition as a disease curable by the monarchs touch hence the term the kings evil. Presenting those afflicted to the king may date from the reign of Edward the Confessor [d.1066]. The practice certainly existed in the court of Louis IX [d.1270] in France. The last to practice this rite were the English Stuarts in the seventeenth century. 1271-1280 AD 1271CONCLAVE is used to describe the closed room in which the cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church are shut as they choose the new pope. The origin of this method goes back to 1271 when after three years of indecision they were locked in a room until they had decided who the next pope would be. CRUSADES The Ninth Crusade was an extension of the eighth and was led by Prince Edward of England who sailed to Acre. The crusader spirit was almost exhausted. The Muslim Mamluks power was increasing and with the eventual fall of Acre and the withdrawal of Crusader forces to Cyprus the two centuries of involvement in the crusades since the initial call of Pope Urban II [see 1088] for holy war was at an end by 1302 [see 1270]. GREGORY X Pope [1271-1276]. He was elected by the papal election from 12681271 which was the longest papal election in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. The equally split French and Italian cardinals each wanted a pope from their country due to the ongoing political situation with Charles of Anjou. The deadlock was finally broken when the citizens of Viterbo, where the cardinals were assembled, removed the roof from the building where the cardinals were meeting and locked them in, only allowing them bread and water. Three days later, Pope Gregory X was elected. Born in Piacenza, he spent most of his ecclesiastical career in the Low Countries. His election came as a complete surprise to him, occurring while he was engaged in the Ninth Crusade to Acre with Edward I of England(1239 1307) in Palestine. Not wanting to leave his mission, his first action as pope was to send out appeals for aid to the Crusaders, and at his final sermon at Acre just before leaving to sail for Italy he famously said If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning which is a quote from Psalm 137. As soon as he was elected in 1271, Pope Gregory received a letter from the Mongol Great Khan Kublai, brought by Niccolo and Maffeo Polo following their travels to his court in Mongolia. Kublai was asking for the dispatch of a hundred missionaries, and some oil from the lamp of the Holy Sepulchre. The new pope could spare only two friars and some lamp oil. The friars turned back soon after the party left for Mongolia. The two Polos, this time accompanied by the young Marco Polo, returned to the Mongol Empire taking the oil from the pope to Kublai Khan in 1275. On his arrival at Rome his first act was to summon the council which met at the Second Council of Lyons in 1274 for the purpose of considering the East-West Schism, the condition of the Holy Land, and the abuses of the Roman Catholic Church. It was while returning from that council that he died at Arezzo. Sometime between 1271 and 1276, Gregory wrote a letter against the charges of blood libel and persecution against the Jews. He succeeded Clement IV [see 1265] and was succeeded by Innocent V [see 1276]. 1272UBERTINO OF CASALE [1259-c.1330] Franciscan spiritual leader who entered the Franciscan order around 1272 and studied and lectured in Paris from 1289 to 1298 then returned to Italy as a teacher and preacher. Influenced by John of Parma [see 1233] and P.J. Olivi [see 1260] who were ardent Spirituals, he became the leader of the Franciscan Spirituals. His main work was an account of Christs life and suffering and a commentary on the Apocalypse following the ideas of Joachim of Fiore [see 1192], with attacks upon the papacy and those Franciscans who had abandoned rigid observance of the vows of poverty. He was charged with heresy and fled Avignon in 1325. He again preached against John XXII at Como in 1329 before disappearing from history. 1273BONAVENTURA, JOHN [12211274] Italian bishop of Albano [12731274]. Born in Viterbo he entered the Friars Minor order in 1243 and in 1257 was elected minister general and preserved the order from division. Having declined the archbishopric of York in 1265 he was compelled to become bishop of Albano in 1273 as well as a cardinalship. He was responsible for Gregory X election in 1271 and attended the council of Lyons in 1274 and contributed to the short lived reunion with the Greek schismatics. His works were Christ centred, saturated with the Scriptures and the teachings of the Church Fathers. He emphasised the folly of human wisdom when compared to the illumination that God waits to give the Christian. KILWARDBY, ROBERT Archbishop of Canterbury [1273-1278]. He studied at the University of Paris, where he soon became famous as a teacher of grammar and logic. He then joined the Dominican Order and turning his attention to theology became regent at Oxford University. In October 1272 Pope Gregory X terminated a dispute over the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury by appointing Kilwardby on 11 October 1272 and he was consecrated on 26 February 1273. Although the new archbishop crowned Edward I and his queen, Eleanor, in August 1274, he took little part in business of state, but was energetic in discharging the spiritual duties of his office. He was charitable to the poor, and showed liberality to the Dominicans. In 1278 Pope Nicholas III made him cardinal bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina and he resigned his archbishopric and left England carrying with him the registers and other books and papers belonging to the see of Canterbury. He also left the see deep in debt again, after his predecessor had cleared the debt. He died in Italy the following year. Kilwardby was the first member of amendicant orderto attain a high position in the English Church. He was an opponent of Thomas Aquinas, and in 1277 he prohibited the teaching of thirty of Thomas concepts. He succeeded Willaim Chillenden [see 1270] and was succeeded by Robert Burnell [see 1278]. 1274 1275JOHN XI Bekkos Patriarch of Constantinople [1275-1282] succeeded Joseph I [see 1267]. He was born in Nicaea among the exiles from Constantinople during the period of Latin occupation of that city, and died in prison in the fortress of St. Gregory near the entrance to the Gulf ofNicomedia. His history is closely bound up with the fortunes of the Union of the Churches declared at the SecondCouncil of Lyon(1274), a union promoted by Pope Gregory X in the West and EmperorMichael VIII Palaeologusin the East. The union policy of Michael VIII was largely politically motivated and John at first opposed it; but, after Michael VIII had had him imprisoned for speaking out against it he changed his mind after the reading of Greek church fathers as to the small theological differences between the Greek and Latin Churches. After Patriarch Joseph I Galesiotes abdicated early in 1275 due to his opposition to theCouncil of Lyon, John was elected to replace him. His relationship with the emperor was sometimes stormy; although Michael VIII depended on him for maintaining his empires peace with the West, he was annoyed by his repeated intercessions on behalf of the poor. Michael was a crafty man, and knew how to make the patriarchs life miserable in many ways and for a period in 1279 he retired from the position. The final years of Michael VIIIs reign were entirely taken up with defending his empire against the threat posed by the Western king, Charles of Anjou, and in his anxiety to meet this threat Michael enforced a reign of terror against opponents of union. The ecclesial union engineered by Michael VIII was never popular in Byzantium, and after his death in December 1282 his son and successor, Andronicus II, repudiated it. On the day after Christmas, 1282, John Bekkos withdrew to a monastery; the former patriarch, Joseph I, was brought into the city on a stretcher, and a series of councils and public meetings ensued, led by a group of anti-unionist monks. John in fear of violent death at the hands of a mob, was induced to sign a formal renunciation of his unionist opinions and of his priesthood (January, 1283), a renunciation which he afterwards disowned as extorted under duress, but which was used against him. After this John spent some years under house arrest at a large monastery inPrusain Asia Minor. From there, he began a literary campaign to exonerate himself and succeeded in having a council called to re-examine his case but the Council of Blachernae reaffirmed his earlier condemnation although later events made John consider it a victory. He spent the remaining years of his life in prison in the fortress of St. Gregory, revising his writings, maintaining friendly relations with the emperor and prominent Byzantine churchmen, but unwilling to give up his unionist opinions. He died in 1297. 1276ADRIAN V Pope [1276]. Pope Adrian V was born Ottobuono de Fieschi, and was pope in 1276 being elected under the influence of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_of_Anjou" \o "Charles of Anjou" Charles of Anjou on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_12" \o "July 12" July 12, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1276" \o "1276" 1276, but died at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viterbo" \o "Viterbo" Viterbo later that year on August 18, 1276 without ever having been ordained to the priesthood. His first clerical position came in 1243 when he was created a papal chaplain and eventually he was created cardinal deacon of San Adriano by his uncle HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_IV" \o "Pope Innocent IV" Pope Innocent IV (124354). HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C_o_a_Adriano_V.svg" HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C_o_a_Adriano_V.svg" \o "Enlarge" He was sent to England in 1265 by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_IV" \o "Pope Clement IV" Pope Clement IV (126568) to mediate between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" \o "Henry III of England" Henry III of England (121672) and his barons, and to preach the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades" \o "Crusades" Crusades. He remained there for several years and his diplomatic position was such that his name is still on the oldest extant piece of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_law" \o "English law" English HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_law" \o "Statute law" statute law, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_Marlborough" \o "Statute of Marlborough" Statute of Marlborough of 1267, where the formal title mentions as a witness the Lord Ottobon, at that time legate in England. In April 1268 he issued a set of canons, which formed the basis of church law in England until the reformation of the sixteenth century. He succeeded Innocent V [see below ] and was succeeded by John XXI [see below]. ATHANASIUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1276-1316) see 1276 and 1316. He sought refuge in Constantinople to save himself from the persecutions by the Arabs. He interfered in the issues of unity between the Churches, during the reign of Michael Palaiologos, whose successor, Andronikos II Palaiologos called a Synod in Constantinople under the Chairmanship of Patriarch Athanasios on the condemnation of the unity by the Synod of Lyon. The traumatic state of the Church of Constantinople and the danger from the Arabs, forced him to remain in the Monastery belonging to Sinai, in Crete, where he died. INNOCENT V Pope [1276]. He was born in south eastern France and as a young person joined the Dominican Order, in which he acquired great fame as a preacher. He was the first member of that order to become pope. Pope Innocent V was the author of several works in philosophy, theology, and canon law, including commentaries on the Pauline epistles. The only noteworthy feature of his brief and uneventful pontificate was his desire for reunion with the Eastern Church. He was proceeding to send legates toMichael VIII (1261-1282), the Eastern Roman Emperor, in connection with the recent decisions of the Second Council of Lyons, when he died at Rome. He succeeded Gregory X [see 1271] and was succeeded by Adrian V [see above]. JOHN XXI Pope [1276-1277]. He was a native of Portugal and uniquely a papal physician. He studied in Lisbon and Paris and taught medicine at Sienna. He became physician to Gregory X who created him a cardinal bishop in 1273. After the death of Adrian V he was elected pope at the conclave of cardinals on September 13th 1276 and crowned a week later. One of John XXIs few acts during his brief rule was to reverse the decree recently passed at the Second Council of Lyon of 1274, which not only confined cardinals in solitude until they elected a successor pope, but also progressively restricted their supplies of food and wine if their deliberation took too long. John attempted to launch a crusade for the Holy Land, pushed for a union with the Eastern Church, and did what he could to maintain peace between the Christian nations. He also launched a drive to convert theTatars, which came to nothing. He was seriously injured while he lay sleeping when part of the roof fell in and he died eight days later. He succeeded Adrian V [see above] and was succeeded by Nicholas III [see 1277]. He should have been John XX however there has never been a pope John XX as this pope decided to skip that designation to correct what was seen in his time as an error in the counting of popes from John XV to XIX. THEODOSIUS V Patriarch of Antioch [1276-1285] see also 1269 and 1285. 1277NICHOLAS III Pope [1277-1280]. A Roman nobleman who had served under eight popes, been made protector of the Franciscans by Alexander IV and inquisitor-general by Urban IV. Nicholas brief pontificate was marked by several important events. A born politician, he greatly strengthened the papal position in Italy. He concluded an agreement with Rudolph I of Habsburg (127391) in May 1278, by which Rome and the exarchate of Ravenna were guaranteed to the pope. He also discussed with Rudolph, the splitting the German Empire into four separate kingdoms Lombardy, Burgundy, Tuscia and Germany, where Rudolphs kingdom would be made hereditary in addition to himself becoming emperor. In July 1278 Nicholas III issued an epoch-making constitution for the government of Rome, which forbade foreigners taking civil office. Nicholas father had been a personal friend of Francis of Assisi, and he himself had to focus much of his attention on theFranciscan order. He issued a bull in 1279 to settle the strife within the order between the parties of strict and loose observance. He died of a cardiovascular event. Nicholas III, though a man of learning noted for his strength of character, was known for his excessive nepotism. He elevated three of his closest relatives to the cardinalate, and gave others important positions. His alleged discussions with King Rudolph could be interpreted as an attempt to find principalities for his nephews and other relations. He succeeded John XXI [see 1276] and was succeeded by Martin IV [see 1281]. 1278BURNELL, ROBERT Archbishop of Canterbury [1278-1279]. On 23 January 1275 Burnell was elected to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Bath_and_Wells" \o "Bishop of Bath and Wells" see of Bath and Wells. He was consecrated on 7 April 1275. Three years later King Edward I tried to secure the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" see of Canterbury for his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favourite" \o "Favourite" favourite. Burnell was elected to the archbishopric in mid 1278, but the election was quashed by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_III" \o "Pope Nicholas III" Pope Nicholas III [see 1277] in January of 1279. King Edward sent a deputation, including the eventual appointee, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peckham" \o "John Peckham" John Peckham, to secure Nicholas confirmation of the election. The pope named three cardinals as investigators, and then appointed Peckham instead. The bishops second failure to obtain the archbishopric was probably due to his lifestyle, which included keeping a mistress. Edward made one last attempt in early 1280 to promote his friend to a wealthier see, when Burnell was nominated to become bishop of Winchester. The election, however, was quashed on 28 June 1280, once again by Pope Nicholas III. He succeeded Robert Kilwardby [see 1273] and was succeeded by John Peckham [see 1279]. 1279PECKHAM, JOHN Archbishop of Canterbury [1279-1292]. He was a native of Sussex who was educated at Lewes Priory and became a Franciscan friar about 1250. He studied at Paris under Bonaventure, where he later taught theology and wrote aCommentary on Lamentations. From his teaching, he came into conflict with Thomas Aquinas, whom he debated on two occasions. Known as a conservative theologian, he opposed Aquinas views on the nature of the soul. The Thomist doctrine of the unity of form was condemned after these debates. His theological works later were used by his pupil Roger Marston who in turn inspired Duns Scotus. Peckham also studied optics and astronomy, and his studies in those subjects were influenced by Roger Bacon. Returning to England in 1270 he taught at Oxford before being elected to Canterbury in 1279. Peckhams insistence on discipline offended contemporaries. His first act on arrival in England was to call a council at Reading, which met in July of 1279. Its main object was ecclesiastical reform, but the provision that a copy of Magna Carta should be hung in all cathedral and collegiate churches seemed to the king a political action. Another ruling was on non-residence of clergy in their livings. The only exception Peckham was prepared to make on non-residence was if the clerk needed to go abroad to study. Peckham worked hard to reorganise the estates of the diocese, and held an inquiry in 1283 through 1285 into the revenues of the see. He set up administrative structures in the manors that divided them into seven administrative groups.Peckham, though, was almost continually in debt, and because he was a Franciscan, he had no personal property to help with his living expenses. He had inherited the diocesan debts that his predecessor had allowed to accumulate, and never managed to clear them His time as archbishop was marked by efforts to improve discipline in the clergy as well as reorganise the estates of his see. Pluralism, or holding more than one clericalbenefice, was one of the abuses that Peckham combated. He served Edward I in Wales, where he formed a low opinion of the Welsh people and laws. Before and during his time as archbishop, he wrote a number of works on optics, philosophy, and theology, as well as writing hymns. Numerous manuscripts of his works survive. On his death, his body was buried inCanterbury Cathedral, but his heart was given to the Franciscans for burial. Edward called on him for help in bringing order into conqueredWales, sending him on a diplomatic mission. In 1282 he attempted to mediate between the Welsh and King Edward, but given that Edward would not budge on the main issues, it was a hopeless mission. In the end, Peckham excommunicated some of the Welsh who were resisting Edward, not unsurprising given Peckhams views of the Welsh where he criticised the Welsh clergy for their unchaste lives, conspicuous consumption, and heavy drinking. He also found the Welsh clergy to be uneducated and also criticised the Welsh people as a whole, contrasting their pastoral economy with the farming-based economy of England, and finding the Welsh to be lazy and idle. Skirmishes with Edward over clerical privileges, royal power, Peckhams use of excommunication, and ecclesiastical taxation continued, but in October of 1286, Edward issued a writ specifying what types of cases the ecclesiastical courts could hear. These included moral issues, matrimonial issues, disputes about wills and testaments, the correction of sins, and slander and physical attacks on the clergy. Peckham was very strict in his interpretations of canon law, and once wrote toQueen Eleanorthat her use of loans from Jewish moneylenders to acquire lands wasusury. At an ecclesiastical council held at Lambeth in 1281, Peckham ordered the clergy to instruct their congregations in doctrine at least four times a year. They were to explain and teach the Articles of Faith, the Ten Commandments, the Works of Mercy, the Seven Deadly Sins, the Seven Virtues and the Sacraments. This command was issued as a canon, or law, of the council, and the group is known as the Lambeth Constitutions. Peckham often was in conflict with his subordinate bishops, mainly because of his efforts to reform them, but Peckhams own attitude and handling of his clergy contributed to the problem. He once wrote toRoger de Meyland, the bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, These things need your attention, but you have been absent so long that you seem not to care. We therefore order you, on receipt of this letter, to take up residence in your diocese, so that, even if you are not competent to redress spiritual evils, you may at least minister to the temporal needs of the poor. Peckham died on 8th December 1292. He succeeded Robert Burnell [see 1278] and was succeeded by Robert Winchelsey [see 1294]. 1280 1281-1290 AD 1281GERTRUDE THE GREAT [1256-1302] German mystic. She was brought up from the age of five and educated in the Black Benedictine nunnery of Heltfa Thuringia. She had her first mystical experience in 1281 and from then on led a life of contemplation. She was a writer, and one of her works Legatus Divinae Pietatis is a classic of Christian mysticism. She was one of the first exponents of the devotion to the Sacred Heart. Her cult was first authorised in 1606 and extended to the entire Roman Catholic Church by Clement XIII in 1738. MARTIN IV Pope [1281-1285]. He was a French pope who rose to the position of Chancellor of France under Louis IX which he held until his election as pope. He was a papal legate from the reign of Urban IV onwards. Six months after the death of Nicholas III Charles of Anjou imprisoned two influential Italian cardinals, on the grounds that they were interfering with the election and without their opposition, Martin IV was unanimously elected to the papacy on February 22nd 1281. Because of the hatred of the Romans for this Frenchman he could not be crowned in Rome. Dependent on Charles of Anjou in nearly everything, the new pope quickly appointed him to the position of Roman Senator. At the insistence of Charles, Martin IV excommunicated the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus (1261-1282), who stood in the way of Charles plans to restore the Latin Empire of the East that had been established in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. He thus broke the tenuous union which had been reached between the Greek and the Latin Churches at the Second Council of Lyons in 1274, and further compromise was rendered impossible. In 1282, Charles was overthrown in the violent massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers. The Sicilians had electedPeter III of Aragon (1276-1285) as their king and sought papal confirmation but Martin IV used all the spiritual and material resources at his command against the Aragonese, trying to preserve Sicily for the House of Anjou. He excommunicated Peter III, declared his kingdom of Aragon forfeit, and ordereda crusade against him, but it was all in vain. With the death of his protector Charles of Anjou, Martin was unable to remain at Rome. Pope Martin IV died at Perugia on March 28, 1285. He succeeded Nicholas III [see 1277] and was succeeded by Honorius IV [see 1285]. He should have been Martin II but due to mediaeval misunderstanding of Popes Marinus I & II [882, 942] he took the title Martin IV. MARTIN IV Pope [1281-1285]. He was a French pope who rose to the position of Chancellor of France under Louis IX which he held until his election as pope. He was a papal legate from the reign of Urban IV onwards. Six months after the death of Nicholas III Charles of Anjou imprisoned two influential Italian cardinals, on the grounds that they were interfering with the election and without their opposition, Martin IV was unanimously elected to the papacy on February 22nd 1281. Because of the hatred of the Romans for this Frenchman he could not be crowned in Rome. Dependent on Charles of Anjou in nearly everything, the new pope quickly appointed him to the position of Roman Senator. At the insistence of Charles, Martin IV excommunicated the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus (1261-1282), who stood in the way of Charles plans to restore the Latin Empire of the East that had been established in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. He thus broke the tenuous union which had been reached between the Greek and the Latin Churches at the Second Council of Lyons in 1274, and further compromise was rendered impossible. In 1282, Charles was overthrown in the violent massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers. The Sicilians had electedPeter III of Aragon (1276-1285) as their king and sought papal confirmation but Martin IV used all the spiritual and material resources at his command against the Aragonese, trying to preserve Sicily for the House of Anjou. He excommunicated Peter III, declared his kingdom of Aragon forfeit, and ordereda crusade against him, but it was all in vain. With the death of his protector Charles of Anjou, Martin was unable to remain at Rome. Pope Martin IV died at Perugia on March 28, 1285. He succeeded Nicholas III [see 1277] and was succeeded by Honorius IV [see 1285]. He should have been Martin II but due to mediaeval misunderstanding of Popes Marinus I & II [882, 942] he took the title Martin IV. 1282SICILIAN VESPERS The massacre of the French in Sicily on 30th March 1282 signalled by the tolling of the bell for Vespers. Between three and four thousand died. It eventually led to Sicilian independence at the Treaty of Caltabellota in 1302. 1283GREGORY II Cyprus Patriarch of Constantinople [1283-1289] succeeded John XI [see 1275]. His name was originally George. His parents were middle class but of noble origin. He moved to Nicosia as a teenager seeking further education. Not satisfied by the level of education provided by local teachers in Greek, he became a student at a Latin school which was available then as Cyprus was a crusaderkingdom. He had difficulty learning Latin and thus got only a superficial knowledge of grammar and Aristotles Logic. He now moved to Ephesus and then to Nicaea where he completed his studies. With the recapture ofConstantinopleby Nicaean forces in 1261, he moved there, later becoming a teacher. He became patriarch in 1283. The orthodox and the catholic churches had proclaimed their union in 1274 in the Second Council of Lyons, motivated more by the emperors politics than by theological arguments. Gregory, contrary to his predecessor refused to accept the filioque clause added to the Nicene Creed by the Roman Catholics. Gregory spoke of an eternal manifestation of the Spirit by the Son. Gregorys formula has been considered an Orthodox answer to the filioque, though it does not have the status of official Orthodox doctrine. Gregorys perception of Trinity was endorsed by the council ofBlachernae in 1285. He wrote collections of proverbs and his autobiography. He died in 1289. 1284 1285ARSENIUS Patriarch of Antioch [1285-1293] see also 1276 and 1293. GILES OF ROME [c.1243-1316] Theologian and philosopher. He studied at Paris under the Augustinian Hermits and read theology under Thomas Aquinas [see 1265] at the University of Paris. From 1285 to 1291 he was the first Augustinian master in theology there. He was a prodigious writer. In 1287 the order commanded that his teachings be followed in its schools. He was a witness for Aquinass thought, though differing appreciably on some issues. HONORIUS IV Pope [1285-1287]. During his unremarkable pontificate he largely continued to pursue the pro-French policy of his predecessor. He was the last pope who was married before he took Holy Orders. He studied in Paris, and in 1274 accompanied Gregory X to the Council of Lyon. His election was one of the speediest in the history of the papacy. On May 20, he was consecrated bishop and crowned pope in theBasilica of St. Peter. Honorius IV was already advanced in age and so severely affected with gout that he could neither stand nor walk. Rome and the states of the church enjoyed a period of tranquillity during the pontificate of Honorius IV, the like of which they had not enjoyed for many years. The continuous disturbances in Rome during the pontificate of Martin IV had not allowed that pope to reside in Rome, but now the Romans warmly invited Honorius IV to make Rome his permanent residence. Honorius IV inherited plans for anothercrusade, but confined himself to collecting the tithes imposed by the Council of Lyon, arranging with the great banking-houses ofFlorence,Siena, andPistoiato act as his agents. He often appointed them to special missions and to bishoprics, and gave them exclusive charge of the Inquisition. He also approved the Carmelites and the Augustinian hermits but opposed the Apostolic Brethren, an order embracing evangelical poverty that had been started in 1260 and in 1286 issued a bull condemning them as heretics. At the University of Paris he encouraged the establishment of chairs for Eastern languages in order to give an opportunity for the conversion of the Muslims and the reunion of the schismatic churches in the East. The Mongol rulerArghunsent an ambassador with a letter to Pope Honorius IV in 1285, a Latin translation of which is preserved in the Vatican. It mentions the links to Christianity of Arghuns family, and proposes a combined military conquest of Muslim lands. Honorius IV was hardly capable of acting on this invasion and could not muster the military support necessary to achieve this plan. He succeeded Martin IV [see 1281] and was succeeded by Nicholas IV [see 1288]. PHILIP IV the Fair [1268-1314] King of France from 1285. He reigned when papal power was beginning its decline and opposed the Roman Catholic Church and its claim to temporal power. In 1296 he began his feud with Pope Boniface VIII over taxing the clergy. In 1302 the Philip summoned the States General a move which later approved his condemnation of the popes papal bull. Philips agents captured Boniface and later humiliated him at Anagni. Philip finally saw the papacy capitulate, elect Clement V [see 1305], and begin the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, namely the removal of the papacy from Rome to Avignon. In 1307 Philip seized the riches of the churchs Knights Templar and arrested their grandmaster. At his insistence the order was abolished by Clement in 1312. 1286 1287ANGELA OF FOLIGNO Umbrian mystic who was born into a wealthy family and spent most of her life there. She married and when nearly 40 underwent a sudden conversion and became a Franciscan. After the death of her husband and children she lived in an austere cloistered environment surrounded by disciples. MATTHEW OF AQUASPARTA [c.1240-1302] Franciscan philosopher born in Umbria. He studied at Todi and Paris and became Bonaventures [see 1273] most important pupil. He became general of the Franciscans in 1287 and the following year was made cardinal and in 1291 cardinal bishop of Porto and Reufina. He was opposed to the following of Aristotle by Aquinas by which faith and reason were divided. He produced many sermons and Biblical commentaries. 1288NICHOLAS IV Pope [1288-1292]. He was a Franciscan monk who had been legate to the Greeks under Gregory X and was made cardinal bishop by Martin IV. He steered a middle course between the factions at Rome, and sought a settlement of the Sicilian question. In May 1289 he crownedKing Charles II of Naples and Sicily (12851309) after the latter had expressly recognised papal suzerainty, and in February 1291 concluded a treaty with Alfonso III of Aragon (128591) and Philip IV of France (12851314) looking toward the expulsion of James II of Aragon (128596) from Sicily. The loss of Acre in 1291 stirred Nicholas IV to renewed enthusiasm for a crusade. He sent missionaries, among them the celebrated Franciscan missionary, John of Monte Corvino, to labour among the Bulgarians, Ethiopians, Mongols, Tatars and Chinese. Nicholas IV issued an important policy on July 18th 1289, which granted to thecardinals one-half of all income accruing to the Roman see and a share in the financial management thereby paving the way for that independence of the College of Cardinals which, in the following century, was to be of detriment to the papacy. He succeeded Honorius IV [see 1285] and was succeeded by Celestine V [see 1294]. 1289ATHANASIUS I [1230 October 28, 1310] Patriarch of Constantinople [1289-1293, 1303-1310] succeeded Gregory II [see 1283]. Athanasius I was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople for two periods from 1289 to 1293 and 1303 to 1309. He was born in Adrianople and died in Constantinople. Chosen by the emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus as patriarch, he opposed the reunion of the Greek and Roman Churches and introduced an ecclesial reform that evoked opposition within the clergy. He resigned in 1293 and was restored in 1303 with popular support. The pro-union clergical faction forced him into retirement in early 1310. 1290 1291-1300 AD 1291DUNS SCOTUS, JOHN [1266-1308] Scholastic theologian who entered the Franciscan order at the age of 15 and was ordained a priest in 1291. He studied in Paris and returned to England to lecture on the sentences of Peter Lombard at Oxford. Later he taught in Paris and in 1303 was banished by Philip IV because he supported Pope Boniface VIII. It is from Duns Scotus that we get the word dunce although he was far from one. Critical of the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas which attempted to harmonise Aristotle with Christianity, he argued that faith was a matter of will and could not be supported by logical proofs. The division between philosophy and faith was to have far-reaching effects. Although urging for the existence of God from efficiency, finality and the degree of perfection, he taught that all other knowledge of the divine, including the resurrection and immortality, must be accepted by sheer belief. Creation he believed was the effect of Gods love as he extended his goodness to creatures so that they will love him freely. Grace is identical with love and has its origin in the will. Although much of Duns Scotus teaching gained wide recognition among theologians, he is especially remembered for championing beliefs in the Immaculate Conception. JOHN OF MONTE CORVINO [d. c.1330] Founder of the first Franciscan mission in China. Born in Salerno [Monte Corvino] John was commissioned by Pope Nicholas IV in 1291 with letters for eastern kings, and journeyed through Persia, spent a year in India where he made about 100 converts and finally reached Peking in 1294. Chen-tsung the local Khan was receptive to John and his travelling companion and merchant Peter Lucalonga. John was most successful in establishing a mission at Tenduk north of Peking where the ruling prince, George, already a Nestorian Christian, converted to Western orthodoxy. Lucalonga became a successful merchant in China and donated land for the establishment of three churches. John was named archbishop in 1307 by Pope Clement V. 1292 1293DIONYSIUS Patriarch of Antioch [1293-1308] see also 1285 and 1308. HENRY OF GHENT [d.1293] Theologian and philosopher who was born in Kent. He taught in Paris and became the most outstanding secular master there for many years. He was involved in the condemnation of aspects of Thomist teachings in Paris in 1277 and also opposed the privileges of the mendicant orders in 1282. He was critical of Aristotle and produced a significant synthesis of Augustinian teaching and the new learning. Henry was an important catalyst to Duns Scotus [see 1291] who took much from him as well as freely criticising him. 1294BONIFACE VIII Pope [1294-1303]. In 1252, when his uncle Peter Caetani became HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Todi" \o "Bishop of Todi" bishop of Todi, in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbria" \o "Umbria" Umbria, he went with him and began his legal studies there. In 1264 he became part of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Curia" \o "Roman Curia" Roman curia where he served as secretary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" Cardinal Simon of Brie on a mission to France. In 1265 he accompanied Cardinal Ottobono Fieschi to England (12651268) in order to suppress a rebellion by a group of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barons" \o "Barons" barons against HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" \o "Henry III of England" Henry III, the king of England. He was sent to France to supervise the collection of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tithe" \o "Tithe" tithe in 1276 and then became a papal notary in the late 1270s. During this time he accumulated seventeen benefices which he was permitted to keep when he was promoted, first to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinal deacon in 1281 and then 10 years later as cardinal priest. Boniface was elected on December 24, 1294 after HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Celestine_V" \o "Pope Celestine V" Pope Celestine V HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_abdication" \o "Papal abdication" abdicated after Celestine had been shown that such a move was legal. One of his first acts as pontiff was to imprison his predecessor in the Castle of Fumone in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferentino" \o "Ferentino" Ferentino, where Celestine died at the age of 81, attended by two monks of his order. In 1300, Boniface VIII formalised the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Jubilee" \o "Roman Jubilee" jubilees, which afterwards became a source of both profit and scandal to the church. Boniface VIII founded the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rome_La_Sapienza" \o "University of Rome La Sapienza" University of Rome in 1303. He put forward some of the strongest claims to temporal, as well as spiritual, supremacy of any pope and constantly involved himself with foreign affairs. In his papal b HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull" \o "Papal bull" ull of 1302, Boniface VIII proclaimed that it is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff, pushing papal supremacy to its historical extreme. In the field of canon law Boniface VIII continues to have great influence. The conflict between Boniface VIII and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" \o "Philip IV of France" Philip IV of France [see 1285] came at a time of expanding nation states and the desire for the consolidation of power by the increasingly powerful monarchs. The increase in monarchical power in the rising nation states and its conflicts with the Church of Rome were increased by the rise to power of Philip IV. During his reign, Philip surrounded himself with the best civil lawyers, and decidedly expelled the clergy from all participation in the administration of the law. With the clergy beginning to be taxed Boniface took a hard stand against it. He saw the taxation as an assault on traditional clerical rights, and ruled in 1296 forbidding lay taxation of the clergy without prior papal approval. Philip retaliated against the bull by denying the exportation of money from France to Rome, funds that the Church required to operate. Boniface had no choice but to meet Philips demands quickly by allowing taxation only during an emergency. In retaliation in 1301, Philip was sent a papal bull informing him that God has set popes over kings and kingdoms. The feud between the two reached its peak in the early 14th century when Philip began to launch a strong anti-papal campaign against Boniface. On November 18, 1302, Boniface issued one of the most important papal bulls of Catholic history which declared that both spiritual and temporal power were under the popes jurisdiction, and that kings were subordinate to the power of the Church. In response, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_de_Nogaret" \o "Guillaume de Nogaret" Guillaume de Nogaret, Philips chief minister, denounced Boniface as a heretical criminal to the French clergy. In 1303, Philip and Nogaret were HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunicated, however, on September 7, 1303 an army led by Nogaret surprised Boniface at his retreat in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagni" \o "Anagni" Anagni. The king demanded that he resign, to which Boniface VIII responded that he would sooner die. In response Boniface was beaten badly and nearly executed but was released from captivity after three days. He died a month later of shame, on October 11, 1303. After the papacy had been removed to Avignon during the time of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" \o "Pope Clement V" Pope Clement V in 1309, he consented to a post-mortem trial by an ecclesiastical consistory at Groseau, near Avignon, which held preliminary examinations in August and September of 1310. A judicial investigation against the memory of Boniface was held and collected testimonies that alleged many heretical opinions of Boniface VIII. This included the offence of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodomy" \o "Sodomy" sodomy, although there is little substantive evidence for this and it is more likely that this was the standard accusation Philip made against enemies. Before the actual trial could be held, Clement persuaded Philip to leave the question of Bonifaces guilt to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Vienne" \o "Council of Vienne" Council of Vienne, which met in 1311 where the matter lapsed. He succeeded Celestine V [see below] and was succeeded by Benedict XI [see 1303]. CELESTINE V Pope [1294] who was a noted hermit and founded a community of disciples later called the Celestines [see 1251]. His election as pope was a conscious attempt to raise the spiritual tone of the papacy which had been debilitated by political involvement in the War of the Vespers. He resigned in 1294 and was succeeded by Boniface VIII who because he feared a popular rising by Celestines followers had him imprisoned until his death in 1296. He succeeded Nicholas IV [see 1288] and was succeeded by Boniface VIII [see above]. CHINA JOHN OF MONTE CORVINO [d.1330] founded the first Franciscan mission to China. Commissioned by Pope Nicholas IV [see 1288] in 1291 he journeyed through Persian and India arriving Peking in 1294. John was successful being created bishop by Clement V [see 1305] in 1307. He is said to have had 6000 converts and translated the New Testament and Psalms as well as a native boys choir. In 1368 Christianity again had disappeared due to persecution. [See 635 1601] JOHN XII Patriarch of Constantinople [1294-1303] succeeded Athanasius I [see 1289]. There is no additional information readily available. THEODOSIOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1294-1300] see 1271 and 1300. WINCHELSEY, ROBERT Archbishop of Canterbury [1294-1313]. He studied at the universities of Paris and Oxford, and later taught at both. Influenced by Thomas Aquinas, he was a scholastic theologian. He held various benefices in England, and was the chancellor of Oxford University before being elected to Canterbury. On 13th February 1293 Winchelsey was elected as archbishop of Canterbury. Unusually, neither the pope nor the king had a hand in his election. On 1st April he left England for Rome to get papal confirmation. He was not consecrated immediately because of a papal vacancy but Celestine Veventually performed the ceremony at Aquila on 12th September 1294. Winchelsey was a fearless opponent ofEdward I. When he swore his oath of fealty to Edward, he offended the king because adding a declaration that he was only swearing fealty for the temporalities, not the spiritualities. All through his term as archbishop he refused to allow Edward to tax the clergy beyond certain levels, and withstood severe pressure to change his mind. In August 1295, he offered the king a tenth of all ecclesiastical revenues, less than Edward had hoped to collect from the clergy. Winchelsey and the barons joined in demanding reforms from the king at the parliament of Lincoln in 1301, but his support of Pope Boniface VIIIs claim to be the protector of Scotland, broke the alliance. One of the reasons which led the archbishop to ally with the barons was his hostility to Edwards adviser, Walter Langton, bishop ofLichfield. The king took no action against Winchelsey until the Gascon and former royal clerk Bertrand de Got was named Pope Clement V in 1305. Edward then sent two envoys Langton andHenry Lacy to the pope, to press his claim that Winchelsey was plotting against him. Clement suspended the archbishop on 12 February 1306. Winchelsey left England and went to the papal court atBordeaux, where he stayed until Edwards death in July 1307. Only Antony Bek,bishop of Durham supported the archbishop. After the death of Edward I, the new king, Edward II, asked that Winchelsey be restored, which the pope agreed to on 22 January 1308, however soon after his return to England the archbishop joined the kings enemies. The archbishop along with the earl of Warwick, were the only people to object to the return of the new kings favourite,Piers Gaveston, to England in 1309. Winchelsey aided the barons in their prosecution of Edward II by sentencing their enemies toexcommunication. Robert was a preacher of some note, and when preaching at St. Pauls he attracted large crowds to his sermons and lectures. Those that survive illustrate his highly orthodox Trinitarian views and his scholastic method. He succeeded John Peckham [see 1279] and was succeeded by Thomas Cobham [see 1313]. 1295RICHARD OF MIDDLETON [d. c.1300] Franciscan philosopher. Having joined the Franciscans, he was by the early 1280s a theologian, philosopher, and preacher in Paris. In 1283 he was appointed to a commission investigating the views of P.J. Olivi [see 1260]. By 1295 he had completed his commentary on the four volumes of Peter Lombards Sentences [see 1159]. At several points he favoured Thomistic over traditional Augustinian positions. He also had interest in hypnosis and telepathy. 1296 1297 1298EBEDJESUS [d.1318] Nestorian theologian who became metropolitan of Nisibis and Armenia in 1298. Prolific author, his Syriac writings included items on philosophy and science, a Bible commentary, a polemic against heresy, and hymns of praise and anthems. He also catalogued nearly 150 Syrian authors and their works beginning with Simeon bar Sabbae of the third century. JACOPONE DA TODI [c.1230-1306] Franciscan monk and poet who was born into nobility and studied at Bologna. After the tragic death of his wife he experienced spiritual conversion and repentance, donated his wealth to the poor, and became a lay brother. He supported the Spirituals, with the cardinals Peter and Jacob Colonna and Angelo Clareno, in their opposition to papal opulence and political machinations. Boniface VIII excommunicated and imprisoned him in 1298. He was released in 1303. THADDEUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1298] see 1236 and 1313. The see of Jerusalem was vacant 1298-1313. 1299 1300JUBILEE, YEAR OF A Roman Catholic institution based only indirectly on the Levitical Year of Jubilee but rather an extension of the pilgrimage movement and the system of indulgences [see 1095]. First observed in 1300 under Boniface VIII apparently by spontaneous popular demand. The Year of Jubilee was intended to be celebrated each century but the next was celebrated in 1350 and the interval between celebrations gradually diminished to 25 years under Paul II in 1470. Jubilee indulgence was proclaimed throughout Christendom by Paul VI in 1966 in association with Vatican II. The latest Year has been 2008-09 announced by Benedict XVI to celebrate the 2000th anniversary of the birth of Paul. YOANNIS VIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1300-1320] see 1294 and 1320. Formerly a monk. During his papacy severe tribulations befell the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians" \o "Christians" Christians in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt. They were forced to tinge their turbans with blue. Many churches were closed in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo" \o "Cairo" Cairo and in different parts of the country. Exceptions were the monasteries in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" \o "Alexandria" Alexandria and a few churches in other cities. An envoy from the king of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" \o "Spain" Spain came to intercede on behalf of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians" \o "Christians" Christians and two churches were subsequently opened. In the year 1303 a severe earthquake destroyed a large part of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" \o "Syria" Syria and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt. Yoannis VIII made some changes in the Liturgy. 1301-1310 AD 1301 1302CIMABUE, CENNI DI PEPE Florentine painter whose works include The Madonna Enthroned with Angels and frescoes in the church of San Francisco in Assisi. His painting of the crucifixion with its portrayal of Christ, weeping angles and despairing mourners is very impressive. 1303BENEDICT XI Pope [1303-1304]. He was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Order" \o "Dominican Order" Dominican and when he was made HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_the_Order_of_Preachers" \o "Master of the Order of Preachers" Master of the Order in 1296 issued ordinances forbidding public questioning of the legitimacy of Boniface VIIIs election on the part of any Dominican. At the time of the seizing of Pope Boniface VIII at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagni" \o "Anagni" Anagni he was one of only two cardinals to defend the papal party in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateran_Palace" \o "Lateran Palace" Lateran Palace itself. However, upon being elected pope, he released HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" \o "Philip IV of France" Philip IV of France (12851314) from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunication that had been laid upon him by Boniface VIII, but on June 7, 1304 excommunicated Philip IVs implacable minister, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_de_Nogaret" \o "Guillaume de Nogaret" Guillaume de Nogaret, and all the Italians who had played a part in the seizure of Boniface VIII at Anagni. After a brief pontificate of eight months, Benedict XI died suddenly at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perugia" \o "Perugia" Perugia. The first report said that his sudden death was caused by poisoning through the agency of Nogaret, however, there is no direct evidence to support this. Benedict XI was the author of a volume of sermons and commentaries on the Gospel of Matthew, on the Psalms, the Book of Job, and the Revelation. Benedict XIs successor, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" \o "Pope Clement V" Pope Clement V (130514), removed the papal seat from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" \o "Avignon" Avignon, inaugurating the period sometimes known as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" \o "Avignon Papacy" Babylonian Captivity (130977). He and the French popes who succeeded him were completely under the influence of the kings of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France. He succeeded Boniface VIII [see 1294] and was succeeded by Clement V [see 1305]. 1304 1305ANNATES which is the first years revenue of an ecclesiastical position paid to the pope which originated as the right of a bishop to receive this from a new incumbent. Clement V [see below] claimed it from all vacant sees in England and John XXII Leo [see 1316] in 1319 claimed it from all of Christendom. There were numerous complaints and in 1534 Henry VIII transferred all Annates to the English crown. These in turn were converted in 1704 to Queen Annes Bounty but eventually they fell into disuse. CLEMENT V Pope [1305-1314]. He was a Frenchman born in Gascony around 1264. He was made pope on 5th June 1305 and one of his first acts was to create seven French cardinals. He reigned for some 9 years. To serve his personal ends Philip IV of France made two demands on Clement to which the latter acceded, firstly to have Boniface VIII [see 1294] condemned as a heretic and to dissolve the Knights Templar [see 1118]. Once the Knights Templar was dissolved Philip took over their bank and some properties. He also moved the curia from Rome to Avignon beginning the 70 years of what is known as the Babylonian Captivity of the papacy [1309-1377]. He suppressed the Dulcinians burning its leader and others at the stake. Clement also preached a crusade against the Venetians who were at war with the papacy declaring that any captured Venetians could be sold as slaves. Despite political problems he founded the universities of Orleans and Perugia. He died in 1314. He succeeded Benedict XI [see 1303] and was succeeded by John XXII [see 1316]. 1306BARTHOLOMITES [see also 1640] were a group of Armenian monks who fled to Genoa in 1306 and had a church dedicated to St Bartholomew built for them. Initially Clement V [see 1305] authorised them to follow their own service format but later Innocent VI [see1352] approved their adoption of the Roman liturgy and the rule of St Augustine. After a period of decline they were suppressed by Innocent X [see 1644] in 1650. JOHN OF PARIS [c.1252-1306] Preacher and in early Conciliarist. Joining the Jacobins he established a reputation for brilliance as an apologist for Thomism. This popular preacher and lecturer was stripped of these officers near the end of his life for his writing on the Eucharist and papacy. His interpretation of Christs presence in the sacrament approximated consubstantiation and influenced Lutheran thought. He died in Bordeaux while appealing his suspension to the pope. 1307 1308MARK Patriarch of Antioch [1308-1342] see also 1293 and 1342. At the end of this period the Patriarch was transferred to Damascus. NICHOLAS OF LYRA [c.1265-1349] Franciscan scholar who entered the Franciscan Order around 1300. He studied theology at Paris receiving a doctorate in 1308 and was from 1319 provincial of his order in France. As executor of the estate of Jeanne of Burgundy, widow of Philip VI he founded the College of Burgundy at Paris where he died. He was a great Bible scholar of the Middle Ages knowing Hebrew and acquainted with Jewish commentaries and was especially concerned to expand the literal sense of the Scriptures against the current allegorical interpretation. He wrote two commentaries on the whole Bible, one being the first biblical commentary printed. 1309AVINGNON becomes the seat of the papacy until 1377 when Clement V [see 1305] began in 1309 what is called the Babylonian Captivity. Avignon provided a location away from Italian politics and positioned well for a centre of affairs. When the papal court returned to Rome Avignon continued to be the seat until 1408 of two antipopes Clement VII and Benedict XIII. 1310HOSPITALLERS Mediaeval men and women given to the care of the infirm with both themselves and their patients usually observing religious vows. By 800 the Muslim world had medical hospitals, but Western Europe did not in any proper sense until 1200. There were both hospices for the permanently poor, insane, and incurable, and hospitals for temporary medical treatment. The 11th and 12th centuries saw a huge increase in both hospitals and nursing orders: Antonines, Order of the Holy Spirit, Order of St William of the Desert, Bethlehemites, and the Order of St Catherine. The Knights of St John of Jerusalem after 1310 known as the Knights of Rhodes and from 1530 the Knights of Malta were exemplary Hospitallers. Hospitallers also served the leper communities and had great influence on medical progress. NEPHON I Patriarch of Constantinople [1310-1314] succeeded Athanasius I [see 1289]. There is no additional information readily available. WILLIAM OF OCKHAM [c.1280-1349] Mediaeval scholastic theologian and philosopher who studied at Oxford and entered the Franciscan Order about 1310. His ideas led to a summons to Avignon in 1324 to answer charges of heresy. Dispute between Pope John XXII and the Spiritual Franciscans was at its height and William identified himself with the Spirituals in opposition to John. In 1328 he left Avignon and went to the court of the emperor, Louis of Bavaria. Excommunicated, William is supposed to have said to the emperor You defend me with your sword and I will defend you with my pen. He had two groups of writings, firstly he wrote while at Oxford and Avignon [1317-1328] with contributions to philosophy and theology, secondly he wrote while working for Louis [1333-1347] about the relation of church and state. In his first group of writings Ockham criticised the accommodation of the philosophical systems of Aristotle with Christian doctrines that had been fashioned by the 13th century schoolmen such as Thomas Aquinas. Ockhams concept was to keep things simple which involved, in his explanation of reality, his view that what can be done with fewer assumptions is done in vain with more, known as Ockhams Razor. His Nominalism was of great significance to science since it suggested that natural phenomena could be investigated rationally. He believed that God was above all knowledge and cannot be apprehended by reason, as the Thomas taught, or by illumination, as the Augustinians believed, but only by faith. 1311-1320 AD 1311BEGUINES & BEGHARDS Beguines were members of a sisterhood founded in the Netherlands in the 12th century. Without common rule or hierarchy, free to hold private property and with the ability to marry they lived austerely and emphasised manual work. Their male equivalent was Beghards. The name might have come from Lambert le Beuge the Stammerer [d.1177] who was a revivalist preacher in Liege. Long suspected of heresy due to their association with the Spiritual Franciscans they were condemned at the Council of Vienne [see below]. Many of the Beghards reformed and were allowed to continue by John XXII [see 1316] and survived until the French Revolution. VIENNE, COUNCIL OF [1311-1312] Church council which is considered the 15th ecumenical council by the Roman Catholic Church. It was called by Clement V, the major reason being to question the Knights Templars. The transfer of the papacy to Avignon in 1309 made the pope subject to the influence of the king of France, Philip IV, who desired the property of this wealthy crusading order. In 1307 Philip had ordered the arrest of the Templars in France and by torture had extracted confessions of heresy and immorality. King Philips presence at the council brought pressure on Clement V to suppress the order. The council also tried to settle a dispute among the Franciscans and it condemned other sects. 1312 1313ATHANASIUS III Patriarch of Jerusalem [1313-1334] see 1298 and 1334. Around 1322 GREGORY II was Patriarch of Jerusalem for an unknown period. COBHAM, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1313-1314]. He earned a doctor of theology and a doctor of canon law. Having been appointedarchdeacon of Lewesin 1301andchancellor of Cambridge he was nominated to succeed Robert Winchelsey in 1313 by the monks of Christ Church priory Canterbury. He was a monk and had never been consecrated so King Edward II petitioned Pope Clement V for Walter Reynolds to be the next archbishop. The pope acquiesced to the kings request so Thomas was given the see of Worcester. It is of interest that he was one of a very few churchmen who spoke in Edward II s defence when Edward was put on trial and showed that Thomas did not keep long term grudges. He died in 1327. He succeeded Robert Winchelsey [see 1294] and was succeeded by Walter Reynolds [see 1314]. MARSIGLIO OF PADUA [c.1275-1342] Political philosopher who trained as a doctor and later went to Paris where he became rector of the University in 1313. In 1324 he completed the work for which he is famous Defender of the Peace. Because of the very strong anti-papal tone of this work, when his authorship was discovered in 1326 he was forced to leave Paris. He went to the court of King Louis IV of Bavaria who was excommunicated as a result of a dispute with Pope John XXII. In 1328 Louis IV seized Rome and Marsiglio was named the imperial vicar of the city. Some of his political theories were put into practice resulting in the people of Rome turning against Louis and the king left taking Marsiglio with him. Marsiglio went back to Bavaria and spent the rest of his life there. The Defender of the Peace is divided into three books, the first deals with the philosophy of the state; the second with the theology of the church; and the third is a summary. Marsiglio argued that the unifying element in society was the state and not the church. 1314REYNOLDS, WALTER Archbishop of Canterbury [1314-1327]. Walter Reynolds was bishop of Worcester and then archbishop of Canterbury as well as lord high treasurer and lord chancellor. Walter was the son of a baker fromWindsorand became a chaplain in the service ofEdward I. He held several livings and became a firmfavouritewith the prince of Wales, afterwardsEdward II, whom he served as keeper of the Wardrobe. In 1307 Reynolds was appointed treasurer of England and later that year he was elected bishop of Worcester.He was also in 1310 named keeper of the Great Seal, or chancellor. Walter Reynolds was one of the godfathers of the futureEdward IIIwhen the prince was christened on 17 November 1312. When Robert Winchelsey died 1313 Edward II prevailed upon Pope Clement V to appoint his favourite to the vacant archbishopric and Walter was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral in 1314 Although the private life of the new archbishop appears to have been the reverse of exemplary he attempted to carry out some very necessary reforms in his new official capacity. In this connection in 1317 he laidLondonunder an interdict afterWilliam de Melton,archbishop of York, had passed through its streets with his cross borne erect before him. Reynolds remained in general loyal to Edward II until 1324, when with all his assistant bishops he opposed the king in defence of the bishop of Hereford, Adam of Orlton. He fled for safety into Kent but returned to London and declared for Edward III, whom he crowned on 1 February 1327. He died later that year. He succeeded Thomas Cobham [see above] and was succeeded by Simon Mepeham [see 1328]. 1315JOHN XIII Glykys Patriarch of Constantinople [1315-1320] succeeded Nephon [see 1310]. There is no additional information readily available. TAULER, JOHN [c.1300-1361] German mystic who was born in Strasbourg and became a Dominican about 1315 and came under Ekharts [see 1326] influence. He wrote only in German and did not write learned works. His sermons were preached mainly to nuns. During the Black Death period of 1348 he devoted himself completely to the sick. His years in Basle [1338-1343] found him a central figure in the Friends of God [see 1326]. He owed a great debt to the Waldensian layman Nicholas of Basle [see 1395] who advised him to stop preaching and meditate which he did for two years amid his ministry with remarkable results. 1316FRATICELLI A group within the Franciscan Order during the Middle Ages which insisted on a very strict observance of the rule of poverty and vigorously opposed the decrees of John XXII which held that Christ and his apostles owned property. Wherever they appeared they were hunted down by the Inquisition and were regarded as heretics. GREGORY II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1316-1354) see 1276 and 1354. John III, Patriarch of Constantinople invited him, directly following his elevation to the Patriarchal Throne of Alexandria, to participate in the general ecclesiastical issues. During his tenure, there was trouble in the wider boundaries of the Patriarchates of Alexandria and Jerusalem , especially regarding Mount Sinai JOHN XXII Pope [1316-1334]. He was the second pope of theAvignon papacy (1309-1377), elected by a conclave in Lyon assembled by Philip V of France. Like his predecessor,Clement V, he centralised power and income in the papacy, living a princely life in Avignon and spending a lot of money for his court and his wars. He opposed Louis IV of Bavaria as emperor, and Louis in turn invaded Italy and set up an antipope, Nicholas V. The son of a shoemaker inCahors, he studied medicine in Montpellier and law in Paris. There was a two year delay in appointing a successor to Clement V who died in 1314. After two years, Philip V of France(131622) finally in 1316 managed to arrange a conclave of twenty-three cardinals in Lyon. This conclave elected John XXII and he was crowned in Lyon and set up his residence in Avignon. John XXII involved himself in the politics and religious movements of many European countries in order to advance the interests of the Church. This made him a very controversial pope at the time. Also his close links with the French crown created widespread distrust of the papacy. In 1323, when Louis IV who had become Holy Roman Emperor came into conflict with the papacy over his support of the Franciscan Spirituals, whom John XXII condemned for their insistence on evangelical poverty and their belief that mendicant friars would replace the priesthood and sacraments of the Church. Louis IV was assisted in his doctrinal dispute with the papacy by Marsilius of Padua, and later by the British Franciscan friar and scholar William of Ockham. Louis IV invaded Italy, entered Rome and set up antipope Nicholas V (132830). The project was a fiasco and Pope John excommunicated William of Ockham. However, Louis IV had silenced the papal claims, and John XXII stayed the rest of his life in Avignon. Pope John XXII was involved in a theological controversy involving theBeatific Vision. Beginning before he was pope, he argued that those who died in the faith did not see the presence of God until the Last Judgement. The point is important to Catholics, since if the dead are not in the presence of God, then the whole idea of prayers to the saints would seem to be undermined. John XXII continued this argument for a time in sermons while he was pope, although he never taught this in official documents. He eventually backed down from this position, and agreed that those who died in grace do indeed immediately enjoy the Beatific Vision. Despite holding for many years a view widely held to be heretical, John XXII is not considered a heretic because in his day the doctrine he had contradicted had not been formally defined by the Church, a situation that his successor, Pope Benedict XII (133442), immediately corrected by the encyclical Benedictus Deus, which formally defined this doctrine as part of church teaching. On March 27, 1329 John XXII condemned many writings of Meister Eckhart [see 1326] as heretical. He succeeded Clement V [see 1305] and was succeeded by Benedict XII [see 1334]. 1317DURANDUS OF ST POURCAIN [1270-1332] Dominican theologian and bishop who was known as Doctor Modernus. He lectured at Paris until 1313 when he was called to Avignon and entrusted with a diplomatic mission by Pope John XXII. Though a Dominican at a time when Thomas Aquinas was already recognised as the official doctor of the order, Durandus was not a Thomist. However, this did not stop him serving on the papal commission which condemned 51 propositions taken from William Ockham. Durandus never repudiated his anti-Thomist position, and after his death, articles from his treatise were censured by a papal commission in 1333. RUYSBROECK, JAN VAN [1293-1381] Flemish mystic who was ordained as a priest in 1317 and spent nearly three decades as a vicar in Brussels. In 1344 he retired to a nearby wooded valley where after some years he founded an Augustinian monastery. Here he did most of his writing and acted as spiritual adviser. Tauler [see 1315], Groote [see 1380], and many others came to him for advice on the life of the spirit. He was one of the great 14th century mystics. He opposed abuse in the church as well as pantheistic versions of mysticism. His works were translated into Latin and influenced mystics such as John of the Cross. 1318 1319 1320ARBROATH DECLARATION A letter drawn up by a large number of Scottish nobles and barons and the whole community of the realm and sent to the pope who had declared against Robert the Bruce. The document stated that Providence, the laws and customs of the country and the choice of the people had made Bruce their king and if he betrayed his country they would elect another and that they were seeking liberty. CAVASILAS, NIKOLAOS [1320-1371]. Greek theologian and mystical writer who was born in Thessalonica. His best know works are Life in Christ and The Exposition of the Divine Liturgy in which he expounds the saving work of Christ mediated through the sacraments especially the Eucharist obtained by the steadfast believer. GERASIMOS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1320-1321] succeeded John XIII [see 1315]. There is no additional information readily available. INDIA [see also 250 and 1542] Marco Polo was in India in 1288 and 1292 and was shown the tomb said to have been that of Thomas. From about this time friars were calling at India on the way to China, and one of these, John of Monte Corvina [see 1291] made converts and recommended missions. In 1321 four Franciscans who landed at Thana near modern Mumbai were martyred. Their companion a French Dominican called Jourdain de Severac who was evidently assigned to work in India remained in the area and baptised many people. The friendliness of Nestorian Christians whom Jourdaian met were neglected, ignorant people; and of course they were sadly heretical. In 1330 he was sent back to India as bishop of Kerala with a letter urging the Syrian Christians to submit to Rome. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape route to India in 1498 and settlement at Goa in 1510 changed everything. YOANNIS IX Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1320-1327] see 1300 and 1327. 1321-1330 AD 1321DANTE, ALIGHIERI [1265-1321] Italian poet born in Florence who began to write poetry as a young man and to take part in the political life of the city. He was a prior and while in Rome was one of the opposing factions that supported Boniface VIII and took control of the city. Several changes were lodged against Dante and he was exiled from Florence and never saw his wife or Florence again. Later he was given permission to return. Today he is remembered best for The Divine Comedy which was divided into three sections: The Inferno, The Purgatory, and The Paradise. 1322 1323ISAIAS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1323-1334]. The Byzantine emperor, Andronicus II, had Isaias confined to the monastery section of the Magnaura school in Constantinople in 1327 possibly due to the patriarchs support for the emperors grandson, Andronicus III, during the Civil War. Upon Andronicus II overthrow by his grandson on May 23/24, 1328, a delegation was sent to the monastery to retrieve Isaias. On his way back to the palace, Isaias was escorted not by the usual clergy but by a troupe of musicians, dancing girls and comedians, one of whom had him so helpless with laughter that he almost fell off his horse. WALES [see also 547 and 1567] By the time of the Norman conquest, the church in Wales was virtually a national church. By the middle of the 12th century the Welsh bishops had submitted to Canterbury. After 1323 when the pope began to intervene in elections, there was a marked increase in the tendency to appoint foreigners to Welsh offices. Inevitably there was growing frustration among Welsh clergy as was demonstrated by the support they gave to the national insurrection under the leadership of Owen Glyn Dwr in 1400. 1324 1325 1326ECKHART VON HOCHHEIM [1260-1327] German mystic who entered the Dominican order and was prior in Erfurt before becoming vicar of the Thuringia. In 1300 he went to Paris where he graduated in theology. In 1326 he was accused of heresy, tried by the archbishop of Cologne, and convicted. He appealed to Rome where some of his teachings were judged to be heretical by John XXII in 1329, two years after his death. He was noted as a preacher, many of his sermons were delivered in convents to nuns. His writings reveal him as Scholastic and as a mystic. FRIENDS OF GOD A term used in Scripture, by the Fathers, and in mediaeval writings. It also refers to a group of German mystics and other Christians in the 14th century who were profoundly influenced by the works of Meister Eckhart [see 1326] as well as the ideals of early German prophetesses, and they cultivated intense prayer, austerities, and self renunciation. Their number included Dominicans and Franciscans and lay people from every estate. Associated with them were John Tauler [see 1315], Henry Suso [see 1348], Jan van Ruysbroek [see 1317], and there were links also with the Brethren of the Common Life see [1380]. The decline in mysticism brought the end of their association. 1327BENJAMIN II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1327-1339] see 1320 and 1340. 1328CONSUBSTANTIATION is a term used to describe Luthers [see 1517] view of how Christ is present at the Lords Supper although the term does not appear in his writings. William of Ockham [see below] proposed this view. Luther however insisted that we know Christ is present only through the Word whose pledge guarantees it. MEPEHAM, SIMON Archbishop of Canterbury [1328-1333]. Simon was the candidate of the earl of Lancaster against the candidate supported by Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer. He was elected to the archbishopric of Canterbury late in 1327 and consecrated the following year. In the winter of 1328 he supported a rebellion against the rule of Roger Mortimer that was led by the earl of Lancaster and supported by the earl of Norfolk, earl of Kent and others. Mepeham became involved in a dispute about the juridical rights of churches. The monks made an appeal against the archbishop, and the canon of Salisbury was appointed to mediate. Mepeham was cited to give evidence before the canon, but refused to attend and his refusal to submit to the judicial process of the church led to his excommunication by Pope John XXII in 1333. Simon was later re-communicated with Rome, but was not re-instated as bishop. Simon died later that year. He succeeded Walter Reynolds [see 1314] and was succeeded by John De Stratford [see 1333]. MICHAEL OF CESENA [c.1270 1342] General of the Franciscan Order during a time when the order was torn by a strife between the factions known as the Spirituals and the Community. The former adhered strictly to the fundamentals of poverty and non-ownership of property laid down by Francis while the latter faction opted for a more liberal interpretation recognising papal ruling on the poor use of possessions. Michaels support of William of Ockham [see 1310], theologian and apologist for the Spirituals and his association with Emperor Louis of Bavaria brought about his excommunication by John XXII in 1328. Michael disputed the excommunication and until his death was recognised by his faction as general of the order. NICHOLAS V Antipope [13281330] who was opposed to Pope John XXII. He was the last imperial antipope that is an antipope set up by a Holy Roman Emperor. He joined theFranciscanOrder after separating from his wife in 1310, and became famous as apreacher. He was elected through the influence of the excommunicated emperor, Louis IV the Bavarian, by an assembly of priests and laymen, and consecrated atSt. Peters Basilica in Rome on 12th May 1328 by the bishop of Venice. After spending four months in Rome, he withdrew with Louis IV toViterbo and then toPisa, where he was guarded by the imperial vicar. On 19 February 1329 Nicholas V presided at a bizarre ceremony in theDuomo of Pisa, at which a straw puppet representing Pope John XXII and dressed in pontifical robes was formally condemned, degraded was handed over to the secular arm to be executed. Nicholas V was excommunicated by John XXII in April 1329. Having obtained assurance of pardon, he presented a confession of his sins first to the archbishop of Pisa, and then at Avignon on 25 August 1330 to John XXII, who absolved him. He remained in honourable imprisonment in the papal palace at Avignon until his death in October 1333. 1329 1330MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 345 and 1653] Roman Catholic influence began with Franciscans calling en route for China by which time the Syrian links with the mother church in Mesopotamia was weakened by the circumstances of the Muslim era. In 1330 a French Dominican Jourdain de Severac became bishop of Quilon, the initial papal claim to jurisdiction in India. In 1503 the Nestorians were reinforced by five bishops of their own but simultaneously the Portuguese had come to India and Jesuit pressure proved too much. The Syrians metropolitan submitted to Rome and finally the Synod of Diamper [see 1599] severed the Syrian Church from its past and from its Mesopotamian patriarch. 1331-1340 AD 1331 1332 1333STRATFORD, JOHN DE Archbishop of Canterbury [1333-1348]. John was born at Stratford-on-Avon and educated at Merton College, Oxford. He became bishop of Winchester in 1323, an appointment which was made during his visit to Pope John XXII at Avignon. This appointment was very much disliked by Edward II. In 1327 the bishop joined Queen Isabellas partisans; he drew up the six articles against Edward II, and was one of those who visited the captive king at Kenilworth to urge him to abdicate in favour of his son. Under Edward III he became a member of the Royal Council. In 1330 Stratford became chancellor, and for the next ten years he was actively engaged in public business, being the kings most prominent adviser and being politically the head of the Lancastrian or constitutional party. On 3rd November 1333 he was appointed archbishop of Canterbury. In November of 1340 Edward III, humiliated and angry returned suddenly to England from Flanders and vented his wrath upon the archbishops brother, the chancellor, Robert de Stratford. Fearing arrest John de Stratford fled toCanterbury, and entered upon a violent war of words with the king. Good relations were soon restored between the two, and the archbishop acted as president of the council during Edwards absence from England in 1345 and 1346. He died at Mayfield, Sussex on 23 August 1348. He succeeded Simon Mepeham [see 1328] and was succeeded by John Ufford [see 1348]. 1334BENEDICT XII Pope [1334-1342]. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistercian" \o "Cistercian" Cistercian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk who studied at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris" \o "University of Paris" University of Paris. In 1311 he was made abbot of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fontfroide_Abbey" \o "Fontfroide Abbey" Fontfroide Abbey and six years later bishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamiers" \o "Pamiers" Pamiers rising to cardinal in 1327. He succeeded HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_XXII" \o "Pope John XXII" Pope John XXII (131634) in 1334, being elected on the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_conclave" \o "Papal conclave" conclave ballot but did not carry out the policy of his predecessor. He practically made peace with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor" Emperor Louis IV and as far as possible came to terms with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscan" \o "Franciscan" Franciscans who were then at odds with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See" \o "Holy See" Roman see. Benedict XII was a reforming pope who tried to curb the luxuries of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastic_order" \o "Monastic order" monastic orders, though without much success. He also ordered the construction of the popes palace in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" \o "Avignon" Avignon. He spent most of his time working on questions of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" theology. He rejected many of the ideas developed by John XXII proposing that the souls of the departed go to their eternal reward immediately after death as opposed to remaining in a state of unconscious existence until the Last Judgement. He engaged in long theological debates with other noted figures of the age such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Ockham" \o "William of Ockham" William of Ockham and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" \o "Meister Eckhart" Meister Eckhart. He succeeded John XXII [see 1316] and was succeeded by Clement VI [see 1342]. GIOTTO [c.12661337] Italian painter from Florence who replaced the Byzantine cool distance of a majestic Christ with a Lord solemnly moving among men who experienced His presence. When painter Giotto was made head of the Florence Cathedral School in 1334 the appointment signalled the rising, formative influence of painting in a period previously dominated by stained-glass architecture and stone sculpture. JOHN XIV KALEKAS Patriarch of Constantinople [1334-1347] succeeded Isaias I [see 1323]. There is no additional information readily available. LAZARUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1334-1368] see 1313 and 1376. Around 1344 ARSENIOS was Patriarch of Jerusalem for an unknown period. The see of Jerusalem was vacant 1368-1376 1335 1336SERGIUS [c.1314-1392] Russian monk. Born in Rostov, Sergius became a monk in 1336 and built a chapel in honour of the Trinity in the forest of Radonezh which later became the famous monastery of Troitskaya Laura. Sergius gained a reputation for miracles and visions and was active in political life in Russia. Several times he intervened to stop civil wars between the Russian princes and encouraged Dmitri Donslois resistance to the Mongols in 1380. In 1387 he refused to accept an appointment as patriarch of Moscow and remained a monk for the rest of his life. Sergius is considered to be one of the most important Russian saints. 1337 1338 1339 1340LUDOLF OF SAXONY [c.1300-1378] Carthusian spiritual writer, and author of the most widely read life of Christ written during the Middle Ages. He entered the Carthusian Order in 1340 and became prior at Coblenz in 1343. He is best known for his book The Life of our Lord Jesus Christ. It was first printed in 1474 and since that time has been translated into numerous languages. The book was the most extensive life of Christ written until that time. The work later influenced Ignatius Loyola, who utilised it in writing his Spiritual Exercises. PETROS V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1340-1348] see 1327 and 1348. 1341-1350 AD 1341GREGORY PALAMAS [c.1296-1359] Greek theologian who was educated at Constantinople and became a monk at Mt Athos in Greece at the age of 20. It was during his stay at Athos that he developed much of his thinking on the subject of the mystical communion with God. He was more ascetic than his fellow monks but was not able to isolate himself completely from the world as he was called to become archbishop of Thessalonica after he became well known for his defence of Hesychasm [see below]. Palamas held that Gods essence could not be known, but his energies could. In this he was not presenting anything new as these concepts had been proposed by the Cappadocian Fathers [see 376] almost a thousand years before. A council was held in Constantinople in 1341 on the doctrine of Uncreated Light, which according to Palamas is the same uncreated light of the Godhead which had appeared at the Transfiguration, and it was sanctioned, thus upholding the ideas of Gregory Palamas. HESYCHASM The Hesychast movement made its appearance in Byzantium in the first part of the 14th century. The name comes from the Greek word for quiet or silence. It was applied to those individuals who devoted themselves in silence to mystical meditation, attempting to come into a full unity with God. This movement in the Byzantine Church illustrates the difference between official theology and the theology of experience. The ascetic monks of Mt. Athos attempted to meditate so intensely as to isolate themselves completely from the world and so attain the Divine Light. A monk of this persuasion would usually press his chin on his chest while focusing his eyes on his navel and hold his breath until his vision became dim. He would soon enter into an ecstatic trance which would be the ultimate in union with God. A controversy broke out when opponents of Hesychasm said that the Divine and Uncreated Light of the Hesychast experience was not authentic but simply an illusion. A council was summoned on this issue in 1341 and it sanctioned the doctrine of Uncreated Light and thus declared in favour of the Mt Athos monks and Orthodox mysticism. To illustrate the extremes with which the victory was taken one of the main leaders against the Hesychasts was dragged along the streets after his death. 1342CLEMENT VI Pope [1342-1352]. He was born Pierre Roger in about 1291, this Frenchman being the 4th of the Avignon popes and was consecrated on 7th May 1342. He was a Benedictine and was devoted to France refusing advances to return to Rome. He purchased the sovereignty of Avingnon from Queen Joan I of Naples for 80,000 crowns but never paid it probably deeming that his absolution of her for murdering her husband a full equivalent. He published a bull in 1343 justifying indulgencies which was later used in the time of Luther. He ruled during the Black Death of 1347-50 which killed perhaps half of Europes population and spent the time in Avignon supervising sick care, burials and pastoral care for the dying. He protected the Jews and issued bulls against those who blamed the Black Death on the Jews. He lived a very lavish style, was a patron of art and music and classified himself as having lived as a sinner among sinners. He died in December 1352. He succeeded Benedict XII [see 1334] and was succeeded by Innocent VI [see 1352]. IGNATIUS II Patriarch of Antioch [1342-1386] see also 1308 and 1386. 1343 1344 1345MECHTHILD OF MAGDEBURG [c.1212-1280] German mystic who from the age of twenty three lived at Magdeburg as a hermit. She claimed to have had visions which she wrote down in a book of six parts with the help of a Dominican, Heinrich von Halle. Later she added a seventh. About 1345 the book was translated into High German. A Latin translation was made of the first six parts. Her strong individualism and poetic qualities distinguish her from most mystics. 1346 1347BLACK DEATH The name given to the bubonic and pneumonic plague that raged unchecked across Europe in 1347-1351. Its origin was in central Asia as indicated on headstones in the Nestorian graveyards in the Kirgiz area. In some areas the mortality rate was up to 40% of the population and this had drastic effects on economic, political and social life. In some places the Jews were blamed for poisoning the wells and murdered. Many of the leaders in society stayed and died resulting in a significant incompetence in the following generations. CLEMENT VI [1291-1352] Pope from 1347 was a brilliant orator and an ostentatious nobleman and has been described as the first of the Renaissance popes. He was an admirer of Philip the Fair and this prejudiced his attempts to bring peace between France and England. He received the submission of William of Oakham who had advocated the separation of church and state and denied the temporal power of the papacy. In spite of a tendency to nepotism Clement did aid the poor helping those afflicted by the Black Death at Avignon. He was also pro Semitic. His contribution to theology is seen in his jubilee bull of 1350 concerning indulgencies a practice which had received his approval in 1343. FITZRALPH, RICHARD [d.1360] Archbishop of Armagh who studied at Oxford and in 1333 was chancellor of the university. He was in favour with the Avignon papacy, made advances in ecclesiastical areas, and eventually consecrated archbishop of Armagh in 1347. In 1349 he visited Avignon and came into conflict with the mendicant orders. He wrote books and was spokesman for the secular clergy, claiming that poverty was neither of apostolic observance nor of present obligation, and that mendicancy was without warrant in Scripture or primitive tradition. In a series of sermons at St Pauls Cross, London, he preached against the mendicants. He was hotly opposed by the English friars, notably by Roger Conway, and was referred to Avignon where he preached a famous sermon before Innocent VI but died before judgement was given. In his opposition to the friars, and in the main thrust of his writings he is a forerunner of John Wycliffe. ISIDORE I Patriarch of Constantinople [1347-1350] succeeded John XIV [see 1334]. There is no additional information readily available. RIENZO, COLA DI [1313-1354] Italian leader who was son of a Roman innkeeper, and a man of genius but exhibited also signs of madness. With his considerable knowledge of the classical Latin authors Rienzo became possessed with idea of the restoration of Rome to its former greatness. In 1343 he was sent to Avignon to see Clement VIs return to Rome and the consequent end of the existing misrule by the leading Roman noble families. The mission however failed but he gained Clements favour in the exercise and in 1347 by accident or design popular revolution broke out in Rome and Rienzo was swept into power. He was proclaimed Tribune and given wide ranging powers. His government consciously looked back to ancient Rome. At first his rule was enlightened but his pretensions grew and he tried to convene meetings of all Italian governments to formulate a common Italian policy under his leadership. The pope decided that his intentions were a threat to papal power and turned against him in September of that year. Rienzo abdicated and fled from Rome in December 1347 to a Franciscan monastery before going to Emperor Charles IV to request him to become a real Roman emperor. Charles however imprisoned him for two years and then handed him over to Clement VI who sentenced him to death. Clement himself soon died and his successor Innocent IV hoping to use Rienzo in his Italian schemes released him and he was again established in control as Senator but he was eventually killed in Rome by a Roman mob. 1348HENRY SUSO [1300-1366] Swabian mystic who entered the Dominican friary at Constance when he was 13 and had a deep conversion experience five years later. Completing his studies at Cologne under the influence of Meister Eckhart he returned to Constance as lector in the friary school then became prior. As an itinerant preacher, teacher, advisor, and confessor, he visited regularly the Dominican convents about Constance. In 1348 he settled in the Dominican convent at Ulm. MARKOS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1348-1363] see 1340 and 1363. UFFORD, JOHN DE Archbishop of Canterbury [1348-1349]. He was sent to Avignon in the summer of 1344 as an envoy to a council held by Pope Clement VI to unsuccessfully mediate peace during the Peace of Malestroit (January 1343-September 1346). He was the chancellor to Edward III, keeper of both the great seal and the privy seal. John de Ufford was nominated to the see of Canterbury by papal bull dated 28 September 1348 and was granted the temporalities of the see on 14 December 1348. Any developing contention between the chapter who had selected Thomas Bradwardine and the king who also supported John was rendered a dead issue when John de Ufford, already aged and infirm, was carried off by the Black Death in 1349, before being consecrated. He succeeded John De Stratford [see 1333] and was succeeded by Thomas Bradwardine [see 1349]. 1349BRADWARDINE, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1349]. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussex" \o "Sussex" Sussex. He was a precocious student, educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford" \o "Balliol College, Oxford" Balliol College, Oxford where he was a fellow by 1321; he took the degree of doctor of divinity, and acquired the reputation of a profound scholar, a skilful HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" \o "Mathematics" mathematician and an able HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" theologian. He subsequently moved to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton_College,_Oxford" \o "Merton College, Oxford" Merton College, Oxford on a fellowship. He was afterwards raised to the high offices of chancellor of the university and professor of divinity. Bradwardine like his contemporary HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Occam" \o "William of Occam" William of Ockham was a major figure of the great intellectual movement at Oxford that had begun in the 1240s. Through his influence he enabled Oxford University to be freed from subservience to the bishop of Oxford. He also stressed Gods grace and irresistible will which eventually led to the doctrine of predestination. From being chancellor of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_London" \o "Diocese of London" diocese of London as dean of St Pauls, he became chaplain and confessor to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" \o "Edward III of England" Edward III, whom he attended during his wars in France at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" \o "Battle of Crcy" Battle of Crcy, where he preached at the victory Mass, and at the subsequent HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Calais" \o "Siege of Calais" siege of Calais. In 1349 the canons of the chapter at Canterbury elected him archbishop following the death of Archbishop John Stratford, but HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" \o "Edward III of England" Edward III withheld his consent, preferring his chancellor John de Ufford. After Ufford died of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death" \o "Black Death" Black Death, Bradwardine went to receive confirmation from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_VI" \o "Pope Clement VI" Clement VI at Avignon, but on his return he died of the plague at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester,_Kent" \o "Rochester, Kent" Rochester on 26 August 1349 forty days after his consecration. He was buried at Canterbury. Merton College sheltered a group of dons devoted to natural science, mainly physics, astronomy and mathematics, rivals of the intellectuals at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris" \o "University of Paris" University of Paris. Bradwardine was one of these HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" \o "Oxford Calculators" Oxford Calculators, studying mechanics with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Heytesbury" \o "William Heytesbury" William Heytesbury, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Swineshead" \o "Richard Swineshead" Richard Swineshead, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dumbleton" \o "John Dumbleton" John Dumbleton. They first formulated the mean speed theorem and the essence of the Law of Falling Bodies long before HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" \o "Galileo Galilei" Galileo, who is generally credited with it. The works of Bradwardine had contained some fundamentals of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry" \o "Trigonometry" trigonometry gleaned from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" \o "Islam" Muslim sources but the Merton group did not quite make the breakthrough to modern science with the most essential missing tool being HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus" \o "Calculus" calculus. Bradwardine was also a practitioner and exponent of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_memory" \o "Art of memory" art of memory, a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques used to organise memory impressions, improve recall, and assist in the combination and invention of ideas. He succeeded John De Ufford [see 1348] and was succeeded by Simon Islip [see below]. HOLCOT, ROBERT [1290-1349] Biblical expositor who as a Dominican theologian commented on a wide range of theological topics although he asserted free will contrary to his contemporary Thomas Bradwardine [see 1349], and John Wycliffe [see 1377] attacked it as Pelagianism. His concept was that by loving God less than another man loves him, one can gain the greater reward. Holcot died in the Black plague of 1349. ISLIP, SIMON Archbishop of Canterbury [1349-1366]. He was the uncle of William Whittlesey a future archbishop of Canterbury. He was educated at Oxford where he earned a doctorate in canon, and civil law, being elected fellow of Merton in 1307. His talents and learning soon won for him many benefices. He became treasurer and chancellor of England and entered the kings service as one of the royal chaplains. Edward III trusted him also in diplomatic and political affairs, appointed him a member of the council and in 1346 gave Islip extensive powers during his own absence in France. In 1347 Islip was appointed keeper of the privy seal. Previously he had held the seal of Lionel, who was the regent in England. John Stratford, the archbishop of Canterbury, died in 1348 while the Black Death was raging. His two successors, John Ufford and Thomas Bradwardine, died of the plague within a few weeks of each other. Simon was elected to the see of Canterbury in 1349 with his consecration taking place on 20th December 1349. The archdiocese suffered from the Black Death and there was a lack of priests, so that the first work Islip was called on to undertake was a visitation, during which he worked to restore ecclesiastical discipline. At this time, and after the renewed outbreak of the Black Death in 1362, he took particular care to regulate the wages of itinerant clergy who became important with the greatly diminished number of priests. He also succeeded in terminating the ancient dispute between the archbishops of Canterbury and York, as to the right of the latter to bear his cross in the province of the former. During his lifetime he had the reputation of being a very cautious administrator of the funds of his see, but this seems to be explained partly by the nature of the times, which called for economy of resources, and partly by his own temperament, which was frugal and averse to display. Both his enthronement and his funeral at Canterbury were by his own desire marked by simplicity, but his generous bequests to the monks of Canterbury show that this was not due to lack of interest in his cathedral church. In 1363 the archbishop suffered a paralytic stroke which he survived for three years, although by depriving him of the power of speech, it practically closed his career. Simon Islip died on 26 April 1366. He succeeded Thomas Bradwardine [see above] and was succeeded by William Edington [see 1366]. ROLLE OF HAMPOLE, RICHARD [c.1295-1349] Born in Yorkshire, Rolle studied at Oxford leaving at 19 to live as a hermit. Moving from place to place and preaching he spent his last years at Hampole near a convent of Cistercian nuns who were under his spiritual guidance. While at Oxford he rebelled against the Scholastic teaching which explains the simplicity and lack of formal learning in his writings. Rolle came down equally on piety and learning as well as worldliness and fashion and viewed a hermit as not inferior to the prelate or monk. His work influenced the Lollards. 1350CALLISTUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1350-1354, 1355-1363] succeeded Isidore I [see 1347]. He was a monk from Mt Athos who implemented the Hesychasm method of controlled breathing concentration and prayer into the church which was approved at a synod at Constantinople in 1351 as the approved method of orthodox contemplative prayer. On his refusal to crown Matthew Cantacuzenus to succeed his father he had to resign in 1353 but the following year after the resignation of the father returned to the see. In 1354 he excommunicated the Serbian Tsar for establishing a separate patriarch. Some of his sermons were discovered in the 20th century. He was considered to be a strong and obstinate ruler. 1351-1360 AD 1351PROVISORS, STATUTES OF The name given to several Acts of the English Parliament which strove to check the practice of papal provision or nomination of their own nominees to the vacant bishoprics over the head of the rightful patrons. The First Statute of Provisors in 1351 stated this principle broadly and provided for the expulsion of intruders, however, Edward III with the support of the papacy chose to ignore these rules. The anger of the clergy and laity in general broke out more violently against Richard II when he breached the statutes even more flagrantly than his grandfather and this led to the Second Statute of Provisors in 1390 and the Third Statute of Praemunire in 1393. Despite this the practice of provision continued down to the Reformation and was revived by Queen Mary. Evidence is clear that papal provision of non-residents to fill important jobs in the church contributed directly to the Reformation. 1352INNOCENT VI Pope [1352-1362]. After having taught civil law at Toulouse he became successively bishop of Noyonandbishop of Clermont. In 1342, he was raised to the position ofcardinal. His policies compare favourably with that of the other Avignon popes. He brought about many needed reforms in the administration of church affairs and sought to restore order in Rome, where, in 1355, Charles IV(1346-78) was with his permission crowned, after previously promising that he would leave Rome on the day of the ceremony. During his pontificate, John V Palaeologus(1341-47, 135476, 1379-90, 1390-91) offered to submit the Greek Church to the Roman See on condition of assistance being rendered against John VI Cantacuzenus(1347-54). However the resources at the disposal of the pope were all required for problems nearer home and the offer was declined. He survived the Black Death by sitting in between two fires on his own so his air was not impure. Most of the wealth accumulated by John XXII and Benedict XII had been lost during the extravagant pontificate ofClement VI. Innocent VI economised by cutting the chapel staff from twelve to eight. Works of art were sold rather than commissioned. His pontificate was dominated by the war in Italy and by Avignons recovery from the plague, both of which made draining demands on his treasury. By 1357, he was complaining of poverty. Innocent VI was a patron of letters and, if the extreme severity of his measures against the Fraticelliis ignored, he retains a high reputation for justice and mercy. He died on September 12, 1362. He succeeded Clement VI [see 1342] and was succeeded by Urban V [see 1362]. PETRARCH [1304-1374] Early Italian scholar who is called the Father of Humanism. He left the study of law to devote his time to the classics. A very influential scholar, he wrote many Latin works and researched tirelessly classical manuscripts. He was the first to call mediaeval times The Dark Ages for he felt that a golden age was dawning when men would be able to walk back into the pure radiance of the past. His religious feelings are expressed in a work where he, in 1352, attempted to reconcile piety with the love of the world. 1353 1354GREGORY III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1354-1366) see 1316 and 1366. It is possible that he stayed on Mount Athos for great periods of time. PHILOTHEUS Kokkinos Patriarch of Constantinople [1354-1355, 1364-1376] succeeded Callistus I [see 1350]. He was theecumenical patriarch of Constantinoplefor three periods from November 1353 to 1354, 1355, and 1364 to 1376. He was appointed patriarch in 1353 by EmperorJohn VI Kantakouzenos, deposed by John V Palaiologosin 1354 and then restored by Patriarch Callistus I of Constantinople. During the third tenure starting from 1364, Philotheos opposed Emperor John V in his intent to negotiate with Pope Urban V and Pope Gregory XI. 1355 1356 1357GREGORY OF RIMINI [d.1358] Augustinian philosopher who joined the Augustinian Hermits and studied in Italy, Paris and England and subsequently taught at Paris. He was elected vicar general of his order in 1357 and spent the last 18 months of his life in Vienna. Considered by his contemporaries as one of the most subtle of philosophers he furthered the Nominalist teaching of William of Ockham [see 1310] though was less sceptical. He defended Augustinianism vigorously, teaching that works done without grace are sinful, and unbaptised infants are doomed. This earned him the nickname infant torturer. 1358 1359NICEPHORUS GREGORAS [1295-1359] Byzantine historian who at the age of 20 went to Constantinople where he studied under Patriarch Glykys and the Grand Logothete Theodore Metrochites and soon gained a reputation for his ability and intelligence. He was a prolific writer on a wide range of subjects including theology, astronomy, philosophy, grammar, and history. He is best known for his Roman History for the period from 1204 to 1359 in 37 volumes which includes not only factual material but interesting insights into the political and cultural developments of this period. 1360COLOMBINI, GIOVANNI [1300-1367] Italian wealthy merchant who converted to a life of service after reading the life of St Mary of Egypt [see 374]. He cared for the poor and the sick in his own house for a decade and formed an association dedicated to poverty and service about 1360. Alarmed at this the magistrates banished the group until the outbreak of plague led to their recall. Urban V constituted the group as Gesuati [see 1367]. 1361-1370 AD 1361 1362URBAN V Pope [1362-1370]. He entered the Benedictine Order and became a doctor in canon law, teaching at Montpellier and Avignon. As pope he was a severe disciplinarian and was against the pomp and luxury of the cardinals. He introduced considerable reforms in the administration of justice and actively patronised education, founding the University of Hungary and supporting universities of music and medicine in France. He supported more than 1,000 students of all classes with food and lodging and even during war they were nourished well. He provided them with books and the best professors. His pontificate witnessed one of the last flickers of crusading zeal in the expedition ofPeter I of Cyprus, who tookAlexandriaon October 11th 1365, but soon afterwards abandoned it. He enforced a crusade against the Turks to take backAlexandria. He also sent many missions to Bosnia, Lithuania, Bulgaria and China. The great feature of Urban Vs reign was the effort to restore thepapacyto Italy, and to suppress its powerful rivals for the temporal sovereignty there. Continued troubles in Italy, as well as pleas from figures such as Petrarch and Bridget of Sweden, caused Urban V to set out forRome, which he reached on October 16, 1367. However, although greeted by the clergy and people with joy, and despite the satisfaction of being attended by the emperor inSt. Peters, and of placing the crown upon the head of the empress, it soon became clear that by changing the seat of his government he had not increased its power. On the request of the French cardinals and with numerous cities of the Papal States in revolt he sailed for Avignon arriving in September 1370. A few days later he fell ill and died on December 19. He succeeded Innocent VI [see 1352] and was succeeded by Gregory XI [see 1370]. 1363MILIC, JOHN [d.1374] Moravian Reformer who served in the chancery of Charles IV before becoming a priest, canon, and finally archdeacon in Prague. As a wealthy prelate he embraced poverty to preach the simplicity of the early church, openly attacking the laxity of laity and clergy in 1363. The Inquisition in Rome ordered his imprisonment because of his preaching that the Antichrist had arrived in 1367. Urban V ordered his release and he worked with outcast women in Prague founding a home for them in 1372. YOANNIS X Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1363-1369] see 1348 and 1370. 1364CATHERINE OF SIENNA [1347-1380] Dominican tertiary [lay person] joined the Dominican order. In 1375 interest in a crusade took her to Pisa where she also received the stigmata. The following year went to Avignon to meet Pope Gregory XI and figured in his decision to move the curia to Rome. After the great schism [see 1378] the rest of her life was spent in Rome working towards unity in support of Pope Urban VI [see 1378]. She and Francis of Assisi were named as patron saints of Italy by Pope Pius XII in 1939. 1365 1366EDINGTON, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1366]. Edington entered the service of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Orleton" \o "Adam Orleton" Adam Orleton, bishop of Winchester, and in 1341 the king named him keeper of the wardrobe. This position was an important one as the wardrobe functioned as the treasury while the king was on campaign. He became HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_High_Treasurer" \o "Lord High Treasurer" treasurer from 1344 to 1356 and finally HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" \o "Lord Chancellor" chancellor from 1356 until he retired from royal administration in 1363. He contributed to the English military efficiency in the early stages of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" \o "Hundred Years' War" Hundred Years War. When he was appointed he found that the treasury was in great debt from the heavy demands of the early stages of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" \o "Hundred Years' War" Hundred Years War. Edington saw the need to bring all royal expenditure under the oversight of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchequer" \o "Exchequer" exchequer. While serving in these positions, Edington also held ecclesiastical HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefice" \o "Benefice" benefices. In 1341 he was given the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebendary" \o "Prebendary" prebend of Leighton Manor ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Lincoln" \o "Diocese of Lincoln" Lincoln), by 1344 he also held that of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Salisbury" \o "Diocese of Salisbury" Salisbury , and by 1345 that of Putston ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Hereford" \o "Diocese of Hereford" Hereford). This level of pluralism was not unusual at the time. His greatest appointment however came with his papal appointment, on the kings request, to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/See_of_Winchester" \o "See of Winchester" see of Winchester in 1345. He served as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Winchester" \o "Bishop of Winchester" bishop of Winchester from that time until his death. This was the richest see in England, considered second only to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Milan" \o "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan" archbishopric of Milan. He used the see as a source for extensive HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism" \o "Nepotism" nepotism. In May 1366, as a final sign of royal gratitude, King Edward III had Edington elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" archbishop of Canterbury. Edington, however, declined on the grounds of failing health. Five months later, on 7 October 1366, he died. He succeeded Simon Islip [see 1349] and was succeeded by Simon Langham [see below]. NIPHON Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1366-1385) see 1354 and 1385. He stayed in Constantinople. He signed the Tome against Prochorus and Cydonus, followers of Barlaam and Akidyndinus, whom the Church condemned. LANGHAM, SIMON Archbishop of Canterbury [1366-1368]. He was born at Langham inRutland, became a monk in the Benedictine abbey of St Peter at Westminster by 1346, and was later prior and then abbot of this house. In 1360 he was made treasurer o England and two years later he became bishop of Ely. He was appointed chancellor of England in February 1363 and chosen archbishop of Canterbury on 24 July 1366. Perhaps the most interesting incident in his primacy was when he drove the secular clergy from their college of Canterbury Hall, Oxford, and filled their places with monks. The expelled head of the seculars was the great reformer John Wycliffe. Pope Urban V made Langham a cardinal in 1368. This step lost him the favour of Edward III, and two months later he resigned his archbishopric and went to Avignon. In 1374 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury for the second time but he withdrew his claim and died at Avignon on 22 July 1376. He left the residue of his large estate and his library to Westminster Abbey. He succeeded William Edington [see above] and was succeeded by William Whittlesey [see 1368]. 1367GESUATI An order of laymen founded by Giovanni Colombini [see 1360] about 1360 devoted to prayer and charitable works. They were well known for their frequent use of the phrases Praised be Jesus or Hail Jesus in preaching, hence their popular name. Approved by Pope Urban V in 1367 they established monasteries and adopted a white tunic and greyish-brown cloak as their habit. They spread throughout Italy and establish bases in Toulouse but were dissolved by Clement IX in 1668 has as having lost the spirit of their order. WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM [1324-1404] Bishop of Winchester. He was born in humble circumstances and educated at Winchester. He held various royal administrative posts becoming chancellor of England in 1367. He received a number of ecclesiastical livings from 1357 although he was not ordained until 1362 and became consecrated as bishop of Winchester in 1367. He was dismissed from the chancellorship in 1371 and John of Gaunt had him brought to trial in 1376 to answer for his conduct while in office, and he was deposed as a result, but pardoned on the accession of Richard II, and resumed as chancellor 12 years later. His importance lies in his generous educational patronage: he endowed a college in Oxford in 1379 [now New College], and a school at Winchester in 1382 which was the first independent and self governed school in the country and became the pattern that Henry VI used in his foundation of Eton. 1368VINCENT, FERRER [1350-1419] Dominican preacher who entered the Order of Preachers in 1368. After studying at Barcelona, Vincent then taught natural science and logic and completed his studies at Toulouse in 1379. He then became prior at Valencia. Morally concerned, in 1399 he set out from Avignon to preach across Europe for the next 20 years. Known as Angel of the Judgement he also protected and converted the Jews. WHITTLESEY, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1368-1374]. William was bishop of Rochester, then bishop of Worcester, then finally archbishop of Canterbury. He was probably born in the Cambridgeshire village of Whittlesey. He was educated atOxford, and owing principally to the fact that he was a nephew ofSimon Islip a former archbishop of Canterbury, he received numerous ecclesiastical sources of income holding positions at Lichfield, Chichester and Lincoln, and livings at Ivy church, Croydon and Cliffe. His term of office at Canterbury was very uneventful, partially but not wholly due to his poor health. He died at Lambeth in June 1374. He succeeded Simon Langham [see 1366] and was succeeded by Simon Sudbury [see 1375]. 1369 1370BRIDGET OF SWEDEN [13031373] Founder of the Brigittine Order [see below]. Daughter of the Governor of Uppland who married and had eight children but on the death of her husband in 1344 retired to a life of penance and prayer. While there she had a vision which told her to establish a new order to which she received the necessary papal approval in 1370. The order was organised with double communities of men and women, with the men being allowed books to study. It was banned in Sweden in 1595 but still survives in Bavaria, Switzerland and Britain. CATHERINE OF SWEDEN [1331-1381] daughter of Bridget of Sweden who succeeded her mother as the head of the Brigittine Order. She was an ally of Catherine of Sienna [see 1364] and supported Pope Urban VI [see 1378] after the Great Schism [see 1378]. GABRIEL IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1370-1378] see 1363 and 1378 He was previously the abbot of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moharrak_Monastery&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Moharrak Monastery (page does not exist)" Moharrak Monastery and was known to be a great scholar and righteous ascetic. During his papacy, in the year HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1370" \o "1370" 1370 a great light appeared in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt during the night and lingered until dawn. The following year there was a great flood in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile" \o "Nile" Nile, which threatened HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt. GREGORY XI Pope [1370-1378]. During his pontificate vigorous measures were taken against theological opposition which had broken out in Germany, England, and other parts of Europe. The nineteen propositions of John Wycliffe (132084) and the thirteen articles of the Sachsenspiegel were formally condemned by Pope Gregory XI in 1377. There was also an effort to bring about a reformation in the various monastic orders. He returned to Rome on January 17, 1377, having been delayed by a conflict between the pope and Florence, known as theWar of the Eight Saints. The Florentine magistrates were responsible for the conduct of the war and the pope put Florence under interdict for a time. Gregory XI did not long survive this removal, dying on March 27, 1378. After his death the College of Cardinals was pressured by a Roman mob, which broke into the voting chamber, to vote an Italian pope into the papacy. This Italian pope was Urban VI. He succeeded Urban V [see 1362] and was succeeded by Urban VI [see 1378]. 1371-1380 AD 1371 1372 1373JULIAN OF NORWICH [c.1342-1413] English mystic. She was an anchoress who lived in a cell built on the wall of the Norman church of St Julian in Norwich. She is remembered for a series of 16 revelations which took place in 1373 and gave rise to Revelation of Divine Love. Her life was in total solitude but for occasional counselling. She defined Gods love in terms of pain; the sufferings of Christ and what believers must be willing to suffer for him, which must be understood before joy can be received. 1374 1375SUDBURY, SIMON Archbishop of Canterbury [1375-1381]. He was born at Sudbury in Suffolk and studied at the University of Paris becoming one of the chaplains ofPope Innocent VI, who sent him, in 1356, on a mission to Edward III of England. In October 1361 the pope appointed him bishop of London and in May 1375 he succeeded William Whittlesey as archbishop of Canterbury and during the rest of his life was a partisan of John of Gaunt. In July 1377, he crowned Richard II. The following year John Wycliffe appeared before him atLambeth, but he only undertook proceedings against the reformer under great pressure. In January 1380, Sudbury became lord chancellor of England. Having released John Ball from his prison at Maidstone, Kentish insurgents attacked and damaged the archbishops property at Canterbury and Lambeth; then, rushing into the Tower of London, they seized the archbishop himself. They regarded him as one of the principal authors of their woes and so unpopular was Sudbury that guards simply allowed the rebels through the gates. Sudbury was dragged to Tower Hill and on 14 June 1381 was beheaded. His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral, though his head, after being taken down from London Bridge, is still kept at the church of St Gregory at Sudbury in Suffolk. He succeeded William Whittlesey [see 1368] and was succeeded by William Courtney [see 1381]. 1376DOROTHEOS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1376-1417] see 1334 and 1417. MACARIUS Patriarch of Constantinople [1376-1379, 1390-1391] succeeded Philotheus [see 1354]. There is no additional information readily available. 1377PURVEY, JOHN [c.1353-1428] Lollard colleague of John Wycliffe who was possibly educated at Oxford though he is never referred to as a graduate but was ordained in 1377. He was closely associated with Wycliffe at Lutterworth and to him was attributed the revision into vernacular idiom of the translation of the Vulgate into English by Wycliffe and Nicholas of Hereford [see 1382]. Purvey was forbidden by the bishop of Worcester to preach in his diocese. He was imprisoned at Saltwood, Archbishop Arundels Castle, and in March 1401 just before the passing of the act against heretics and the burning of the first Lollard martyr William Sawtrey [see1401], Purvey recanted. He was inducted into the vicarage of West Hythe in Kent but resigned in 1403 because he could not conscientiously abandon his Lollard convictions. He was imprisoned in 1421 by Archbishop Chicheley and he was still alive in 1427 still presumably promoting Lollard doctrines as circumstances allowed. ROME returned to being the seat of the papacy. WYCLIFFE, JOHN [c.1329-1384] English reformer who was educated at Oxford receiving a doctorate in theology there in 1377. By 1361 he was a lecturer at the university receiving his living from churches to which he was appointed rector. Wycliffe was a brilliant scholar, and John of Gaunt, the virtual ruler of England, summoned him to court [1376-78]. Wycliffe offended the church with his nationalist pro-government views, among these being the idea that the civil government should seize the property of immoral clerics. A meeting was convened at St Pauls in 1377 to discuss these views but arguments between the John of Gaunt [the duke of Lancaster] and the presiding bishop as to who was to chair the meeting caused the meeting to break up without a word from Wycliffe. The pope condemned Wycliffes teaching with a series of Bulls in 1377 and warned the university to exclude him. Wycliffe was told to stop spreading his views. When he attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation and taught a doctrine of the Real Presence around 1380 he lost much of his support. There were also two other developments that hurt his cause, the great schism of 1378 which caused the English to form closer ties with the Roman Curia and the peasants revolt of 1381. Although not directly involved in the rebellion, his critics claimed that the disaster was implicit in his heresies. This situation enabled Bishop Courtney to force Wycliffes followers from Oxford. Wycliffe died in 1384 and he was buried in the church graveyard at Lutterworth but in 1428 due to his heresy his body was exhumed and burnt with his ashes being thrown into the Swift River. He was a prolific writer and has been called the morning star of the Reformation. His connection with the Lollard movement is a matter of dispute however the persecution of his followers was effective. What failed in England was successful in Bohemia. Students from that land attended Oxford and took his teachings back to Prague and by this means John Hus and his followers adopted the ideas of Wycliffe and kept them alive until the Reformation era. 1378ANTIPOPE A pope who is elected in opposition to one who is held to have been canonically elected. Although it is generally accepted there have been some 25 antipopes in history the term is particularly used for the period of the Great Schism in the western church [1378-1417] during which there was always a pope and at least one antipope. CLEMENT VII Antipope [1378-1394] who was opposed to Pope Urban VI. Robert of Geneva (13421394) was elected to the papacy as Clement VII by the French HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinals who opposed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VI" \o "Pope Urban VI" Urban VI. Clement VII is regarded by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" \o "Roman Catholic Church" Roman Catholic Church as an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva" \o "Geneva" Geneva and became bishop of Therouanne in 1361, archbishop of Cambrai in 1368, and a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinal on 30 May 1371. In 1377, while serving as papal legate in upper Italy he allegedly authorised the massacre of 4,000 civilians, an atrocity even by the rules of war at the time, which earned him the nickname butcher of Cesena. Elected pope at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondi" \o "Fondi" Fondi on 20th September 1378 by the French cardinals in opposition to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_VI" \o "Urban VI" Urban VI, he was the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" \o "Avignon Papacy" Avignon claimant of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Schism" \o "Western Schism" Western Schism the second of the two periods sometimes referred to as the Great Schism, which lasted until 1417. France, Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, Savoy, Denmark, Norway, and some minor German states acknowledged his authority. Unable to maintain himself in Italy, he took up his residence at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" \o "Avignon" Avignon in southern France where he became dependent on the French court. He created excellent cardinals but donated the larger part of the Pontifical States to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_II_of_Anjou" \o "Louis II of Anjou" Louis II of Anjou, resorted to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" simony and extortion to meet the financial needs of his court, and seems never to have sincerely desired the termination of the schism. He died in Avignon on 16th September 1394. MATHEOS I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1378-1408] see 1370 and 1408 As a young boy, Matheos was shepherd tending his fathers sheep. When he was fourteen he joined a monastery and ordained as a priest at the age of eighteen. He left for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Saint_Anthony" \o "Monastery of Saint Anthony" St. Anthonys monastery then to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_(region)" \o "Palestine (region)" Palestine, and worked in construction but upon hearing of the persecution of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copt" \o "Copt" Copts because of the actions of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade" \o "Crusade" Crusaders, he returned to St. Anthonys Monastery and was appointed abbot of the monastery. The Copts tried to show that they were not associated with the Crusaders but the Crusaders sack of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" \o "Alexandria" Alexandria roused the ruling prince and his men against the local Christians. On the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gabriel_IV_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope Gabriel IV of Alexandria" Gabriel IV he was elected be the next patriarch and on his consecration gave himself the title El Meskin (The Poor). He was known for his charitable work with the poor.Through his cordial relation with Sultan HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barquq" \o "Barquq" Barquq, he was able to stop the mob from burning Al-Muallaqa church and the Shahran monastery, because the Muslims were claiming that new constructions were taking place in those two locations. The Sultan appointed four Judges of Islam who declared the falsehood of such claims. Barquq however was overthrown and exiled and those who took his place persecuted the Copts and their Pope and imposed a heavy tribute. ROCH [c.1350-1378] Late mediaeval miracle worker who was born in France and went to Italy where he became famous for his ability to bring about miraculous cures of the plague by prayer and the sign of the cross. After his death he was widely venerated in France and Italy and the cult of St Roch developed. Luther mentioned and denounced him in his Large Catechism in relation to veneration of mediaeval saint worship. URBAN VI Pope [1378-1388]. He was a devout monk who had trained atAvignon. On the death of Pope Gregory XI, a Roman mob who surrounded the conclave strongly demanded a Roman pope. Under pressure the cardinals unanimously chose Urban VI. Not being a cardinal he was not well known, and immediately following the conclave most of the cardinals fled Rome before the mob could learn that not a Roman, though not a Frenchman either, but a subject of Joan I of Naples, had been chosen. Four months after Urbans election the French cardinals declared it invalid, frustrated that Urban had not returned the papacy to Avignon. They elected Clement VII and thus initiated the Great Schism which scandalised Christendom for thirty nine years. Europe was equally divided supporting the pope of their choice mainly out of political expediency. He deposed Joan of Naples and gave her kingdom to Charles of Durazzo. He later put Naples under an interdict and killed five cardinals accusing them of conspiring with Charles to undermine Urbans authority. Despite good intentions his pontificate was marked by anarchy and left the church divided and confused. His great faults undid his virtues. One of his contemporaries summed up his character He lacked Christian gentleness and charity. He was naturally arbitrary and extremely violent and imprudent, and when he came to deal with the burning ecclesiastical question of the day, that of reform, the consequences were disastrous. In August 1388 Urban moved from Perugia which he had recently subdued with 4,000 troops. To raise funds he had proclaimed a Jubilee to be held in 1390, only thirty-three years had elapsed since that celebrated under Clement VI. During the march, he fell from his mule and had to recover in Rome in the early October of 1388. Soon afterwards he died, likely of injuries caused by the fall. It is interesting to note that during the reconstruction of St Peters Basilca,Urbans remains were almost dumped out to be destroyed so his sarcophagus could be used to water horses. It was only saved when a church historian arrived and realising its importance ordered it preserved. He succeeded Gregory XI [see 1370] and was succeeded by Boniface IX [see 1389]. 1379NILUS Kerameus Patriarch of Constantinople [1379-1388] succeeded Macarius [see 1376]. There is no additional information readily available. 1380BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE Commenced under the leadership of Gerhard Groote [see below] from an interest in the inner life of the soul and the necessity of imitating the life of Christ by loving ones neighbour as oneself. It grew up in the Low Countries among the piety group outside the official church. They were to continue until the Reformation. Groote urged the copying of books as a method of earning a living and also to make reading materials more available. This work led to the development of schools in many communities. From them emerged many influential religious leaders and humanists such as Nicholas of Cusa [see 1423], Erasmus [see 1514], and Thomas A Kempis [see 1413] whose The Imitation of Christ gives understanding of the spirit and the teaching of the movement. After the death of Groote, Florentius Radewujns [see 1387] administered and expanded the group. GROOTE, GERARD [1340-1384] Founder of the Brethren of Common Life [see above]. He studied law and theology in Paris. During his 20s he led a worldly life which did not satisfy him. He was attracted by the ideas of the mystic J Ruysbroek [1317] whom he met and conversed with. After a serious illness, Groote about 1374 was influenced by the Carthusian Hendrik van Calkar and he turned to a devout Christian life. Grootes attacks on clerical abuse aroused some opposition and in 1380 he, with his younger friend Florentius Radewijns [see 1387], decided on forming a group in Deventer for the cultivation of piety; this was the nucleus of the Brethren. He turned his own house over to a similar gathering of devout women, for whom he wrote a rule. In 1383 his enemies were able to have permission to preach withdrawn from him. Groote started an appeal to Rome, but died in 1384 due to the plague. 1381-1390 AD 1381BALL, JOHN [d.1381] An unlicensed priest in York and Colchester and a leader of the 1381 Peasants Revolt. He was forbidden to preach in 1366 but continued to denounce clerical prelates and proclaim the right not to pay tithes to unworthy clergy as well as the equality of bondsmen and gentry. In 1381 he was in prison and released by rebels in Kent and quickly became known as a leader of the revolt. When the rebellion collapsed he was captured and sentenced to be hung, drawn and quartered. COURTNEY, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1381-1396]. He was born about 1342, a younger son of the 10th earl of Devon. He was educated at Oxford and after graduating in law was chosen chancellor of the university in 1367. He became bishop of Hereford three years later. His time as archbishop of Canterbury which commenced on 30th July 1381 after a period as bishop of London was during the dotage of Edward III and most of the reign of Richard II who he criticised for his lavish lifestyle. He consistently opposed John of Gaunts policies. He proceeded against John Wycliffe and held a synod called the Earthquake Synod as an earthquake occurred while it was in progress in London on 21st May 1382. Here he also sought to condemn the Lollards and urged bishops to imprison heretics. He opposed the Statute of Provisors and succeeded in slightly modifying the Statute of Praemunire. He died in 1396. He succeeded Simon Sudbury [see 1375] and was succeeded by Thomas Arundel [see 1396]. DAILLY, PIERRE [1350-1420] French cardinal and theologian who after graduating in arts in 1368 became a doctor of theology in 1381. He had many interests and wrote on scientific, philosophical, geographical, and astronomical, as well as theological subjects. His work shows the influence of Bacon and William of Ockham [1310]. Deeply concerned to the end of the Western schism which had divided Western Christianity since 1378, he supported the council of Pisa which had been convoked by the cardinals in 1409. On the accession of John XXIII, dAilly was created cardinal. His theology was greatly influenced by William of Ockham as seen in his belief that God could not be proved by reason but only by faith. Also he argued that the pope was not essential to the church. It is not surprising that these views found acceptance with Luther and other reformers. MATTHEW OF JANOV [c.1355-1393] Czech Reformer who studied in Paris gaining his first masters degree and then spent six years studying Scripture. He returned to Prague through Rome and was received as titular canon of the cathedral but prevented from fulfilling the office. Appointed a confessor in 1381 he held this office seven years until granted a poor parish. Greatly influenced by Milic [see 1363] The father of the Czech Reformation, he followed his pattern of biblical preaching which brought him many enemies but this served to make him study the Scriptures more diligently as the exclusive source of doctrine and preaching. This resulted in his profound work in five volumes which served as a source of inspiration to subsequent leaders of the Czech Reformation movement. Matthew himself or his followers translated the whole Bible into Czech. 1382NICHOLAS OF HEREFORD [d. c.1420] Lollard writer who while a fellow at Queens College Oxford engaged in translating the Latin Bible into English and became an ardent supporter of Wycliffe [see 1377] and in 1382 began to preach Lollard [see 1395] doctrines. Condemned and excommunicated by the archbishop of Canterbury he journeyed to petition against the sentence but he was imprisoned by the pope. Having escaped during a popular uprising in 1385 he returned to England and soon became the leader of the Lollard party in the west country, appealing especially to the common folk by addresses and handbills. He was captured in 1391 was imprisoned at Nottingham tortured then suddenly recanted, leaving his followers depressed and bewildered. Royal and Episcopal favours were now heaped upon him. He was made chancellor and treasurer of Hereford Cathedral and ended up as a monk at Coventry. He probably played an important part with John Purvey [see 1377] in a revision of Wycliffes English Bible. 1383 1384BIBLE VERSIONS Middle English listed in order [for Old English see 670, for Tyndale see 1535] 1150. Old English yields to Middle English as the common language of Britain. 1200. Orm composes poetical paraphrase of Gospels and Acts in Middle English. 1300. Midland Psalter gives metrical version of the Psalms in Middle English. 1320. Richard Rolles Middle English Psalter. 1348. English replaces Latin as the medium of instruction in schools (except at Oxford and Cambridge). 1360. Various gospel narratives translated into Middle English. 1362. English used for the first time in Parliament. 1380. Oxford professor HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/wyclif.html" John Wyclif publicly rejects Roman doctrine of transubstantiation, begins translating Latin Vulgate into English. 1382. Wyclif expelled from his teaching post at Oxford for heresy. Completes translation of Bible with help of his students. 1384. Death of Wyclif. His disciples continue to preach against the clergy, copy and sell manuscripts (mostly the Gospels). 1388. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/wyclif.html" Wyclif Bible revised by his student John Purvey. 1401. English parliament decrees the burning of heretics which is aimed against the Lollards 1408. Arundelian Constitutions by Convocation of bishops at Oxford forbids unauthorised translation, distribution, or public reading of the Scripture. 1411. Bonfire of Wyclifs writings at Oxford. HENRY OF LANGENSTEIN [1325-1397] German philosopher and theologian who was born in Hesse and educated at Paris where he later taught theology. He advocated the general church council to heal the great western schism, which started in 1378. The French court rejected the idea and half of the faculty and student body returned to their native Germany. In 1384 he helped found a theological faculty at the University of Vienna, where he became vice chancellor and after 1393 rector. He was also a significant author. WYCLIFFE publishes his earlier translation of some of the Scriptures into English. 1385MARK IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1385-1389] see1366 and 1389. ZABARELLA, FRANCESCO [1360-1417] Cardinal-deacon of Florence and distinguished canon lawyer. He was educated at Bologna and taught canon law at Florence [1385-1390] and Padua [1390-1410]. He was summonsed to Rome by Boniface IX to aid in overcoming the Great Schism. After participating in the Council of Pisa [1409] he was created cardinal by John XXIII in 1411. His indebtedness to John did not prevent him from supporting the Council of Constance [1414 1418] decision recommending the deposition of John as a step towards reconciliation of the divided parts of Latin Christendom. He saw the church as a corporation presided over by the pope, with papal power conferred on the pope by the members of the church, a power which required the pope to call a council in the crisis which was splitting the church. Failure to do so would pass the responsibility immediately to the cardinals and in the event of their inaction to the emperor who represented the whole people. 1386CONRAD OF GELNHAUSEN [1320-1390] French theologian who appealed to Charles of France during the time of the Great Schism to form an ecclesiastical council without waiting for papal approval. However Charles VI of France support of Antipope Clement VII caused Conrad to leave France in 1386 to lecture at Heidelberg University where he became chancellor. PACHOMIUS I Patriarch of Antioch [1386-1393] see also 1342 and 1393. 1387FLORENTIUS, RADEWIJNS [1350-1400] Follower of Gerard Groote [see 1380], he helped found the Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380] He studied in Prague and was converted to serious Christian life by Grootes fiery preaching. After Grootes death in 1387 Florentius became the leader of the movement and formed the Congregation of Windesheim, with regular canons associated with the Brethren. Under his leadership the Brethren expanded rapidly. During the 1400s it was to become a major devotional and educational force in the Low Countries. 1388 1389ANTONY IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1389-1390, 1391-1397] succeeded Nilus [see 1379]. There is no additional material readily available. BONIFACE IX Pope [1389-1404]. He was the second Roman pope of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Schism" \o "Western Schism" Western Schism from November 2, 1389 until October 1, 1404. During his time the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Clement_VII" \o "Antipope Clement VII" antipope Clement VII (137894) continued to hold court as pope in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" \o "Avignon" Avignon under the protection of the French monarchy. Neither pope had the magnanimity to put an end to the schism by resigning. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" Germany, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary" \o "Hungary" Hungary, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" \o "Poland" Poland, and the greater part of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy accepted him as pope, but the day before Bonifaces election by the fourteen cardinals who remained faithful to the papacy at Rome, Clement VII at Avignon had just crowned a French prince, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_II_of_Anjou" \o "Louis II of Anjou" Louis II of Anjou, king of Naples. In addition he and the Avignon pope, Clement VII, mutually HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunicated" \o "Excommunicated" excommunicated one another. In the course of his reign Boniface IX finally extinguished the troublesome independence of the commune of Rome and gradually regained control of the chief castles and cities, and re-founded the States as they would appear during the fifteenth century. Clement VII died at Avignon, September 16, 1394, but the French cardinals quickly elected a successor, on September 28: HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Benedict_XIII" \o "Antipope Benedict XIII" Benedict XIII (13941423). Over the next few years Boniface IX was encouraged to abdicate, even by his strongest supporters: HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" \o "Richard II of England" Richard II of England in 1396, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_(assembly)" \o "Diet (assembly)" Diet of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt" \o "Frankfurt" Frankfurt in 1397 and King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wenceslaus,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor" Wenceslaus of Germany at Reims, 1398. But he refused. During the reign of Boniface IX two HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubilee_(Christian)" \o "Jubilee (Christian)" jubilees were celebrated at Rome. The first, in 1390, had been declared by his predecessor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VI" \o "Pope Urban VI" Pope Urban VI, and was largely frequented by people from Germany, Hungary, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" \o "Poland" Poland, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia" \o "Bohemia" Bohemia and England. Several cities of Germany obtained the privileges of the jubilee, as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indulgence" \o "Indulgence" indulgences were called, but the preaching of indulgences gave rise to abuses and scandal. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubilee_(Christian)" \o "Jubilee (Christian)" jubilee of 1400 drew to Rome great crowds of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim" \o "Pilgrim" pilgrims, particularly from France, in spite of a disastrous plague. Pope Boniface IX remained in the city. In the latter part of 1399 there arose bands of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellant" \o "Flagellant" self-flagellating penitents, known as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Penitents" \o "White Penitents" White Penitents who evoked uneasy memories of the mass processions of wandering HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellant" \o "Flagellant" flagellants of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death" \o "Black Death" Black Death period, 13481349. They went in procession from city to city, clad in white garments, with faces hooded, and wearing on their backs a red cross, following a leader who carried a large cross. Rumours of imminent divine judgement and visions of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_apparitions" \o "Marian apparitions" Virgin Maryabounded. They sang the newly popular hymn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabat_Mater" \o "Stabat Mater" Stabat Mater during their processions. For a while, as the White Penitents approached Rome, gaining adherents along the way, Boniface IX and the curia supported their penitential enthusiasm, but when they reached Rome, Boniface IX had their leader burnt at the stake, and they soon dispersed. In England the anti-papal preaching of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wyclif" \o "John Wyclif" John Wyclif supported the opposition of the king and the higher clergy to Boniface IXs habit of granting English HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefice" \o "Benefice" benefices as they fell vacant to favourites in the Roman curia. Boniface IX introduced a novelty in the form of revenue known as annates perpetuae, withholding half the first years income of every benefice granted in the Roman Court. The popes agents also now sold not simply a vacant benefice but the expectation of one; and when an expectation had been sold, if another offered a larger sum for it, the pope voided the first sale; the unsympathetic observer HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_von_Nieheim" \o "Dietrich von Nieheim" Dietrich von Nieheimreports that he saw the same benefice sold several times in one week, and that the pope talked business with his secretaries during mass. Boniface IX certainly provided generously for his mother, his brothers Andrea and Giovanni, and his nephews in the spirit of the day. The curia was perhaps equally responsible for new financial methods that were destined in the next century to arouse bitter feelings against Rome, particularly in Germany. There was resistance in England, the staunchest supporter of the Roman papacy during the Schism with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Parliaments_of_England" \o "List of Parliaments of England" English Parliament confirming the law of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" \o "Edward III of England" Edward III of England (132777), giving the king veto power over papal appointments in England. Boniface IX was defeated in the face of a unified front, and the long controversy was finally settled, to the English kings satisfaction. Nevertheless, at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Synod_of_London&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Synod of London (page does not exist)" Synod of London (1396), the English bishops convened to condemn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyclif" \o "Wyclif" Wyclif. In 1398 and 1399 Boniface IX appealed to Christian Europe in favour of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_emperor" \o "Byzantine emperor" Byzantine emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaeologus" \o "Manuel II Palaeologus" Manuel II Palaeologus, threatened at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinopleby Sultan HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayezid_I" \o "Bayezid I" Bayezid I, but there was little enthusiasm for a new crusade at such a time. The universities of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrara" \o "Ferrara" Ferrara (1391) and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermo" \o "Fermo" Fermo (1398) owe him their origin, and that of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erfurt" \o "Erfurt" Erfurt in Germany, its confirmation (1392). Boniface IX died in 1404 after a brief illness. He succeeded Urban VI [see 1378] and was succeeded by Innocent VII [see 1404]. NICHOLAS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1389-1398] see 1385 and 1398. 1390FREEMASONRY An international organisation, claiming adherence of all faiths, whose principles are embodied in symbols and allegories connected with the art of building and involving an oath of secrecy. The origins of Freemasonry probably lie in the 12th century, when English masons founded a fraternity to guard the secrets of their craft. The lodge, the name given to the meeting place of modern masons, was not only a workshop but a place to exchange views, air grievances, and discuss craft matters. Hence their secrecy. Because of its invitation to men of all faiths, Freemasonry does not hold to the uniqueness of Jesus Christ. It does not teach the necessity of salvation through Christ alone. Good works, it believes, will cause a man to ascend to the Grand Lodge Above. It accords no pre-eminent place to the Bible and claims that Masonic initiation gives a measure of illumination unattainable elsewhere. The Roman Catholic Church has frequently condemned Freemasonry, mainly for its Masonic secrecy. GERARD OF ZUTPHEN [1367-1398] Associated with the early history of the Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380], he was born in Holland and as the youth was a pupil of the Brethrens founder G Groote. An able scholar he studied at the University of Paris but then returned to Deventer the headquarters of the movement. There, though in his 20s, he was highly valued as a spiritual adviser. He wrote several treatises on religion and ethics during the 1390s stressing the value of love, the spiritual ascent of the soul to God, and the imitation of Christ. Gerard died of plague at an early age. 1391-1400 AD 1391SEVILLE POGROM Started against the Jews in 1391. Some 4000 were massacred causing the formation of the Maronos; Spanish or Portuguese Jews who professed to be Christians to survive. The persecution continued when false accusations of atrocities were spread about the Jews causing them to be hounded by the Spanish Inquisition. 1392 1393NILUS Patriarch of Antioch [1393-1401] see also 1386 and 1401. PRAEMUNIRE, STATUTES OF The first words of the writ issued by Edward III in 1353 to protect the rights of the English crown against encroachment by the papacy give the basis for the title. This statute was revised in 1365 and followed in 1393 by the famous Statute of Praemunire which was primarily aimed against Pope Boniface IX. In essence these statutes require the clergy not to take to Rome matters that should be settled in England and Papal Bulls and excommunications were not to be promoted in England. As a result appeals to the Vatican were diminished. 1394BENEDICT XIII Antipope [1394-1423] who was opposed to Popes Boniface IX, Innocent VII, Gregory XII, Martin V. He was born into the nobility of Aragon in 1328 and studied law at Montpellier where he obtained his doctorate and later taught HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law_(Catholic_Church)" \o "Canon law (Catholic Church)" Canon law. His knowledge of canon law, noble lineage and austere way of life won him the approval of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XI" \o "Pope Gregory XI" Pope Gregory XI, who appointed him to the position of cardinal in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1375" \o "1375" 1375. After Gregorys death in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1378" \o "1378" 1378the people of Rome feared that the cardinals would elect a French pope and return the papacy to Avignon. Consequently, they rioted and laid siege to the cardinals, insisting on an Italian pope. The conclave duly elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_VI" \o "Urban VI" Urban VI but the new pope proved to be intractably hostile to the cardinals. Some of them reconvened at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondi" \o "Fondi" Fondiin September 1378, declared the earlier election invalid and elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_of_Geneva" \o "Robert of Geneva" Robert of Geneva as their new pope initiating the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Schism" \o "Western Schism" Western Schism. Robert assumed the name HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Clement_VII" \o "Antipope Clement VII" Clement VIIand moved back to Avignon. Benedict supported Clement throughout his reign and was unanimously elected by a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_conclave" \o "Papal conclave" conclave of twenty-four cardinals at Avignon on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_28" \o "September 28" September 28th HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1394" \o "1394" 1394, following Clements death earlier in the month. This meant that on the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VI" \o "Pope Urban VI" Urban VI in 1389 when the Roman HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Cardinals" \o "College of Cardinals" College of Cardinals had chosen HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Boniface_IX" \o "Pope Boniface IX" Boniface IX; the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Schism" \o "Western Schism" Western Schism had been perpetuated. His position was eroded by the withdrawal of support from the French church in 1398. His palace in Avignon came under a five year siege which was relieved by Benedicts escape in 1403 to an area belonging to Louis II of Anjou. Benedict is also mentioned for his oppressive laws against the Jews. Those laws were repealed by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" \o "Pope Martin V" Pope Martin V, after he received a mission of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews" \o "Jews" Jews, sent by the famous synod convoked by the Jews in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forl%C3%AC" \o "Forl" Forl, in 1418. In 1415 the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Constance" \o "Council of Constance" Council of Constancebrought the clash between papal claimants to an end. Gregory XII and John XXIII both agreed to resign. Benedict, on the other hand, refused to stand down, so he was declared a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schism_(religion)" \o "Schism (religion)" schismatic and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunicate" \o "Excommunicate" excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1417" \o "1417" 1417. Benedict, who had lived in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpignan" \o "Perpignan" Perpignan from 1408 to 1417, now fled to the castle at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valencia,_Spain" \o "Valencia, Spain" Valencia in Spain still considering himself the true pope, but his claim was now only recognised in the kingdom of Aragon, where he was given protection by King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_V_of_Aragon" \o "Alfonso V of Aragon" Alfonso V where he remained until his death there on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_23" \o "May 23" May 23rd HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1423" \o "1423" 1423. 1395DIETRICH OF NIEHEIM [1340-1418] Historian and papal lawyer from Avignon who served in the chancery office of several popes. In 1395 he was appointed bishop of Verden by Boniface IX but was deprived of the office four years later, having never taken possession of his see. Dietrich wrote tracts to help end the Great Schism [see 1054] and declared his allegiance to Alexander V and John XXIII. Among his works are an attack on John Wycliffe and a history of the papal chancery from 1380. GERSON, JEAN CHARLIER DE [1363-1429] French theologian and church leader. He entered the University of Paris in 1377 and was made chancellor in 1395. Schooled in the Nominalism of William of Ockham he resisted its potential speculative and sceptical excesses. Disillusioned by the failure of papal leadership he held that in an emergency canon law could be set aside; in particular he followed Henry Langenstein in insisting that the pope was not absolute, but must be understood as the head, and also as part, of the body, the church which comprises the totality of the faithful. From this followed a revolutionary step; that the body had the right to call a failing head to account. He took part in the council of Pisa [1409] that of Constance 1415-17 which burned Hus and deposed three popes to end the Schism. As one of the chief theorists of the Conciliar Movement, Gerson had considerable importance in the history of the doctrine of the Church and of Christian political thinking. LOLLARDS A term applied to the English followers of John Wycliffe [see 1377] originally composed of Oxford scholars led by Nicholas of Hereford [see 1382] the translator of the first Lollard Bible. The students spread their ideas to Leicester where laymen were won to the cause. Although the academic followers of Wycliffes teaching were forced to recant, the movement continued among other classes under the leadership of John Purvey [see 1377], Wycliffes secretary. By 1395 the Lollards had become an organised sect with specially ordained ministers, spokesman in Parliament, and considerable strength among the middle and artisan classes. Lollard beliefs were summarised in a document the Twelve Conclusions which was presented to Parliament in 1395. This manifesto expressed disapproval of the hierarchy in the church, transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, the churchs temporal power, prayers for the dead, pilgrimages, images, war, and art in the church. Though not mentioned in the Twelve Conclusions, the Lollards also felt that the main purpose of priests was to preach and that the Bible should be available in the vernacular for all believers. In 1401 Parliament passed a statute aimed specifically at the Lollards. This law stated that a heretic convicted by the spiritual court who did not recant, or relapsed, should be turned over to the civil powers and burned. Despite this legislation the Lollards remained strong and in 1410 found a leader in Sir John Oldcastle [see 1413]. Later he was caught and hanged. The Lollards had an uprising against Henry V that shattered them and they turned into an underground movement. There was a Lollard revival in the early 16th century in London, East Anglia and the Chiltern Hills. It eventually merged with the Protestants and was no longer a target and may have created the base for popular nonconformity. NICHOLAS OF BASLE Proponent of the Free Spirit Movement who won followers to the movement along the Rhine River from Constance to Cologne. Some of his adherents were burnt in Heidelberg and Cologne among the executed being Martin of Mainz, a renegade monk. Nicholas claimed to be a new Christ and viewed himself as the sole source of authority and ordination claiming he could interpret the gospels better than the apostles. For his views Nicholas was apprehended and burnt in Vienna about 1395. 1396ARUNDEL, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1396-1397, 1399-1414]. He was a younger son of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Fitzalan,_10th_Earl_of_Arundel" \o "Richard Fitzalan, 10th Earl of Arundel" Richard Fitzalan, 10th Earl of Arundel. At the instigation of the pope he was provided with the bishopric of Ely in August 1373 entirely by reason of his fathers status and financial leverage with the Crown during the dotage of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_III" \o "Edward III" Edward III. He happily abandoned his student days at Oxford, from which he gained little pleasure. A hugely wealthy near-sinecure, Ely seems to have captured the young bishops genuine interest until his brothers political opposition to Richard IIs policies both at home and towards France grew into an extremely grave crisis moving towards civil war in 1386-8 where Thomas found himself at the front of the dangerous attempts by five leading temporal lords to purge the kings advisors and control future policy. On 3 April 1388, he was elevated to the position of archbishop of York at a time when Richard II was, in effect, suspended from rule. Given Elys wealth and ease, this promotion was clearly as much to do with status and consolidating the conspirators control in the north as with remuneration. Arundel served twice as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" \o "Lord Chancellor" Lord Chancellor, during the reign of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" \o "Richard II of England" King Richard II, first, entirely against the kings wishes, from 1386 to 1389, and again from 1391 to 1396. Throughout his life Arundel was more trustful than was good for him. On 25 September 1396, he was made archbishop of Canterbury and primate of all England. The kings nomination seemed to wish him nothing but success. Yet, within a year, he was exiled by the king during Richards fierce counter-attack against his enemies of ten years earlier, and he was replaced by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Walden" \o "Roger Walden" Roger Walden. He spent his exile in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence" \o "Florence" Florence. Shortly afterwards he joined up with his fellow-exile HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Bolingbroke" \o "Henry Bolingbroke" Henry Bolingbroke and invaded England and forced Richard to yield the crown to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England" \o "Henry IV of England" Henry IV. The new regime secured the reversal of several of Richards acts, including the popes installation of Walden at Canterbury. Arundel returned to his primacy while Walden surprisingly with the support of Arundel was eventually translated to the important see of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_London" \o "Diocese of London" London. As the king collapsed into ill-health from 1405, Arundel returned to the front of government. At one point, he even took the sick king into Lambeth Palace itself for care. In 1405-06 he had to deal with the crisis with the papacy provoked by the kings decision to execute HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_le_Scrope" \o "Richard le Scrope" Richard Scrope, archbishop of York who had participated in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Percy,_1st_Earl_of_Northumberland" \o "Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland" Percy rebellion. Arundel was a vehement opponent of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lollards" \o "Lollards" Lollards, the followers of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wycliffe" \o "John Wycliffe" John Wycliffe, who in his 1379 treatise had opposed the dogma of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transubstantiation" \o "Transubstantiation" Transubstantiation. King Henry IV passed a statute in 1401 which empowered bishops to arrest, imprison, and examine offenders and to hand over to the secular authorities such as had relapsed or refused to recant. The condemned were to be burnt in an high place before the people. This act was probably pushed through by the authoritative Arundel. Its passing was immediately followed by the burning of William Sawtrey, a London priest. He had previously recanted but had relapsed, and he now refused to declare his belief in transubstantiation or to recognise the authority of the Church. In 1410, a body of Oxford censors condemned 267 propositions collected out of Wyclifs writings. These different measures seem to have been successful at least as far as the clergy were concerned, and Lollardy came to be more and more a lay movement, often connected with political discontent. Arundel had a stroke which left him unable to speak shortly afterwards. Henry V, who had had uneasy relations with Arundel, installed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Chichele" \o "Henry Chichele" Henry Chichelein his place. Thomas Arundel died on 19 February 1414. He succeeded William Courtney [see 1381] and was succeeded by Roger Walden [see 1397] and Henry Chichele [see 1414]. NETTER, THOMAS [c.1372-1430] Carmelite theologian who was known also as Thomas Walden and is best known for his rejection of Wycliffe and the Lollards. From his ordination in 1396 through study at Oxford and attendance in 1409 of the Council of Pisa he gained a love for royalty and a hatred for the Lollards. He produced a major work against Wycliffe and the Hussites in 1421. This work was approved by Pope Martin V at Rome. 1397CALLISTUS II Xanothopoulos HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1397] succeeded Antony IV [see 1389]. There is no additional information readily available. MATTHEW I Patriarch of Constantinople [1397-1410] succeeded Callistus II [see above]. There is no additional information readily available. WALDEN, ROGER Archbishop of Canterbury [1397-1399]. Little is known of his early years but he had some connection with the Channel Islands, and resided for some time in Jersey where he was rector of the parish church of St Helier from 1371 to 1378. He became archdeacon of Winchester in 1387, however his days were by no means fully occupied with his ecclesiastical duties, and in the same year he was also appointed treasurer of Calais and held about the same time other positions in this neighbourhood. In 1395, after having served Richard II as secretary, Walden became treasurer of England, adding the deanery of York to his numerous other benefices. On 8 November 1397 he was chosen archbishop of Canterbury in succession to Thomas Arundel who had just been banished from the realm. However he lost this position when the new king, Henry IV, restored Arundel in 1399, and after a short imprisonment he passed into retirement. On 10 December 1405, through Arundels influence, he was elected bishop of London, and he died early the following year. He succeeded and was succeeded by Thomas Arundel [see 1396]. 1398GREGORY IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1398-1412] see 1389 and 1412. SCROPE, RICHARD LE [1360-1405] Archbishop of York who was ordained in 1377 and became chancellor of Cambridge University the following year. In Rome in 1382 he was made auditor of the curia. After a time as bishop of Coventry and Lichfield he was transferred to the archbishopric of York in 1398. He assisted Henry IV enthronement but grew disillusioned with the new ruler and took up arms with Northumberland and Bardolph. He composed a reform document and gathered an army of discontented citizens. The Earl of Westmorland pretending agreement with the reforms tricked him into disbanding his followers. 1399 1400 1401-1410 AD 1401MICHAEL III Patriarch of Antioch [1401-1410] see also 1393 and 1410. SAWTREY, WILLIAM [d.1401] Lollard martyr who was a priest in Norfolk in 1399. Sawtrey was summoned before the bishop of Norwich and charged with heresies which he supposedly recanted. In 1401 while he was attached to St Osyths London, Sawtreys heretical teaching came to the attention of Archbishop Arundel and he was the first to be tried before the newly passed laws. He was charged with refusal to adore the cross except as a symbol, maintaining that priests should omit repetition of the hours for more important duties such as preaching, holding that money spent on pilgrimage should instead be distributed to the poor and he believed that bread after consecration was essentially unchanged. He was pressurised by the archbishop but held his ground and was condemned as a relapsed heretic, degraded from the priesthood and made a doorkeeper, and stripped of every clerical function and vestment including his tonsure. Finally he was burnt in chains at Smithfield. 1402BERNARDINO OF SIENNA [1380-1444] Franciscan friar and reformer. He was born of a noble family and became a friar in 1402. He made use of the monogram IHS (which uses the first three capital letters of Jesus name) and stressed devotion to the holy name of Jesus . He constantly attacked usury and the party strife of Italian cities. He took part in the Council of Florence [see 1438] when union with the Greek Church was debated. He died in Aquila while on a preaching tour. 1403TORQUEMADA, JUAN DE [1388-1468] Spanish theologian and cardinal, one of the leading defenders of papal authority. He entered the Dominican Order in 1403 and attended the Council of Constance in 1417. After finishing his studies in Paris he taught in Spain, and attended the Council of Basle [1432 1437] where he defended papal rights. He was a leading figure in negotiations with the Greek Orthodox Church which led to a short lived decree of unity signed in 1439. For his services he was granted the title Defender of the Faith and was made a cardinal in 1439. In the last years of his life he was further awarded with title to two bishoprics. THOMAS A KEMPIS [c.1380-1471] German mystic educated in the Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380]. Later he entered the Augustinian Convent where his brother was a prior. Thomas was ordained a priest in 1413 and became sub-prior in 1429 and spent his whole life in this house. He worked as a copyist and is said to have copied the whole Bible at least four times. As a director of the spiritual life he was much in demand; his methods and approach followed those of Gerard Groote [see 1380] and Florentius Radewijns [see 1387]. All of his writings, letters, poems and homilies are of a devotional nature and he is well known for his publication The Imitation of Christ. What has made it acceptable to others apart from the Roman Catholics is its supreme stress on Christ and fellowship with Him. This publication has gone through over 2000 editions and printings. 1404BEAUFORT, HENRY [13751447] Bishop of Winchester [14041447]. He became chancellor under Henry V and loans from his vast fortune financed Henrys military expeditions. At the Council of Constance [see 1417] he was largely responsible for the election of Pope Martin V but was prevented by the king from accepting a cardinals hat but was elevated to that position in 1426. He was the virtual ruler of England for 20 years as guardian of the young Henry VI involving almost constant conflict with the Duke of Gloucester. INNOCENT VII Pope [1404-1406]. He was briefly popeat Rome while there was a rival pope,antipope Benedict XIII(13941423), atAvignon. He was born to a simple family and distinguished himself by his learning in both civil and Canon Law, which he taught for a time at Perugia and Padua. He eventually became archbishop of Ravenna in 1387. Innocent was unanimously chosen by eight cardinals but there was a general riot by the Ghibelline party in Rome when news of his election got out but peace was maintained by the aid of KingLadislaus of Naples(13991414), who hastened to Rome with a band of soldiers to assist the pope in suppressing the insurrection. For his services the king extorted various concessions from Innocent VII, among them the promise that he would not reach any accommodation with the rival pope in Avignon that would compromise Ladislaus claims to Naples, which had been challenged until very recently by Louis II of Anjou. Innocent VII had made the great mistake of elevating his highly unsuitable nephew, most of whose violent career as a soldier of fortune lay ahead of him, to the cardinalate, an act of nepotism that cost him dearly. In August 1405 this cardinal waylaid eleven members of the Roman partisans on their return from a conference with the pope, and had them assassinated in his own house and their bodies thrown from the windows of the hospital of Santo Spirito into the street. There was an uproar. Pope, court, and cardinals, with the Migliorati faction, fled towardsViterbo. The papal party were pursued by furious Romans, losing thirty members, whose bodies were abandoned in the flight, including the abbot of Perugia, struck down under the eyes of the pope. It is said that Innocent VII planned the restoration of the Roman University, but his death brought an end to such talk. He succeeded Boniface IX [see 1389] and was succeeded by Gregory XII [see 1406]. 1405 1406GREGORY XII Pope [1406-1415]. He was born in Venice, and named Latin patriarch in Constantinople in 1390. He was made a cardinal by Innocent VII. He promised to resign if elected so that dual resignations with the antipope in Avignon could end the Western Schism. Legates from Rome visited Paris and at first Antipope Benedict XIII agreed to meet but then changed his mind. Angry cardinals met at Pisa in 1409 to depose both popes and elect a new one, Alexander V. However Gregory was still recognised as the true pope at the Council of Constance in 1415 and resigned his office. Benedict refused to accept the advice of the Council and in 1417 the Council named him heretical. After his abdication Gregory became cardinal bishop of Porto. He succeeded Innocent VII [see 1404] and was succeeded by Martin V [see 1417]. 1407JEROME OF PRAGUE [c.1371-1416] Bohemian reformer and martyr who was a layman and a brilliant orator and debater. He was a close friend and disciple of John Hus [see 1415], though intellectually he was a Realist and followed the beliefs of Wycliffe which he promoted in Bohemia but always remained orthodox on transubstantiation. He studied in Paris and began lecturing there but had to leave because of the reaction to his Realism and his following Wycliffe. In 1407 he helped lead the nationalist-Wycliffe campaign which granted that Czechs equality of power in the hitherto German dominated Prague University. The archbishop of Prague excommunicated him in 1409 and in the following year his preaching at the Court of Sigismund of Hungary led to his dismissal. He was arrested by the Inquisition but fled. From 1410 he became much more radical and active in his opposition to the church. In Prague, Jerome led popular demonstrations against Hus excommunication, against indulgences, and against religious relics. In 1413 he was expelled from Krakw and went to support the Ruthenian group in White Russia. He went to the Council of Constance to support Hus in 1414 but left quickly to avoid arrest. In 1415 after Hus condemnation Emperor Sigismund demanded that Jerome be dealt with and he was burned as a heretic at Constance in 1416. 1408GABRIEL V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1408-1427] see 1378 and 1428. 1409ALEXANDER V Antipope [1409-1410] who was opposed to Pope Gregory XII. Alexander V was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete" \o "Crete" Crete in 1339 of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_people" \o "Greek people" Greek descent and was known as Peter of Crete. He entered the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscan_order" \o "Franciscan order" Franciscan order and his abilities were such that he was sent to study at the universities of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University" \o "Oxford University" Oxford and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris" \o "University of Paris" Paris. While he was in Paris the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Schism" \o "Western Schism" Western Schism occurred with Alexander supporting HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VI" \o "Pope Urban VI" Pope Urban VI (137889). He settled in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardy" \o "Lombardy" Lombardy, became bishop, and finally became archbishop of Milan (1402). On being created HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinal by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_VII" \o "Pope Innocent VII" Pope Innocent VII in 1405, he devoted all his energies to the reunion of the Church, in spite of the two rival popes. He was one of the promoters of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Pisa" \o "Council of Pisa" Council of Pisa and his work incurred the displeasure of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XII" \o "Pope Gregory XII" Pope Gregory XII (140615), who ordered his deposing. However at the Council of Pisa the assembled cardinals chose him as the new pope and he was crowned on June 26, 1409, as Alexander V, making him in reality the third rival pontiff. During his ten-month reign, Alexander Vs aim was to extend his obedience with the assistance of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France. He proclaimed and promised rather than effected a certain number of reforms: the abandonment of the rights of spoils and procurations, and the re-establishment of the system of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_election" \o "Canonical election" canonical electionin the cathedral churches and principal monasteries. He also gave out papal favours with a lavish hand, from which the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendicant_order" \o "Mendicant order" mendicant ordersbenefited especially. ANGELICO, FRA [13871455] who became a Dominican at the age of 20 entering the monastery at Fiesola. Due to the Great Schism from 1409 to 1418 he moved first to Foligno and then on to Cortona where some of his greatest paintings are to be found. He decorated the convent of San Marco in Florence. He was a painter of biblical subjects such as The Last Judgement and Deposition from the Cross. CAPREOLUS, JOHN [13801444] was a Dominican who taught in French Universities in defence of Thomas Aquinas. He wrote Four books of defences of the theology of St Aquinas [14091433]. PISA, COUNCIL OF This council was convened by cardinals in an effort to end the Great Schism. The assembly was attended by apparently 500 members representing much of the Western Church. The Council claimed authority and legitimacy on the basis of arguments developed by Cardinal P dAilly [see 1381] and Jean Gerson [see 1395]. They declared the assembly, although not called together by a pope, fully expressed the unity of the Church and had the power to end the schism. The council also made an effort to deal with Wycliffe and the Bohemian Movement. It is not recognised by the Roman Catholic Church as being ecumenical and it did not end the schism which was then further complicated by having three rival popes. It is however agreed that this council prepared the way for the final healing of the schism which took place at the Council of Constance in 1415. 1410BADBY, JOHN [d.1410] Lollard martyr who denied transubstantiation. John was a tailor at Evesham who asserted that the consecrated host remained material although a sacramental sign of a living God. Declared an incorrigible heretic by the bishop of Worcester he spent more than a year in prison. Tried before Archbishop Arundel he was sentenced to death. Henry, prince of Wales, was present at his execution at Smithfield who on hearing his cries ordered the flames to be quenched and offered Badby pardon if he would recant but on his refusal he was burnt to death. EUTHYMIUS II HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1410-1416] succeeded Matthew I [see 1397]. There is no additional information readily available. JOHN XXIII Antipope [1410-1415]. He was opposed to Pope Gregory XII. He was one of the seven cardinals who, in May 1408, deserted Pope Gregory XII, and with those belonging to the group of Antipope Benedict XIII, convened the Council of Pisa, of which Cossa became the leader. They elected Antipope Alexander V in 1409. John XXIII succeeded him a year later. Edward Gibbon asserts in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that John XXIII was charged with piracy, murder, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape" \o "Rape" rape, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simony" \o "Simony" simony and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest" \o "Incest" incest, with the more serious charges being suppressed. The fact that there were more popes named John than of any other name during the first 1400 years of the Church and then no more for over 500 years is probably due to the controversial figure this antipope represented. With the aid of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Sigismund" \o "Emperor Sigismund" Emperor Sigismund, Pope John convened the Council of Constance in 1412. During the third session, rival Pope Gregory XII authorised the council as well and soon both popes abdicated in favour of Pope Martin V, while the last remaining claimant in Avignon was excommunicated when he refused to resign as well. John was briefly imprisoned in Germany before being freed by Martin V in 1418. He died in Florence as a cardinal bishop in 1419. PACHOMIUS II Patriarch of Antioch [1410-1411] see also 1401 and 1411. 1411-1420 AD 1411JOACHIM II Patriarch of Antioch [1411-1426] see also 1410 and 1426. 1412NICHOLAS IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1412-1417] see 1398 and 1417. 1413KEMPE, MARGERY [c.1373-1433] English mystic who married a local official John Kempe and had 14 children. She is best known for her Book of Margery Kempe, a detailed but far from complete account of her life over 40 years. She suffered mental disorder, vowed chastity in 1413, and made pilgrimages to Palestine and Europe. Although her autobiography has been criticised as being void of spiritual understanding she counted among her advisers and supporters theologians and the religious of repute including Julian of Norwich [see 1373]. She was the recipient of visions and revelations. OLDCASTLE, SIR JOHN [1378-1417] English Lollard who served as a soldier and represented Herefordshire in Parliament in 1404 and then through his second wifes title became a baron in 1409. In the following year however he incurred the displeasure of Thomas Arundel [see 1396], archbishop of Canterbury, for Lollard sympathies. The warning evidently went unheeded for in 1413 Oldcastle was summonsed before convocation and handed over to the civil arm for trial despite his friendship with Henry V. Among other things he rejected transubstantiation and confession, denounced the pope as Antichrist and denied the hierarchys right to dictate what a man should believe. Sentenced to death he somehow escaped, and with the others conspired to seize the king and to organise a Lollard assembly. The plot came to nothing, many of the Lollards were captured but Oldcastle evaded custody until late in 1417 when he was hung and burnt hung. 1414CHICHELE, HENRY Archbishop of Canterbury [1414-1443]. He was born the son of a yeoman in Northamptonshire in 1365 and was educated at Winchester and Oxford. In May 1404 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Boniface_IX" \o "Pope Boniface IX" Pope Boniface IX provided him a prebend at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln,_England" \o "Lincoln, England" Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held prebends at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury" \o "Salisbury" Salisbury, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichfield" \o "Lichfield" Lichfield, St Martins-le-Grand and Abergwyly, and the living of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brington" \o "Brington" Brington. He took part in diplomatic missions to France and to Popes Innocent VII and Gregory XII and was a supporter of Henry Vs campaigns in France. Chicheley began a diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_VII" \o "Pope Innocent VII" Pope Innocent VII, who was professing his desire to end the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schism_(religion)" \o "Schism (religion)" schismin the papacy by resignation, if his French rival at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" \o "Avignon" Avignon would do likewise. Next year, on 5 October 1406, he was sent with Sir John Cheyne to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" \o "Paris" Paris to arrange a lasting peace and the marriage of Prince Henry with the French princess Marie, which was frustrated by her becoming a nun at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poissy" \o "Poissy" Poissynext year. Chicheley held the see of St Davids at the popes request from 1408 to his transfer to Canterbury, and eventually found time to visit his diocese for the first time and be enthroned at St Davids in May 1411. Immediately after the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Arundel" \o "Thomas Arundel" Archbishop Arundel in 1414 he was nominated by the King Henry V to the archbishopric. He was elected on 4 March, translated by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull" \o "Papal bull" papal bull on 28 April, and received the pallium without going to Rome for it on 24 July. He was of course a persecutor of heretics as all who held this position in this era had to be. In July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-yearly inquisition by archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On 12th February 1420 proceedings were begun before him against William Taylor a priest, who had been for fourteen years HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunicate" \o "Excommunicate" excommunicated for heresy, and was now degraded and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_by_burning" \o "Execution by burning" burnt for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to saints, but only to God. Further persecutions of a whole batch of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lollard" \o "Lollard" Lollards took place in 1428. Chichele had some problems with Pope Martin V regarding the non promotion of papal power in England against the Statute of Provisors, and by appointing a jubilee to be held at Canterbury in 1420, after the manner of the Jubilee ordained by the popes, caused stress with Pope Martin V as it threatened to divert the profits from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim" \o "Pilgrim" pilgrimsfrom Rome to Canterbury. A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on 19 March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated to ensnare simple souls and extort, from them a profane reward, thereby setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff, to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted by God. Henry was one of the able lawyer bishops of the Middle Ages upon whom so much of the administration of church and state depended. He promoted education, founding All Souls College Oxford in 1438. He died on 12 April 1443. His elaborate and colourful tomb, built many years before his death, depicts his naked corpse on the lower level, whilst on the upper level he is depicted resplendent in his vesture and apparently peaceful slumber. He succeeded Thomas Arundel [see 1396] and was succeeded by John Stafford [see 1443]. CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF [1414-1418] Called by Antipope John XXIII [see 1410], who was in military trouble, to secure the help of the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. The mediaeval papacy suffered a series of reverses during the 14th century including the removal of the popes from Rome to Avignon and different nations supporting different popes. At this council each of the five nations had one vote minimising the importance of the number of Italian clergy. One of its achievements was resolving the Great Schism by deposing three popes and electing Martin V [see 1417]. The problem of heresy was dealt with in the case of John Hus [see 1415] who came to Constance under safe conduct which was not honoured and was burnt at the stake. 1415HUS, JAN [1373-1415] Bohemian reformer who trained at the University of Prague, going on to obtain his masters degree in 1396 and then teaching in the faculty of arts. In 1402 he was ordained. When the theological works of John Wycliffe were brought to Prague about this time he became acquainted with them. In 1403 a German university master Johann Hubner selected 45 theses from Wycliffes writings and secured their condemnation as heretical by the university where the Germans had three votes against the one Czech vote. This resulted in a rupture between the German and the Czech masters for the latter generally defended Wycliffe. The new archbishop knew little about theology but fortunately for Hus and the reform party he favoured ecclesiastical reforms. This attitude lasted five years during which the reform party grew in strength. Finally in 1408 opponents of reform, mostly the higher clergy, persuaded the archbishop to join their side. The final break came in 1409 over the deposition of Pope Gregory XII and the election of Alexander V at the Council of Pisa. King Wenceslas and the Czech university masters including Hus sided with Alexander while the archbishop and the German masters remained faithful to Gregory. As a result Hus was excommunicated and the case was then turned over to the curia and he was cited to appear in Rome. The process against Hus was renewed in 1412 and he left for exile finding refuge chiefly in southern Bohemia. The oppression of reformers increased with Pope John XXIII appointing a commission to sell indulgencies. A council was to be held in Constance on 1 November 1414 and Hus was invited to attend with a promise of safe conduct for the journey both ways even if the charges against him were not lifted. After much hesitation and upon the urging of even the king, Hus went. At first he was left unmolested but within less than a month he was treacherously lured into the papal residence and then imprisoned in a dungeon in the Dominican monastery. He was tried initially for adhering to Wycliffes doctrines but when this was not successful they brought out other charges against him. He was finally permitted a public hearing before the council but was not permitted to present and defend his views but only to answer charges formulated against him by his enemies or testified to by false witnesses. Hus said that he would not recant unless directed from the Scriptures. The last session was held on 6 July in the cathedral before the general congregation. The final 30 articles, none of which correctly stated his teaching, were read. Since he still refused to recant on the ground that they ascribed to him views he did not hold, he was found to be an obstinate heretic, a disciple of Wycliffe, deposed and degraded from the priesthood, and turned over the secular arm for execution. He was burned at the stake the same day on the outskirts of the city. 1416JOSEPH II Patriarch of Constantinople [1416-1439] succeeded Euthymius [see 1410]. Born in 1360 in Bulgaria little is known of his early life before he became a monk on Mount Athos. He became metropolitan of Ephesus in 1393, before being elected patriarch of Constantinople on 21st May 1416. Together with Byzantine emperor John VIII Palaiologos, 23 metropolitan bishops and countless scholars and theologians, he took part in the Council of Florence. While in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence" \o "Florence" Florence, he was quartered in the Palazzo Ferrantini. Joseph was very old and ill and died within two months on 10 June 1439 and was buried in Florence. His death caused much grief to all present at the council, as he was a fervent supporter of union between the Churches. He is portrayed in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benozzo_Gozzoli" \o "Benozzo Gozzoli" Benozzo Gozzolis frescoes in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magi_Chapel" \o "Magi Chapel" Magi Chapel of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palazzo_Medici_Riccardi" \o "Palazzo Medici Riccardi" Palazzo Medici Riccardi, which celebrates the entrance of the Byzantine dignitaries in the city. 1417ATHANASIUS IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1417-1425] see 1412 and 1425 MARTIN V Pope [1417-1431]. He was elected pope at the Council of Constance thus ending the Western Schism and was recognised as such except in Aragon.The French offered Avignon as his residence but he decided to return to Rome. He reached Florence in 1419 and stayed there until 1420 as Rome was under the control of Joan of Naples. When he got to Rome the city was in ruins and the Papal States seething with unrest. He eventually re-established papal rule over central Italy and also the entire western church as well. As a result of the martyrdom of John Hus after he had been betrayed at Constance the Hussites reacted violently rebelling against the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. They spread terror in surrounding Catholic countries and necessitated several crusades to crush them. Martin combined the bureaucracies of Rome and Avignon and established a model administration and efforts were made to end the schism with the Eastern Orthodox Church. He succeeded Gregory XII [see 1406] and was succeeded by Eugene IV [see 1431]. THEOPHILOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1417-1424] see 1376 and 1424. 1418 1419TABORITES The most radical branch of the Hussite movement centred in southern Bohemia where Hus had spent much of his exile between 1412 and 1414. The Taborites nevertheless did not really reflect his teachings. They were fundamentalists in the tradition of John Wycliffe and wished to confine doctrines to what was explicitly stated in the Bible. They rejected transubstantiation, purgatory, saints, relics, and the distinction between priests and laity. They also believed in the imminent second coming of Christ preceded by a period of turmoil. The movement became a mass movement in July 1419 when 40,000 people are said to have gathered on a hill to which the biblical name of Tabor was given. Under the brilliant military leadership of John Zizka they defeated the imperial crusades directed against them and were able to maintain a degree of unity with the more moderate party of the Calixtines [see 1420]. This unity collapsed after the death of Zizka in 1424 and the Taborites movement was destroyed at the Battle of Lipany in 1434. 1420CALIXTINES formed in the Four Articles of Prague. They were the moderate party of the Hussites and were also called the Ultraquists. Their name is derived from the Roman name for a cup [Calix] indicating their demand that communicants should also receive the wine in sacrament. At the Reformation they were merged with the Protestant groups in Bohemia. For a time they were united with the Taborites [see 1419]. CHELCICKY, PETER [1390-1460] Chelcic Brethren Founder. Peter was a layman who came under the teaching of John Wycliffe. In 1420 in Prague he introduced the concept of rejection of worldly power of the church and the use of secular force in spiritual matters. His ministry together with his followers influenced Archbishop Rokycana and helped sow the seeds of the Bohemian Brethren [see 1454]. 1421-1430 AD 1421ADAMITES A term given to a series of small groups on the fringe of Christianity at various times in history who were said to practice nudity. Among later groups were a sect of Bohemian Taborites who were suppressed in 1421 and an Anabaptist sect in the Netherlands about 1580 who were alleged to require candidates for admission to appear naked before the congregation. 1422 1423CLEMENT VIII Antipope [1423-1429] who was opposed to Pope Martin V. Clement VIII was one of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipopes of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" \o "Avignon" Avignon line, reigning from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_10" \o "June 10" 10th June HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1423" \o "1423" 1423 to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_26" \o "July 26" 26th July HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1429" \o "1429" 1429. He was a friend and advisor of the future HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon_Pope_Benedict_XIII" \o "Avignon Pope Benedict XIII" Avignon pope Benedict XIII, and member of the Avignon curia. In 1396 he was an envoy to the bishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Valencia" \o "Archdiocese of Valencia" Valencia to get HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" \o "Spain" Spanishsupport. Benedict had appointed four HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinals, and on his death, three of them, on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_10" \o "June 10" 10 June HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1423" \o "1423" 1423, elected Clement pope. The fourth, Jean Carrier, absent at the time, declared the election invalid, and elected his own antipope in turn, who took the name HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Benedict_XIV" \o "Antipope Benedict XIV" Benedict XIV. Consequently Jean Carrier was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunicate" \o "Excommunicate" excommunicated by Clement VIII. Clement VIIIs fate was bound up with the ambitions of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_V_of_Aragon" \o "Alfonso V of Aragon" Alfonso V of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragon" \o "Aragon" Aragon who wished to negotiate for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples" \o "Naples" Naples, and so gave Clement support: even though his queen HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_of_Castile" \o "Maria of Castile" Maria of Castile and the bishops of Aragon supported Martin. However, when King Alfonso had achieved his political goals, he sent a delegation in 1428 headed by the future HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callixtus_III" \o "Callixtus III" Calixtus III to persuade Clement to recognise Martin. Clements abdication on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_26" \o "July 26" 26th July HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1429" \o "1429" 1429 was confirmed in mid-August. Clement had to make a penitential submission to Martin V, and when this was done Martin granted him a bishopric. He died on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_28" \o "December 28" 28th December HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1446" \o "1446" 1446. NICHOLAS OF CUSA [1401-1464] German philosopher and cardinal who studied at Heidelberg and Padua and became a doctor of canon law at Cologne in 1423. After lecturing at Cologne he became dean of St Florins Coblenz in 1431. He was sent to Constantinople in the interests of reunion and later served the papal cause in Germany at a number of diets until a settlement between the pope and emperor came at the Concordat of Vienna in 1448 by which time Nicholas V had made him a cardinal. He was appointed papal legate to Germany to preach the Jubilee indulgence, reform religious and diocesan clergy, and hold synods. Opposition from Duke Sigmund of Austria forced him to flee in 1457 and he took refuge in the Dolomites where he undertook some writing. With his father and sister he built a hospital in Kues where his library exists to this day. 1424BENEDICT XIV Antipopes [1424-1429] & [1430 -1437] who were opposed to Pope Martin V. Benedict XIV was the name used by two closely related minor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipopes of the 15th century. The first, Bernard Garnier became HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope" \o "Antipope" antipope in 1424 and died about 1429. The second,Jean Carrier, became antipope in 1430 and apparently left office, whether by death or resignation, by 1437. Neither of these claimants was supported by more than a very small faction within the Church. They claimed to be the successors to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Benedict_XIII" \o "Antipope Benedict XIII" Benedict XIII, one of the parties to the great HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_Schism" \o "Papal Schism" Papal Schism. In 1417, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Constance" \o "Council of Constance" Council of Constanceresolved the Schism, proclaiming HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_V" \o "Martin V" Martin Vthe new pope and demanding that Benedict XIII renounce his claim. Benedict XIII, however, remained at a castle in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" \o "Kingdom of Valencia" kingdom of Valencia and continued to maintain supporters. He died in 1423, but, the day before his death, he created four cardinals loyal to him, in order to ensure his succession. Three of these cardinals met and elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Clement_VIII" \o "Antipope Clement VIII" Antipope Clement VIII. However, one of Benedict XIIIs cardinals, Jean Carrier, disputed the validity of this election. Carrier, acting as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Cardinals" \o "College of Cardinals" College of Cardinalsby himself, elected Bernard Garnier, who took the name Pope Benedict XIV, instead. Garnier conducted his office secretly and was known as the hidden pope: a letter from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_of_Armagnac" \o "Count of Armagnac" Count of Armagnac to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" \o "Joan of Arc" Joan of Arc indicates that only Carrier knew Benedict XIVs location. Garniers reign as Benedict XIV ended at his death in 1429 or 1430, although he named four of his own cardinals, one of whom was named Jean Farald. Garniers cardinals chose Jean Carrier as their new pope. Carrier, however, had been captured and imprisoned by Antipope Clement VIII. Carrier reigned in captivity and also styled himself Pope Benedict XIV. BUSCH, JAN [13991480] Author and member of the Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380] who became an Augustine Canon in 1424. He was a keen clerical reformer supporting Nicholas of Cusa [see 1423] who made him visitor to the Augustine houses of Saxony and Thuringia. His work Chronicon Windesheime, a history of Windesheim where he was the prior, is a valuable source of information on the Brethrens early history. THEOPHANES I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1424-1431] see 1417 and 1431. 1425MARK V Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1425-1435] see 1417 and 1435. 1426JOHN OF RAGUSA [c.1380-1443] Dominican theologian who became a considerable scholastic figure. In 1422, as a representative of Paris University, he successfully urged Martin V to hold a council, and was present at its sessions in Pavia and Sienna. He became pro-curator general of the Dominicans in 1426 residing in Rome and was influential with Martin helping to persuade him to call the Council of Basle [1431]. In 1435 the council sent him to Constantinople as part of an embassy to attempt to achieve the union of the Eastern and Western churches. Most important amongst his writings are his accounts of the Council of Sienna and the early stages of Basle together with his condemnation of the Hussite teaching. MARK III Patriarch of Antioch [1426-1436] see also 1411 and 1436. 1427 1428YOANNIS XI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1428-1453] see 1408 and 1453 During his papacy the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copts" \o "Copts" Copts encountered many hardships. The kings of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia threatened the rulers to cut the flow of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile" \o "Nile" Nile because of their persecution of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians" \o "Christians" Christians. The pope was forbidden to communicate with the kings of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" \o "Nubia" Nubia without the permission and knowledge of the sultans. 1429HENRY VI [1421-1471] King of England. He was crowned king of England in 1429 and crowned king of France in 1431. In 1445 he married Margaret of Anjou, a woman of forceful character. Henry was an extremely devout kindly person. He was generous to the poor and appalled by cruelty and immorality. His interest in education led to his foundation of Eton College and Kings College Cambridge. Unfortunately his character and temperament and bouts of mental disorder made him ill-suited to the task of ruling a politically turbulent country. He was deposed with Edward of York seizing his throne. SIMEON OF THESSALONICA [d.1429] Greek Orthodox archbishop and theologian whose fame rests primarily on his chief work Dialogue Against all Heresies and on the One Faith The first part of the book was devoted to discussion on the Trinity and Christology and the second with the liturgies and sacraments. In this work he included criticisms against Jews, Bogomiles [see 1079] and Muslims and questioned the primacy of the papacy. He also wrote a number shorter works dealing with the Nicene Creed and doctrinal questions. 1430 1431-1440 AD 1431BASLE, COUNCIL OF Council from 1431 until 1449 at which the power of the pope over temporal domains were decreased by the individual states becoming increasingly independent in ecclesiastical affairs. In dealing with heresy the council had some success and by compromise it reached agreement with the Utraquists [see below] who were the moderate wing of the Hussites. CESARINI, JULIAN [1398-1444] Cardinal bishop and papal legate. In 1419 he went to Bohemia on a mission against the Hussites, and in 1425 he represented the pope in France and a year later in England. He was made president of the Basle Council in 1431 by Pope Martin V and tried to get a union between Roman and Greek churches. He went to Hungary to preach in 1442 and two years later promoted a crusade against the Turks which ended in defeat and his death at the Battle of Verna in Bulgaria on 10th November 1444. EUGENE IV Pope [1431-1447]. He was from a wealthy Venetian family and entered an Augustine monastery at an early age. His uncle Gregory XII brought him to Rome and made him a cardinal in 1408. On his election he dismissed the Council of Basle which had been convened by Martin who had wished to limit papal power but the council refused to dissolve and reaffirmed the findings of the Council of Constance. A popular insurrection in Rome saw the pope fleeing to Florence. The Council in Basle in 1439 elected antipope Felix V as pope and Eugene responded by excommunicating the bishops of Basle. In 1443 Eugene returned to Rome and the following year promoted a crusade against the Turks which ended in defeat at Varna. He succeeded Martin V [see 1417] and was succeeded by Nicholas V [see 1447]. GASCOIGNE, THOMAS [1403-1458] English theologian educated at Oxford where he spent the rest of his life. Wealthy and somewhat conceited, Gascoigne was strong defender of the established order in church and state, and a foe of Lollardy. He wrote on monastic decline in 1431, and is in addition to the theology a personal guide to the affairs in the English church, and government, and Oxford of his day. JOACHIM Patriarch of Jerusalem [1431-1450] see 1424 and 1450. JOAN OF ARC [1412-1431] Maid of Orleans and national heroine of France. An illiterate peasant girl she began at the age of thirteen to experience inward promptings, as voices accompanied by light, which urged her to save France from the aggressors. At this time the dauphin Charles was at war with the joint forces of England and Burgundy. She was not able to persuade the French commander of the reality of her visions but Charles became convinced of her ability when she recognised him in disguise. On close examination by theologians at Poitier Joan was given armour and attendants then joined the army at Blois, later to rout the English besieging Orleans. In 1430 she was taken prisoner by the Burgundians and sold to the English who charged her with witchcraft and heresy. Found guilty she was burned as a heretic in the marketplace of Rouen. MANDE, HENDRIK [c.1360-1431] Dutch mystic associated with the Brethren of Common Life [see 1380]. He was influenced by the fiery preaching of G. Groote [see 1380] and in his 30s joined the Brethren as a lay brother at Windesheim which remained his base for the remainder of his life. He compiled several treaties on mysticism with his writings taken largely from the Flemish mystic Jan Van Ruysbroeck [see 1317] and was generally theologically orthodox. UTRAQUISTS These were the more moderate group within the Hussite movement. Their name derives from the Latin meaning under both kinds and refers to the bread and wine at the Communion. They believed that laymen should receive both elements, not merely the bread as the Roman Church decreed. In addition they demanded that certain clerical abuse should be eliminated. They were centred in Prague and consisted of many of the nobility and university professors in that city. They defeated the rival Hussite faction, that of the Taborites [see 1419], at the Battle of Lipany. The Utraquists remained the established Church of Bohemia until the Thirty Years War in 1620 which resulted in the restoration of Catholicism. 1432VAN ECK, HUBERT [c.1366-1426] and VAN ECK, JAN [c.1390-1441] Flemish painters who contributed to the Ghent masterpiece The Adoration of the Lamb in the cathedral of St Bavon. Apart from this work Huberts work is lost but Jan spent time as the painter to John of Bavaria, and Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy where he was treated not as an artisan but a friend and was able to paint for wealthy Italian residents in the Netherlands. 1433CRAWAR, PAUL [1390-1433] Hussite martyr who studied medicine at Montpelier becoming in 1421 physician to Jagiello king of Poland. By that time he had become a radical Hussite writing two books against the papacy. In 1431 he returned to Prague probably due to persecution and then travelled to Scotland where he worked with the Lollards [see 1395]. He was arrested and burnt at the stake in St Andrews. SIGISMUND [1361-1437] Holy Roman Emperor who was the second son of Emperor Charles IV. Sigismund studied for six years at the Hungarian court and in 1385 married Maria, daughter of King Louis of Hungary and Poland. In 1387 he succeeded his father in law as king of Hungary. His rule was weakened by domestic problems and Turkish attacks. To solve the Great Schism he pressured Pope John XXIII to convene the Council Constance [1414-1418]. Sigismund guaranteed John Hus safe passage to the council where the Reformer was martyred. The Hussite Wars in Bohemia [1420-1436] erupted after Sigismund succeeded Wenceslas as king of Bohemia in 1419 where he pledged to persecute heresy. Pope Eugene IV crowned him Holy Roman Emperor in 1433 but Sigismund died without having achieved his goal of unifying Christendom against Islamic advances. 1434RAYMOND OF SEBONDE Spanish physician, philosopher and theologian who flourished around 1434-36. He was professor of theology at the University of Toulouse where he was influenced by Raymond Lull [see 1263] and opposed the position of such thinkers as William of Ockham [see 1310] that faith and reason, theology and philosophy are irreconcilable. Raymond asserted that the book of nature and the Bible are concordant divine revelations, the one general the other specific. 1435FEAST OF FOOLS Mock religious festival which was celebrated about New Year notably in France. They were sometimes associated with Balaams Ass as well as The flight into Egypt. The festivities were controlled by sub-deacons and included buffoonery and burlesque of religious services. The council of Basle [1435] imposed severe penalties and this led to their demise. FRANCIS OF PAOLA [1416-1507] Founder of the Minims Order. After a year at a Franciscan friary and a pilgrimage to Rome and Assisi, and living as a hermit at Paola, he started the mendicant order of Minims in 1435. He returned to France where he ministered to Louis XI and became the tutor of his son Charles VIII. He helped restore peace between France and Brittany by advising the marriage of the Dauphin and Anne of Brittany, and between France and Spain by suggesting France arrange to return some land to the Spanish. MINIMS An order of friars who regarded themselves as the least of all the religious orders and even below the Friars Minor. Founded initially and informally as a group of hermits in 1435 by Francis of Paola [see above] and confirmed by the pope in 1474 the order had no written rule until 1493. The rule was similar to that of the Franciscans. Abstinence was required from animal meats, fish, eggs, cheese, butter, and milk; they were to eat bread, vegetables, fruit, and oil as their staple diet. The order enjoyed great initial popularity and by 1550 there were over 400 houses in Europe. Today only a few survive in Italy and Spain. PHILOTHEUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1435-1459) see 1425 and 1459. He rejected the unifying Synod of Florence (1439). He participated in the Synod of Jerusalem (1443) which condemned the unity of Churches as false and invalid. 1436DOROTHEUS II Patriarch of Antioch [1436-1454] see also 1426 and 1454. DUFAY, GUILLAUME [1400-1474] Composer from the Netherlands who was the first of a series of great composers coming from the low countries. He gave leadership to the development of polyphonic music until well into the 16th century. As with most composers of the period he was a singer and took holy orders. Like many of his compatriots, he was drawn to Italy, where he spent two significant periods of his life and sang for a time in the papal choir. He wrote a highly interesting motet for the consecration of a church in Florence in 1436. A large amount of his music survives, both secular as well as sacred. 1437 1438FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF [1438-1445] The Church assembly was noteworthy for its attempt to unite the Greek and Latin churches. While the council at Basle [see 1431] was in session, the Greek empire was under the threat of the Turks. The emperor, John VIII, decided to propose to the pope, Eugenius IV that the Greek and Latin churches unite and thereby offer effective resistance to the infidels. The Greek representation included the archbishop of Nicaea John Bessarion [see 1463], and the metropolitan of Ephesus, Mark Eugenikos, who was against the union. The famous conciliatory address by Bessarion on the doctrine of the Spirit, promises of help against the Turks, and the death of the patriarch of Constantinople all helped to make an agreement possible. The union document was signed on 5 July 1439, but a few did not sign. On 6 July in the Cathedral Florence a service was held to celebrate the union. Cardinal Cesarini read the decree in Latin, and Bessarion in Greek, and the pope celebrated mass. In August the Greek emperor left. The fall of his capital was not prevented however and in addition the Greek Church renounced the union made at Florence. The council continued, without the Greeks, and excommunicated the members of the Basle Council and sought union with other Eastern churches. The popes ascendancy over councils was affirmed in 1441. In 1443 the council was moved to Rome where it concluded its sessions in 1445. PRAGMATIC SANCTION OF BOURGES [1438] This was issued by Charles VII of France following the National Synod at Bourges which had close links with the Council of Basle [1431-1449]. It was a statement of French principles contained in 23 articles which effectively reduced the power of the papacy in France. Councils were superior to popes, nominations of bishops and high ecclesiastical dignitaries were to be put in the hands of the French king and princes, and French ecclesiastical affairs were to be settled in France. The Concordat of Bologna in 1516 between Pope Leo X and Frances I ended the sanction but preserved many French principles. 1439FELIX V Antipope [1439-1449] who was opposed to Popes Eugene IV and Nicholas V. He was the son ofAmadeus VII, count of Savoy. He was surnamedthe Peaceful Amadeus, was also the antipope Felix V, elected by the Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence, from November 1439 to April 1449. He increased his dominions, encouraged several attempts to negotiate an end to theHundred Years War, and, after the death of his wife, retired from his position as duke to become a hermit. Elected as an alternative pope in opposition to Pope Eugene IV, Amadeus served as Felix V, regarded as an antipope, before stepping down to accept a cardinals hat instead. 1440METROPHANES II Patriarch of Constantinople [1440-1443] succeeded Joseph II [see 1416]. He served as bishop of Cyzicus in Asia Minor when he was called to join the delegation of bishops attending the Council of Florence. He was appointed by Emperor John VIII in May 1440 as successor to Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople following the death of the latter in Florence. The emperor was eager to secure help from Pope Eugenius IV to deal with Turkish aggression, so he forced the patriarch and all other bishops to submit to papal authority. Only one bishop did not submit: Markos Eugenikos, metropolitan of Ephesus, and without his signature the document of Union between East-West fell inactive. For his submission to the Union, Metrophanes II was nicknamed Mitrofonos (Mother-Killer) and deposed by a popular uprising. 1441-1450 AD 1441 1442 1443GREGORY III Mammas Patriarch of Constantinople [1443-1450] succeeded Metrophanes [see 1440]. Gregory is believed to have been from Crete and became a monk around 1420, and is considered to have been the confessor of Emperor John VIII Palaiologos. He was a supporter of the Union with theCatholic Churchand participated in theCouncil of Ferrara-Florence. He was elected patriarch after the death of the also-unionist PatriarchMetrophanes II. In 1450, he was forced to abdicate by the opposition of the anti-unionists to his policies, and went into exile in Rome in August 1451. He was well received byPope Nicholas V, who aided him financially and tried to pressure the Byzantine emperor to restore him on the patriarchal throne. Indeed, the pro-unionists in the Latin-occupied areas of Greece continued to consider him the legitimate patriarch of Constantinople, ignoring his successor, the anti-unionist Athanasius II. Gregory died in 1459 in Rome. STAFFORD, JOHN Archbishop of Canterbury [1443-1452]. John was the son of the earl of Stafford. He studied law at Oxford and was patronised by Henry Chichele, archbishop of Canterbury. Henry V appointed him dean of the Court of Arches, archdeacon and chancellor of Salisbury, dean of St. Martins (London), dean of Wells, keeper of the privy seal and lord high treasurer. In 1425, Pope Martin V made him bishop of Bath and Wells and, for seventeen years, he held the office of lord chancellor. His political influence was employed on the side of those who desired to promote peace with France. Archbishop Chichele recommended John Stafford to Pope Eugenius IV as his successor on the grounds of his high intellectual and moral qualifications, the nobility of his birth, the influence of his relations and his own almost boundless hospitality. Stafford was accordingly translated to Canterbury in 1443. He died at the archbishops palace at Maidstone in 1452. He succeeded Henry Chichele [see 1414] and was succeeded by John Kempe [see 1452]. 1444 1445GEILER VON KAYSERSBERG, JOHANNES [1445-1510] Roman Catholic preacher and reformer. He studied at Freiberg and Basle. He orientated his theology mainly to his pastoral concerns. He was a Nominalist who believed that God is a God who is faithful to his commitments. His grace is given to those who turn to him, disposing themselves by their natural capacities to His gracious gifts. God gives His grace to those who do their very best. Geiler has been called the prince of the pulpit in the late 15th century. 1446ANTONINUS [13891459] Archbishop of Florence [14461459]. A noted preacher who was much concerned about the poor and was concerned about corruption in the Church. Even though he was archbishop he dressed as a simple friar. He was influenced by Thomas Aquinas and little affected by the humanism of his time. The repair of church buildings, the regularity of church services, pastoral ministrations and the reform of religious communities were also of concern. 1447NICHOLAS V Pope [1447-1455] was the son of a physician who studied at Bologna and Florence. As bishop of Bologna he was the negotiator to the Holy Roman Empire to secure the enforcement of the reforming decrees of the Council of Basle. After his election he secured the dissolution of the council and the abdication of Antipope Felix V in 1449. He proclaimed a jubilee in 1450 which attracted many pilgrims to Rome and increased both the prestige of the papacy and its finances. The main area of fame for his reign is his support of the arts including the acquiring and translation of many books from the ancient world which provided the basis of the Vatican library. He also had a major reconstruction programme in Rome which also employed artists such as Fra Angelico. In 1453 there was an attempt on his life and the news that Constantinople had fallen, the latter is said to have contributed to his death in 1455. He succeeded Eugene IV [see 1431] and was succeeded by Calixtus III [see1455]. 1448 1449 1450ATHANASIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1450-1453] succeeded Gregory III [see 1443] There is no additional information readily available. PECOCK, REGINALD [c.1393-1461] Bishop of Chichester. He was educated at Oxford and made bishop of St Asaph in 1444 and transferred to the see of Chichester in 1450. He was an ardent defender of the church system of the day against the followers of John Wycliffe [see 1377]. At certain times he came under suspicion of heresy and in 1457 his unorthodox defences of orthodoxy, his tampering with the Apostles Creed, and his political attachment to the falling Lancastrian party led to a charge of heresy. He recanted and was confined in an abbey with a small pension for the rest of his life. THEOPHANES II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1450-1452] see 1431 and 1452. 1451-1460 AD 1451JOHN OF CAPISTRANO [13861456] Italian Franciscan leader and preacher who studied civil and canon law before joining the Observant Franciscans and preached against the Fraticelli [see 1316]. He defended Bernadino of Siena [see 1402] before Pope Martin V [see 1417] and obtained for third order Franciscans the right to live in common. Pope Nicholas V [see 1447] sent him to Austria, Hungary and Bohemia in 1451 to preach against the Hussites, and in 1454 Pius II [see 1458] had him preach the crusade which led to the victory over the Turks at the Battle of Belgrade on 22nd July 1456. He died of bubonic plague in the area soon after. 1452ATHANASIUS IV Patriarch of Jerusalem [1452-1460] see 1450 and 1460. KEMPE, JOHN Archbishop of Canterbury [1452-1454]. He was son of Thomas Kempe, a gentleman of Wye near Ashford, Kent. He was born about 1380 and educated atMerton College, Oxford. He practised as an ecclesiastical lawyer, was an assessor at the trial of Oldcastle, and in 1415 was made dean of the Court of Arches but did not do a good job as dean. He then passed into the royal service, and being employed in the administration of Normandy was eventually made chancellor of the duchy. In 1418 he was made keeper of the privy seal which he retained until 1421. Early in 1419 he was elected bishop of Rochester and two years later translated to Chichester and in November following to London. During the minority of Henry VI, Kempe had a prominent position in the English council as a supporter of Henry Beaufort whom he succeeded as chancellor in March of 1426. In this same year on 20 July he was promoted to thearchbishop of York. Kempe held office as chancellor for six years and retaining his place in the council was employed on important missions, especially at the congress of Arras in 1435, and the conference at Calais in 1438. In December 1439 he was created a cardinal priest. In spite of his age and infirmity he showed some vigour in dealing with Jack Cades rebellion, and by his official experience and skill did what he could for four years to sustain the kings authority. He was rewarded by his translation to Canterbury in July of 1452, when Pope Nicholas added as a special honour the title of cardinal-bishop of Santa Rufina. However as Richard of York gained influence Kempe became unpopular with men calling him the cursed cardinal and his fall seemed imminent when he died suddenly on 22 March 1454. Kempe was a politician first, and hardly a bishop at all and he was accused with some justice of neglecting his dioceses, especially at York. Still he was a capable official, and a faithful servant to Henry VI, who called him one of the wisest lords of the land. He succeeded John Stafford [see 1443] and was succeeded by Thomas Bouchier [see 1454]. 1453DUNSTABLE, JOHN [d.1453] English composer whose life details are somewhat obscure. He seems to have gone to the continent with the duke of Bedford during the Hundred Years War and to have spent much of his career there. He was known also as a mathematician and astronomer. About 60 of his works survive, mostly sections of masses and motets and are found chiefly in Italian manuscripts. MATHEOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1453-1466] see 1428 and 1466. 1454BOHEMIAN BRETHREN Later known as Unitas Fratrum, they were formed in Prague in 1453-4 and then associated with the followers of Peter Chelcicky [see 1420]. They settled in Kunwald in 1457 in three groups: the beginners, the advanced, and the perfected who were the priests. They were Protestants who regarded education as important. Despite persecution they increased in numbers with John Augusta [see 1533] who was tortured and imprisoned for sixteen years being an important leader. At the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, Protestantism in Bohemia and Moravia were almost destroyed for 150 years but scattered groups joined the Herrenhutter in 1721 under Count Zinzendorf [see 1727]. GENNADIUS II Scholarios HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1454-1456] succeeded Anathasius II [see 1450]. He was a philosopher and theologian. Gennadius was one of the last representatives of Byzantine learning and a strong advocate ofAristotelianphilosophy in the Eastern Church. He had been a teacher of philosophy before entering the service of the emperor, John VIII, as a theological advisor and as a judge in the civil courts. He accompanied his emperor to the Council held in 1438-1439 inFerraraandFlorence. The object of this endeavour was bringing a union between the Greek and Latin Churches. He was in favour of union at this time, although that was to change. He made four speeches at the council all of which were very conciliatory, and wrote a work to refute Mark of Ephesus first eighteen syllogistic chapters against the Latins. Despite his advocating the union when he came back to Constantinople, like most of his countrymen, he changed his mind with Mark of Ephesus converting him completely to anti-Latin orthodoxy, and from this time was known as the most uncompromising enemy of the union. He now wrote many works to defend his new convictions. After the death of John VIII in 1448 he entered the Pantokrator monastery in Constantinople under Constantine XI (1448-1453) and took a new name: Gennadius. After the fall of Constantinople, Gennadius was taken prisoner by the Turks. WhenSultanMehmed II, the conqueror, thought of reorganising the now subject Christians, he was naturally anxious to put an end to any sort of alliance between them and the Western princes. Wanting to use the church to stabilise his empire, he resolved to elect someone to the office, and sent for Gennadius because he was one of the chief enemies of the union, and told him to be patriarch. On 1 June, 1453, the new patriarchs procession passed through the streets that were still reeking with blood; Mehmed received Gennadius graciously and himself invested him with the signs of his office. Mehmed gave Gennadius both ecclesiastical and political authority as of the Greek Orthodox, by making the patriarchethnarch and gave him aberator diploma defining exactly his rights and duties. This still occurs now and as a result, since Gennadius, the GreekOrthodox Church of Constantinoplebecame a civil as well as a religious entity. Gennadius, who was not in holy orders, was then ordained to each grade. One of the symbolic books of the Orthodox Church is the Confession (Homologia) made by him to Mehmed, by which he is said to have secured a certain measure of tolerance for his people. As the Saint Sophia Church had been made into a mosque he used another church and was consecrated in 1454 taking up residence in a monastery. He was unhappy as a patriarch and tried twice to resign. Eventually, he found the tensions between theGreeksand the Ottomans overwhelming. Gennadius then, like so many of his successors, ended his days as an ex-patriarch and a monk. He lived in the monastery where he wrote books until he died in about 1473. MANTEGNA, ANDREA [1431-1506] First north Italian Renaissance painter who was the son of a carpenter. Mantenga was a precocious and arrogant genius, a member of the guild of painters at eleven years of age. He strengthened a fruitful association with the artists in his marriage in 1454 to Nicolosia Bellini daughter of Jacopo and sister of Giovanni and Gentile. His influence on his contemporaries and successors in Italy and beyond including Durer [see 1523] was considerable. He was more concerned with faithfulness to nature in his painting than with idealised beauty especially in his later works which proclaimed his sense of tragedy as shown in the foreshortened Dead Christ. MICHAEL IV Patriarch of Antioch [1454-1476] see also 1436 and 1476. 1455BOUCHIER, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1455-1486]. He became lord chancellor of England in March 1455 and his short term of office in this position coincided with the start of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" \o "Wars of the Roses" Wars of the Roses. At first he was not a strong HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partisan_(political)" \o "Partisan (political)" partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Plantagenet,_3rd_Duke_of_York" \o "Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York" Richard, duke of York, was deprived of power in October of 1456. Afterwards, in 1458, he helped to reconcile the contending parties, but when the war was renewed in 1459 he appears as a decided HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_York" \o "House of York" Yorkist. He crowned HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" \o "Edward IV of England" Edward IV in June of 1461, and four years later he performed a similar service for the queen, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" \o "Elizabeth Woodville" Elizabeth Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Pecock" \o "Reginald Pecock" Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy for stating that the church was not infallible. In 1473 he was created a cardinal after some delay as this honour had been sought for him by Edward IV in 1465. After the death of Edward IV in 1483 Bourchier persuaded the queen to allow her younger son, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard,_Duke_of_York_(Prince_in_the_Tower)" \o "Richard, Duke of York (Prince in the Tower)" Richard, duke of York, to share his brothers residence in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_London" \o "Tower of London" Tower of London; and although he had sworn to be faithful to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_V_of_England" \o "Edward V of England" Edward V before his fathers death, he crowned HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" \o "Richard III of England" Richard III in July 1483. He was, however, in no way implicated in the murder of the young princes, and he was probably a participant in the conspiracies against Richard. The third English king crowned by Bourchier was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" \o "Henry VII of England" Henry VII, whom he also married to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" \o "Elizabeth of York" Elizabeth of Yorkin January of 1486 which saw the War of the Roses come to an end. The archbishop died a couple of months later on 30 March 1486. He succeeded John Kempe [see 1452] and was succeeded by John Morton [see 1486]. CALIXTUS III Pope [1455-1458] who for reconciling King Alphonso V and Pope Eugenius IV was made bishop of Valencia in 1429. He was chosen as a neutral pope to maintain the balance of power between the Colonna and Orsini families. His greatest achievement was to arrange a crusade against the Turks in an attempt to retake Constantinople. He failed to do so but was able to lift the siege of Belgrade in 1456 and defeat the Turkish fleet at Metelino the following year. He instituted the feast of Transfiguration to commemorate the Belgrade victory. He should not be confused with antipope Calixtus III [1168-1178]. He succeeded Nicholas V [see 1447] and was succeeded by Pius II [see 1458]. MAZARIN BIBLE The name given to a rare and beautiful Bible printed by J. Gutenberg [see 1456] of Mainz about 1455. It was probably the first book to be printed in Europe. The copy which first attracted the attention of bibliographies was discovered in Cardinal Mazarins [see 1641] great library, hence the name. Of the 40 copies said to survive only two, one at Munich and the other of the Vienna are known to be complete. 1456GUTENBERG, JOHANN [c.1398-1468] Regarded as the inventor of printing in Europe. Born in Germany he seems to have constructed a printing press with movable type, although there are no printed specimens to support this claim. He borrowed money from Johann Fust who became his partner and then Fust foreclosed on him in 1455 and took over the printing operation in association with Peter Schoeffer. Gutenberg probably played an important part in the production of the 42 line Bible the Gutenberg Bible, which appeared in 1456 and is frequently considered to be the first book printed in Europe, and also in the production of the Psalter in 1457 which was apparently the first dated book to appear in print in Europe. ISIDORE II Xanthopoulos Patriarch of Constantinople [1456-1462] succeeded Gennadius II [see 1454]. There is no additional information readily. 1457VALLA, LORENZO [1407-1457] Italian philologist and rhetorician and perhaps the most brilliant mind of the Renaissance. Valla became, after studying in Rome, a teacher of Greek and Latin wandering through major cities in northern Italy. The last decade of his life was spent in Rome working for Pope Nicholas V in a position that gave him time for his literary activities. His best known book Elegance of the Latin Language published in 1441 became a standard guide for humanists who were interested in precise expression and graceful style. Always a critical and independent thinker, he was led by his work into many controversies. He showed that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery dating from the eighth century and thus could not be used as support for papal claims to temporal power. Vallas works exerted a strong influence on Erasmus and the Protestant Reformers. 1458PIUS II Pope [1458-1464]. He was the most famous papal representative of Renaissance humanism. He studied at Sienna and Florence and was involved in the Council of Basle from 1431-35. He went on diplomatic missions to England and Scotland on behalf of the council and became secretary to Felix V the Basle pope. He became very aware of the Turkish danger. Leaving the council and after a period with Frederick III of Germany he submitted to Eugene IV and eventually was created cardinal in 1456. Elected as the pope two years later he tried to form a crusade against the Turks who had taken Constantinople in 1453 but found that there was little enthusiasm amongst the princes of Europe. When he tried to levy a crusader tax from the Germans they reminded him of his wayward life as a youth. In 1464 he personally led a crusade against the Turks but was stricken with a fever and died at Ancona in Italy. In 1460 EXERCRABILIS, a papal bull issued by Pius II declared papal supremacy. He succeeded Calixtus III [see 1445] and was succeeded by Paul II [see 1464]. 1459MARK VI Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1459-1484) see 1435 and 1484. He condemned the unity of the Churches and in 1467 he sent two monks to Crete to enlighten the locals against Latin propaganda. 1460JACOB II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1460] see 1452 and 1468. The see of Jerusalem was vacant from 1460 to 1468. 1461-1470 AD 1461 1462PLATINA, BARTOLOMEO [1421-1481] Humanist scholar and historian who was a soldier and tutor who travelled to Florence to study Greek. In 1462 he joined the group of Francesco Cardinal Gonzaga in Rome and was appointed to the College of Abbreviators by Pius II in 1464. Soon after he was arrested for refusing dismissal by Paul II as a member of a group run by a reputed pagan. Imprisoned again in 1468 for heresy and plotting against Pauls life he was acquitted and released in 1469. Sixtus IV named Platina librarian at the Vatican in 1472 where he wrote the first systematic history of the popes. SOPHRONIUS I Syropoulos Patriarch of Constantinople [1462-1464] succeeded Isidore II [see 1456]. There is no additional information readily available. 1463BESSARION, JOHN [14031472] Greek theologian Latin patriarch of Constantinople [14631472] who having been adopted by metropolitan Dositheus studied rhetoric, philosophy and asceticism in Constantinople. He was made a cardinal in 1439 by Pope Eugene IV [see 1431] and became Latin patriarch in 1463. John Bessarion worked for the union of the Latin and Greek churches which gained him unpopularity in Constantinople. An enthusiastic scholar he played an important part in the development of the Italian renaissance. 1464JOASAPH Patriarch of Constantinople I [1464-1465] succeeded Sophronius I [see 1462]. There is no additional information readily available. PAUL II Pope [1464-1471]. He was a nephew of Eugene IV. His adoption of the spiritual career, after having been trained as a merchant, was prompted by his uncles election as pope. His consequent promotion was rapid; he became a cardinal in 1440 and gained popularity through his tender-hearted generosity. He was elected pope by a majority of fourteen of the nineteen cardinals in conclave on August 30th 1464. As part of the arrangement the maximum number of cardinals was limited to twenty-four, and any new pope was to be limited to only one cardinal-nephew with all new appointments to be made only with the consent of the College of Cardinals. However upon taking office Paul II withdrew and started appointing cardinals in secret without publishing their names. Many of these were nominated by different kings and a number were nephews. Tensions with the College of Cardinals came to the fore when in 1466, attempting to downsize redundant offices, Paul II proceeded to annul the college of abbreviators, whose function it was to formulate papal documents. A storm of indignation arose as rhetoricians and poets with humanist training, of which Paul deeply disapproved, had long been accustomed to benefiting from employment in such positions. Paul II died, on July 26, 1471 of a stroke. After his death Sixtus IV and a selected group of cardinals inspected the treasure laid up against expenditures against the Turks: they found fifty-four silver shells filled with pearls, to a value of 300,000ducats, jewels and gold intended for refashioning, worth another 300,000 ducats, and a magnificent diamond worth 7000 ducats. There is some historical evidence that Paul II was homosexual. He succeeded Pius II [see 1458] and was succeeded by Sixtus IV [see 1471]. WEYDEN, ROGIER VAN DER [1399-1464] Flemish painter who was one among the first to use oil paint using its brilliant colours to give traditional Biblical topics the appearance of three-dimensional reality. There was less use of gold. He worked with shadows on peoples faces, complex folds in their robes, and the emotions of people in the paintings. He practically set the standard for painting on both sides of the Alps during the last half of the 15th century. 1465DIONYSIUS THE CARTHUSIAN [1402-1471] Mystic and writer who was born in Belgium and educated at Cologne University joining the Carthusians in 1423. From 1465-1469 he was in charge of the order. He wrote commentaries on scripture and 21 treatises on the reformation of the church and Christian society and letters recommending a crusade against the Turks. Ignatius of Loyola and Francis de Sales were influenced by his writings. 1466DIONYSIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople (1466-1471, 1489-1491) succeeded Symeon I [see 1466]. There is no additional information readily available. GABRIEL VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [.1466-1475] see 1453 and 1477. The see was vacant from 1475-1477. MARK II Xylokaraves Patriarch of Constantinople [1466] succeeded Joasaph I [see 1464]. There is no additional information readily available. SYMEON I of Trebizond Patriarch of Constantinople [1466, 1471-1474, 1481-1486] succeeded Mark II [see 1466]. There is no additional information readily available. 1467NICHOLAS OF FLUE [1417-1487] Hermit who was born in Switzerland. He pursued a military career in early life and worked as a deputy and judge. Influenced by the Friends of God [see 1326] he decided in 1467 to leave his wife and 10 children and live a hermits life. Visionary experiences influenced him to locate himself near his birthplace. He prayed 12 hours daily gave advice to many visitors. 1468ABRAHAM I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1468] see 1460 and below. GREGORY III Patriarch of Jerusalem [1468-1493] see above and 1503. The see of Jerusalem was vacant from 1493 to 1503. 1469 1470 1471-1480 AD 1471SIXTUS IV Pope [1471-1484]. He entered the Franciscan order early and studied at Padua and Bologna and became a general in the Franciscan Order. He was made a cardinal in 1467. His international plans in relation to the Turks, Russians and French met with little success. His pontificate was mostly involved in politics becoming involved in strife, nepotism and conspiracy to an astonishing extent. Nevertheless he condemned the abuses of the Spanish Inquisition, championed the Medicant Orders, was patron of the arts, built the Sistine Chapel and enriched the Vatican Library. He also established the University of Copenhagen in 1475. He succeeded Paul II [see 1464] and was succeeded by Innocent VIII [see 1484]. 1472 1473FICINO, MARSILIO [1433-1499] Florentine humanist who was a close friend of the Medicis. He translated many of the complete works of Greek antiquity such as Plato and Plotinus. In 1473 he became a priest but when the Medici were forced from Florence, he retired to the country. Ficino believed that Neoplatonism could be used to win intellectuals to Christ. His outlook presupposed that truth was found only in poetry and faith and was transmitted through a long line of ancient philosophers, the most important of whom were Plato and his followers. Ficino thought there was no difference between divine revelation and the teachings of the ancient philosophers. 1474CATHERINE OF GENOA [1447-1510] Teacher who was suddenly converted and persuaded her husband to release her from the obligations of their marriage. She worked with the Ladies of Mercy in the care of the hopelessly ill in the hospital of St Lazarus in Genoa. Her teachings grew from the writings on Dialogues of the Soul and the Body. She became rector of the hospital nursing her husband in his last illness. ISABELLA OF CASTILE [1451-1504] Daughter of John II of Castile she married Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. On the death of her half-brother Henry IV in 1474 she ascended the Castilian throne and in 1479 Ferdinand became king of Aragon. The result was a union, not of countries, but of crowns and they came to be known as the Catholic Sovereigns. Isabella was successful in increasing royal power at the expense of the independence of the nobles, the towns and the church. She was a friend of exploration and learning and the enemy of heretics. She supported the endeavours of Columbus and universities while instigating the work of the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 and developing the policy for the expulsion of the Jews [1492] and Muslims [1502]. One of Isabellas five children was Catherine of Aragon who married Henry VIII of England. WESSEL, JOHANN [1419-1489] Biblical humanist born in Holland and educated at the Deventer under the Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380]. He went on to universities in Cologne, Louvain, and Paris. He taught at Heidelberg and in Paris. An able scholar in both Greek and Hebrew which was unusual at that time, his attempts to combine Nominalism and Mysticism earned him the nickname Master of Contradictions. Around 1474 when in his mid-50s he returned to Groningen where he directed a nuns cloister and talked of spiritual matters with a warm circle of friends. In some ways he can be regarded as the forerunner of the Reformation as Luther in 1521 edited some of his writings. Wessels theology was not notable for clarity. His writings were placed on the Index in the 1500s. 1475RAPHAEL I Patriarch of Constantinople [1475-1476] succeeded Symeon I [see 1466]. As a Serb he arose to the patriarchal throne with the help of Mara Brankovic, the stepmother of Mehmed the Conqueror. He remained patriarch for about one year and was deposed after accused of being addicted to alcohol. It is believed that he was appointed patriarch in an attempt by Mehmed the Conqueror to divide the unity of the Orthodox Church and was deposed by the Greek bishops who wanted to regain control over the patriarchate. 1476CAXTON, WILLIAM [1422-1491] First English printer. Born in Kent he set up his own business in Bruges in 1446 and became the leader of the English business community there. While in Europe he developed a literary interest and in 1471 finished his first translation and decided to learn the new skill of printing in order to produce his own books. In 1476 he returned to England and set up a press in Westminster. In 14 years he printed 80 separate books. JOACHIM III Patriarch of Antioch [1476-1483] see also below and 1483. MARK IV Patriarch of Antioch [1476] see also 1454 and above. MAXIMUS III Manasses Patriarch of Constantinople [1476-1481] succeeded Raphael I [see 1475]. There is no additional information readily available. 1477JOHN OF WESEL [c.1400-1481] Roman Catholic reformer born in Germany who after a short period as professor at Basle became cathedral preacher in Worms in 1463. He fought for the reform of theology even when it led him to defend disturbing and unpopular positions. Canon law he said was binding only inasmuch as it accorded with Scripture. Fasting, clerical celibacy, distinctions between bishops and priests were all human institutions and held no authority over the conscience of the faithful. Indulgencies were a pious fraud, because only God could remit the penalty for sin. Indicted on suspect Hussite doctrines, he was deposed in 1477 and brought before the Inquisition in 1479. He recanted, but his books were burned and he was sentenced to confinement for the rest of his life in the Augustinian cloister at Mainz where he died soon after, a broken and dispirited man. MIKHAEL VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1477-1478] see 1466 and 1480. The see was vacant from 1478 to 1480. 1478 1479AGRICOLA, RUDOLPHUS FRISIUS [1444-1485] Dutch humanist born in Groningen who studied under the influence of the Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380]. His major work published in 1479 was concerned with the relationship of logic to rhetoric. His ideas greatly influenced Erasmus [see 1514] and the 16th century humanists. He was also an adept musician playing the lute. SPAIN [see also 300 and 1576] From 711 onwards the country was taken over by the Muslim Moors until they were at last checked by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. A gradual re-conquest of Spain was finally completed with the absorption and Granada in 1492 and the union of the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile in 1494. In 1479 the Inquisition was introduced into Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella the two Catholic monarchs. It started with the persecution of Jews and Muslims when in all 350,000 Jews were accused of heresy and 12,000 burnt. The Reformed Faith was treated in a similar manner in the 16th century. In the age of Spains greatest prosperity and expanding imperial power the Spanish church became the popes most faithful ally against both France and England and largely helped to shape the Counter- Reformation. 1480YOANNIS XII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1480-1483] see 1477 and 1483. 1481-1490 AD 1481AUTO DA FE which is Portuguese for act of faith. It was a ceremony of the Spanish Inquisition at which after a procession, mass and sermon, sentences were read and the execution process commenced. Heretics were dressed in the ceremonial yellow penitential garment with a red cross front and back grotesquely embroidered for the unrepentant and they wore a yellow mitre. Those sentenced to death were handed over to the civil authorities for execution in five days, usually by burning. Most of the great auto da fes occurred when Tomas de Torquemada [see below] was head of the inquisition. The first auto-da-fe was in Spain in 1481 while the last occurred in Mexico in 1850. 1482DELLA ROBBIA, LUCA [1399 -1482] Master of sculpture and terracotta. His works reveal a profound spirit of religiosity. Few Florentine churches of this period are lacking the touch of his deft hand and Gothic flair. The bronze doors of the sacristy to the Florence Cathedral took him 30 years to finish and not only illustrate his serene vision of life, but attest that it was not without reason that he is called the most classic of the 1400s. LEONARDO DA VINCI [1452-1519] Florentine artist, scientist, and inventor who in 1482 left Florence for Milan where he served the duke until 1499. He wandered for a few years but finally settled in France under the patronage of the king where he remained until his death. He painted a number of religious paintings including the famous Last Supper. 1483GREGORY III Patriarch of Antioch [1483-1497] see also 1476 and 1497. YOANNIS XIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1483-1524] see 1480 and 1526. The see was vacant from 1524 to 1526. 1484BIEL, GABRIEL [14201495] German philosopher who was educated at Heidelberg and became a noted preacher first at Mainz and then at Urach. He founded the University of Tubingen where he held the chair in theology from 1484 and in old age joined the Brethren of Common Life [see 1380]. He was a follower of William of Ockham [see 1310] and one of the last great Scholastic thinkers. GREGORY V Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1484-1486] see 1459 and 1486. INNOCENT VIII Pope [1484-1492]. He studied at Padua and Rome and eventually was made cardinal by Sixtus IV. The conclave that followed the death of Sixtus IV was split with factions while gangs rioted in the streets. Cardinal Giuliano who became Pope Julius II in 1503 did not have sufficient votes at the conclave to be elected so he turned his energies towards the election of Innocent VIII whom he was confident that he could control. Pope Innocent VIII instigated severe measures against magicians and witches inGermany in 1484 and in 1487 confirmedTomas de Torquemada as grand inquisitor of Spain. He was a strong supporter of the Spanish Inquisition and also urged a crusade against the Waldensians, offering plenary indulgence to all who should engage in it. Invariably short of money he institutionalised simony at the papal court creating new titles of offices that were discreetly auctioned. Innocent VIII found reason to excommunicate Ferdinand II of Naples in 1489 who had repeatedly refused to pay the tariff for his investiture. He invited Charles VIII of France to come to Italy with an army and take possession of theKingdom of Naples. The conflict was not ended until 1494, after Innocent VIIIs death. An important event that coincided with his pontificate was the fall ofGranada in January 1492, which was celebrated in the Vatican with great rejoicing. Innocent VIII died on July 25th 1492, leaving behind him two illegitimate children, born before he entered the clergy, another source says sixteen, the remaining fourteen of which were presented as nephews. The title Padre della patria or Father of the Fatherland was suggested for him, precisely with reference to these sixteen children. He succeeded Sixtus IV [see 1471] and was succeeded by Alexander VI [see 1492]. PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, GIOVANNI [1463-1494] Italian philosopher who was fluent in Latin and Greek by the time he was 16 and studied at several universities where he was renowned for his remarkable memory. After 1484 the Platonic Academy at Florence dominated his thought but his major objective became the discovery of a unity underlying various philosophical traditions he had been studying, a unity that would also accord with Christianity. His writings reflect both this objective and the humanistic Christian themes of the dignity of man and the incompatibility of astrology with human freedom. In his last work he again sought to prove the essential unity of Plato and Aristotle and that all truth and knowledge are one. TORQUEMADA, TOMAS DE [1420-1498] Spanish Grand Inquisitor who was the nephew of the cardinal Juan de Torquemada [see 1403]. After graduating he became prior of Santa Cruz convent in Segovia in 1452. He became confessor to King Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I in 1474. After Pope Sixtus IV had encouraged the Queen into making the Inquisition a national institution in Spain, Torquemada was given the power to organise tribunals. He did so in such an effective manner that the apparatus he set in motion lasted for the three centuries. The regulations of the Spanish Inquisition were set down in Torquemadas Ordinances in 1484. The victims of his persecution included Moors, Jews and Jewish converts, Islamic converts, and other religious deviants from the Catholic norm including evangelical Christians. Torture was used to extract evidence and confessions from prisoners. Some 2000 executions occurred and numerous other methods of punishment were inflicted during his reign as Grand Inquisitor. His reputation was considered cruel and intolerant even for the times in which he lived. 1485 1486FREDERICK III [1463-1525] Elector of Saxony. He was called The Wise because of his reputation for fair play and justice. He succeeded his father as elector in 1486. His court at Wittenberg was the centre of artistic and musical activity where Albrecht Durer and Lucan Cranach were patronised. He was a devout Catholic, who was interested in the cult of relics; the catalogue produced by Cranich in 1509 revealing that he had over 5000 relics. He founded the University at Wittenberg to which Martin Luther came in 1511 and Philip Melanchthon in 1518. When Luther was required by the pope to go to Rome in 1518 Frederick intervened and had the trial transferred to Augsburg on German soil. Two years later he refused to execute the papal bull against Luther. After the diet of Worms in 1521 he provided a refuge for Luther at Wartburg. Luther preached at Fredericks funeral, and Melanchthon gave an oration in which he highly commended the electors work in promoting the Gospel. It is however unclear whether Frederick was converted to Lutheranism. JOACHIM Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1486-1567] see 1484 and 1567. In 1556 Joachim sent a letter to the Russian Czar HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_IV_of_Russia" \o "Ivan IV of Russia" Ivan IV, asking the Orthodox monarch to provide some material assistance for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery,_Mount_Sinai" \o "Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai" Monastery of St. Catherine in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai" \o "Sinai" Sinai, which had suffered from the Turks. In 1558 the Czar sent to Egypt a delegation lead by archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. From then on, the embassy was headed by a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smolensk" \o "Smolensk" Smolensk merchant Vasily Poznyakov. Poznyakovs delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo, and Sinai, brought the patriarch a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur_coat" \o "Fur coat" fur coat and an icon sent by the Czar, and left an interesting account of its two and half years travels. This reign is of extreme length and needs further verification towards the turn of the century JOHN MORTON Archbishop of Canterbury [1486-1500]. Born inDorset, he was educated atBalliol College, Oxford. In February of 1477, he was sent by the Yorkist king,Edward IV, together withSir John Donne, as ambassador to the French court. Edward appointed himbishop of Elyin 1479. After the death of Richard III in 1485 Henry VII who was the first in the Tudor line ascended the throne. The following year Henry made John Morton archbishop of Canterbury and in 1487 lord chancellor of England. In 1493 he was appointed cardinal by Pope Alexander VI. He built the Old Palace ofHatfield Housewhere QueenElizabeth I of England spent much of her girlhood. As lord chancellor, Morton was tasked with restoring the royal estate, depleted by Edward IV; by the end of Henry VIIs reign. A combination of the kings frugality and Mortons tax policy duly replenished the treasury. Morton gave a statement later known as Mortons Fork, for the fact that no one was exempt from its two distinctions: If the subject is seen to live frugally, tell him because he is clearly a money saver of great ability he can afford to give generously to the king. If, however, the subject lives a life of great extravagance, tell him he, too, can afford to give largely, the proof of his opulence being evident in his expenditure. He died at Knole House, Kent, on 15 September 1500. The young Thomas More served as a page in Mortons house with Morton his mentor. More mentions Morton in his work Utopia. He succeeded Thomas Bouchier [see 1454] and was succeeded by Thomas Langton [see 1501]. NEPHON II Patriarch of Constantinople [1486-1488, 1497-1498, 1502] succeeded Symeon I [see 1466]. He served as patriarch of Constantinople on three different occasions. His first term was from 1486 to 1488. He was then restored to the ecumenical throne from 1497 to 1498, and was restored again in 1502, the last time serving only one year. He was born in thePeloponnesepeninsula in southernGreeceof mixed parentage, his mother being a noble Greek lady and his father a rich and learned Albanian lord. He was a monk and after the death of his Elder, Anthony went toMount Athos, where he occupied himself by the copying of books. He was later chosen metropolitanofThessalonica. 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491-1500 AD 1491ARBUTHNOTT MISSAL was transcribed between 1471 and 1491 for use in the Arbuthnott Church in Scotland and is the only Scottish pre Reformation missal still surviving. It includes the obituary of the Arbuthnott family from 1314 to 1551 and is notable for its ornaments of flowers, leaves, scrolls and fruit showing the beginning of the Renaissance style. FERDINAND V [1452-1516] King of Aragon who married his cousin Isabel of Castile in 1469 in order to unite his claims to the crown of Castile with hers. Ferdinand was a faithful Roman Catholic, and very ambitious, he helped to establish royal authority in Spain, he carried on a long struggle against France in Italy, and he supported the voyages of Columbus. He achieved acclaim in Christendom after the capture of Granada in 1491 and the subsequent expulsion of the Moors from Europe. Further honour came his way after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 and his enthusiasm for the Inquisition earned him the title the Catholic. MAXIMUS IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1491-1497] succeeded Dionysius I [see 1489]. There is no additional information readily available. 1492ALEXANDER VI Pope [1492-1503]. He can be credited with several achievements during his pontificate. He supported the work of Pinturiccio and subsidised the Pieta by Michelangelo. He also encouraged evangelisation in the New World and ensured peace between Portugal and Castile by arbitrating a line of demarcation. Despite these achievements he is remembered best as the father of Lucrezia Borgia and the pope with whom Savonarola [see 1496] struggled. He had many mistresses and was a type of pope that gave early Protestants reason to condemn the early church. He succeeded Innocent VIII [see 1483] and was succeeded by Pius III [see 1503]. BOTTICELLI, SANDRO [14451510] Florentine painter converted to Roman Catholicism during an evangelistic crusade in Florence undertaken by Savonarola [see 1474]. His paintings became more biblical in composition with subjects such as The Nativity, Magi adoring the Christ Child. 1493EBERLINN, JOHANN [1470-1533] Reformation preacher and writer who studied at Basle and Freiburg in 1493 and became a Franciscan in Heilsbronn. He encountered Luthers writings and became a Reformation supporter. He was expelled from his order and spent a year in Wittenberg then travelled as an evangelist at Basle, Rottenberg and Ulm. He married and after some years in Erfurt he ended his days publishing a series of 15 pamphlets describing a utopian state and attacking the Lenten fast, priestly celibacy, and friars. 1494 1495JIMENES DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO [1436-1517] Spanish cardinal and inquisitor. In 1484 he unexpectedly entered the strict Observantine Franciscan Order. For nearly 10 years he lived an austere penitential life, gaining fame as a man of great spirituality. In 1495 he became archbishop of Toledo, head of the Spanish Church, and chancellor of Castile. Remaining an ascetic, he used his power and wealth to affect rigorous reform of the church and to convert or extinguish the Moors and Jews of the kingdom. He was created cardinal in 1507. He was a great patron of all types of philanthropic work especially education, founding the University of Alcala and financing the Complutensian Polyglot Bible [see 1522]. OCKEGHEM, JOHANNES [c.1420-1495] Musical composer who belongs to the second generation of highly talented musicians born near what is now the French-Belgium border. Unlike many of his countrymen he did not go to Italy and spent much of his career in the French court. He was one of the first to write five voice parts, and eleven complete Masses still exist. He was greatly esteemed by his fellow musicians. 1496SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO [1452-1498] Italian Reformer who was originally destined to a career in medicine but joined the Dominicans in 1474 and served in several North Italian cities. He was said to be unsuccessful as a preacher but became famous through a series of sermons on the book of the Revelation preached in Brescia in 1486. He settled in Florence four years later and called for repentance on the part of the citys leaders and pleaded the cause of the poor and oppressed. By 1494 he predicted a flood of divine judgement will be unleashed on Florence. When the French king Charles VIII invaded Italy it seemed this would occur. Twice Savonarola persuaded Charles not to sack the city and Charles left it without having done any deliberate damage. Savonarola announced that a golden age had come and the city would soon have temporal and spiritual power over Italy. He encouraged the establishment of a republican government in the city and undertook many reforms some of it being done through the use of censorship and violent methods such as, in 1496, he inspired the burning of the vanities when people burnt gambling equipment, cosmetics, and lewd books. Savonarola also denounced Pope Alexander VI and the corrupt papal court. Needless to say the pope became unhappy at the preaching of the meddlesome friar and excommunicated him and threatened to place the city under an interdict if he was allowed to preach again. Some of the people were frightened, although Savonarola declared the ban invalid since as he put it, Alexander was the representative of Satan not Christ. However, some of the wealthy citizens were impatient with his ideas. Franciscans arranged an ordeal in which one of their number and a follower of Savonarola would march through a fire. Arguments occurred between the two groups once the fire was alight and a sudden rainstorm quenched the fire. This incident helped to discredit Savonarola who was tried for heresy, found guilty and executed. 1497DOROTHEUS III Patriarch of Antioch [1497-1523] see also 1483 and 1523. 1498JOACHIM I Patriarch of Constantinople [1498-1502, 1504] succeeded Nephon II [see 1486]. There is no additional information readily available. 1499DISCALCED is the act of going barefoot. First introduced by John of Guadalupe about 1500 among the Friars Minor of the Strict Observance, the austerity is still practised by certain orders of friars. 1500BOSCH, HIERONYMOUS [14501516] Dutch painter who was born in Den Bosch and did most of his paintings in that area. He is best known for his mature works such as The Hay Wagon, The Garden of Delights and The Ship of Fools, generally produced paintings with a number of grotesque details including some with biblical content. DES PREZ, JOSQUIN [1440-1521] Musical composer born in southern Belgium in the twilight of the Middle Ages. He lived to exemplify in his own works almost every aspect of the fully developed musical style of the Renaissance. He was greatly admired by Luther who mentions him several times. His works were known and performed from Seville to Warsaw. His greatest music is in his motets of which almost 100 are preserved, as well as 20 masses. In his music the customary four part texture of the soprano, alto, tenor and bass becomes standard. STAUPITZ, JOHANNES VON [1460-1524] Roman Catholic scholar who studied at Cologne completing his education at Tubingen in 1500. He was prior in Munich then became professor of Bible at the University of Wittenberg. Staupitz encouraged Martin Luther to study for his doctorate in theology and tried to modify Luthers position in the first years of the Lutheran movement. 1501-1510 AD 1501DEANE, HENRY Archbishop of Canterbury [1501-1503]. In 1457, he appears first in historical records as a canon of Llanthony by Gloucester and subsequently is recorded as having rented rooms from Exeter College, Oxford, from which it has been assumed that he was a student at the University. He was admitted to the society of Lincolns Inn in 1489, indicating knowledge of common law. In 1494 he was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland in which capacity he made the opening address at the Drogheda Parliament of December 1494. When his superior was recalled in January 1496, Deane was appointed his deputy governor but sour relations with the local clergy led to his removal in August of the same year. He rose from the bishop of Bangor in North Wales to Salisbury confirmed by the pope in 1500. After the death of Thomas Langton, Deane was elected as the first monastic to be elevated to the see of Canterbury in 135 years. As archbishop, his main contribution was the negotiation of the Treaty of Perpetual Peace which was signed in January 1502 between England and Scotland, which also arranged the marriage of Margaret Tudor, the daughter of Henry VII to James IV of Scotland. He also officiated at the wedding of Arthur, prince of Wales and Catherine of Aragon, assisted by 19 bishops, on 14 November 1501. Deane died on 15 February 1503. He succeeded Thomas Langton [see below] and was succeeded by William Warham [see 1503]. ISAAC, HEINRICH [c.1450-1517] Musical composer who was one of the most versatile of Hollands composers and helped to create the Renaissance style during the late 15th century. He was also active in Germany, Austria and Italy. He adapted secular songs to traditional sacred texts and one of the tunes was later adopted as a Lutheran chorale and is among those included by J.S. Bach in his St Matthews Passion. LANGTON, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1501]. He was chaplain to King Edward IV. In 1483 Thomas was chosen bishop of St Davids and two years later transferred to Salisbury and made provost of Queens College, Oxford. He became bishop of Winchester on 13 March 1493. In 1501 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury but he died on 27 January 1501 before his election had been confirmed. He succeeded John Morton [see 1486] and was succeeded by Henry Deane [see above]. 1502BEAUFORT, MARGARET [14431509] Countess of Richmond was the daughter of the duke of Somerset and was married four times. She helped Henry VII gain the throne and arranged his marriage. She also founded professorships of divinity at Oxford [1502] and Cambridge [1503]. 1503CRANACH, LUCAS [1472-1553] German painter who for more than 40 years was the prosperous official painter at the court of Savoy. While enjoying the patronage of Cardinal Albrecht he was also a friend and godfather of Luthers first son and mass produced portraits of him and Melanchthon. His famous painting of the Crucifixion where the Lords cross is not in the centre was produced in 1503. DELLA ROBBIA, ANDREA [1435 1528] Nephew and adopted son of Luca Della Robbia [see 1482]. His works are principally in terracotta and progressively demonstrated departure from the refined simplicity of his uncle. His Madonna and Child in the National Museum of Florence and a series of medallions with infants he had provided for the foundling Hospital in Florence are some of his best works. JULIUS II Pope [1503-1513]. He entered the Franciscan Order where he studied in Perugia and was ordained. When his uncle became Sixtus III in 1471 he was made a cardinal and he served as legate to the French king, Louis XI, from 1480-82. After the death of his uncle he was responsible for papal policy during the reign of Innocent VIII but had to flee Rome when Rodrigo Borgia [Alexander VI] took power. Returning to Rome in 1503 he was able to secure election through bribes and promises after the one month reign of Pius III. He earned the hostility of the Venetians when, using the safety of powerful friends, he obtained Venetian land for the Papal States. Having accomplished that he attempted to drive the French out of Italy and formed new alliances that kept European statecraft in a constant state of turmoil. Louis XII called a council at Pisa but Julius retaliated by calling the Fifth Lateran Council in 1511. Julius brought about administrative reforms in the curia and was an avid patron of the arts notably of Michelangelo. He succeeded Pius III [see below] and was succeeded by Leo X [see 1513]. MARK III Patriarch of Jerusalem [1503] see 1468 and 1505. PACHOMIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1503-1504, 1504-1513] succeeded Nephon II [see 1486]. There is no additional information readily available. PIUS III Pope [1503]. He was the nephew of Pius II who appointed him in 1460 when only 22 years of age to the see of Siena, which made him a cardinal at his first consistory on 5th March 1460. He proved studious and effective. Cardinal Piccolomini participated in many conclaves that elected popes: Paul II in 1464, Innocent VIII in 1484, and Alexander VI in 1492. As cardinal he was also involved in Alexanders brief lived effort to reform the Roman Curia following the murder of his son Giovanni Borgia in 1497. Amid the disturbances consequent upon the death of the Borgia pope, Alexander VI(14921503), it took the combined pressures of all the ambassadors to induce Cesare Borgia to withdraw from Rome, so that an unpressured conclave might take place. In it, Cardinal Piccolomini was elected Pope Pius III on September 22, 1503. This selection can be seen as a compromise between factions, Borgia and della Rovere, picking a frail cardinal with long experience in the curia over the kin of either Sixtus IV or Alexander VI. His coronation took place on October 8, 1503. He at once took in hand the reform of the papal court and arrested Cesare Borgia, but after a brief pontificate of twenty-six days he died (October 18, 1503) of an ulcer in the leg, or, as some have alleged, of poison administered at the instigation of the governor of Siena. He succeeded Alexander VI [see 1492] and was succeeded by Julius II [see above]. WARHAM, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1503-1532]. He belonged to a Hampshire family, and was educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, afterwards practising and teaching law both in London and Oxford. Later he took holy orders. Henry VII found him a useful and clever diplomatist. He helped to arrange the marriage between Henrys son, Arthur, prince of Wales, and Catherine of Aragon and he was partly responsible for several commercial and other treaties with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. In 1502 Warham was consecrated bishop of London and became keeper of the great seal, but his tenure of both these offices was short, as in 1504 he became lord chancellorand archbishop of Canterbury. In 1509 the archbishop married and then crowned Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. As archbishop he seems to have been somewhat arbitrary for example, his actions led to a serious quarrel with Foxe (by thenbishop of Winchester) and others in 1512. This led to his gradually withdrawing into the background after the coronation, resigning the office of lord chancellor in 1515, and was succeeded byWolsey, whom he had consecrated asbishop of Lincolnin the previous year. This resignation was possibly due to his dislike of Henrys foreign policy. He was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and assisted Wolsey as assessor during the secret inquiry into the validity of Henrys marriage with Catherine in 1527. Throughout the divorce proceedings Warhams position was essentially that of an old and weary man. He was named as one of the counsellors to assist the queen, but, fearing to incur the kings displeasure he gave her very little help other than signing the letter to Clement VII, which urged the pope to assent to Henrys wish. Afterwards it was proposed that the archbishop himself should try the case, but this suggestion came to nothing. He presided over the Convocation of 1531 when the clergy of the province of Canterbury voted 100,000 to the king and accepted Henry as supreme head of the church with the face-saving clause so far as the law of Christ allows. In his concluding years, however, the archbishop showed rather more independence. In February 1532, he protested against all acts concerning the church passed by the parliament that met in 1529, but this did not prevent the important proceedings which secured the complete submission of the church to the state later in the same year. Against this further compliance with Henrys wishes, Warham drew up a protest; he likened the action of Henry VIII to that of Henry II and urged Magna Carta in defence of the liberties of the church. He attempted in vain to strike a compromise during theSubmission of the Clergy. He succeeded Henry Deane [see 1501] and was succeeded by Thomas Cranmer [see 1533]. 1504VITORIA, FRANCISCO DE [c.1486-1546] Spanish Dominican theologian and philosopher who joined the Dominicans in 1504 and studied in Paris where he encountered Nominalism and Renaissance humanism. He lectured in theology in Spain from 1523 until his death, at Valladolid for 3 years and from 1526 as professor of theology at Salamanca. Vitoria stated that there is a natural law of nations which must legally govern the international community. He also developed his most famous position as a staunch advocate of the rights of the New World Indians and severe criticism of Spanish exploitation. 1505COLET, JOHN [1466-1519] Dean of St Pauls from 1505. He shared the Renaissance humanist concern for reforming the clergy and church institutions and furthering education. He attacked many clerical abuses and though he did not advocate doctrinal reform the suspicion of heresy was never far from him. He influenced Erasmus [see 1514] and Sir Thomas More [see 1529]. He founded St Pauls school where he laid stress on teaching the classics. DOROTHEOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1505-1537] see 1503 and 1537. In 1517 the occupation of the Ottoman Turks commenced. OBRECHT, JACOB [1450-1505] Dutch composer who was the first great composer to come from what is now Holland and the first important composer to leave compositions with Dutch text. He was organist at various centres in the Netherlands and had Erasmus as one of his choirboys in Utrecht. He is distinguished especially for his masses and was one of the great experimenters of his day. RAPHAEL, SANZIO [1483-1520] Renaissance painter who studied first under his father. At Florence he became famous under Leonardo da Vinci [see 1482] and Michelangelo [see 1508]. Though Raphael is best known for his Madonnas, his subjects include the whole of the life of Christ. So great has been his influence regarding the images of Bible personages that even today it is his images that are still associated with the Bible. 1506SWISS GUARDS Formed in 1506 by Pope Julius II they were entrusted with the personal protection of the pontiff. Members of the corps must be of Swiss nationality, Roman Catholic by faith and eligible for service in the Swiss army. There are about 60 guards in all and since the disbanding of three other corps of papal guards in 1970 they remain the only military order in the Vatican. Though they are trained in the use of modern weapons they carry only broadsword and halberd. 1507 1508MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI [1475-1564] One of the greatest artists of Western culture who was a genius in nearly every medium of art. He studied under the Ghirlandaio brothers and at the Medici palace before settling permanently in Rome in 1534. In addition to his sculpture, painting, architecture, and drawing, he also wrote lyric poetry. He lived an austere life and was given to melancholy and brooding, and was often apprehensive. He preferred to think of himself as a sculptor but he also undertook the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel which took many years to complete, from 1508 to 1512 and 1535 to 1541. The work on the ceiling alone covered 10,000 square feet of surface and included hundreds of figures some of them 12 feet high. His greatest structural achievement was St Peters in Rome. He reworked the designs of his predecessors and supervised construction of the supports and the lower sections of the giant dome although he did not live to see the work finished. SPALATIN, GEORGE [1482-1545] German Reformer who attended universities at Erfurt and Wittenberg. He entered St Georges monastery in 1508 and later became tutor to the future elector of Saxony, John Frederick. He also served as adviser and secretary to the elector Frederick the Wise. Spalatin was one of the earliest of Martin Luthers friends and promoters of his movement and greatly influenced Frederick the Wise in his tolerant and protective stance towards the Reformer. He outstandingly contributed to the promotion of education as a member of various church visitations, and helped to establish schools and libraries, actively training pastors in pastoral theology, and helped in the training of young people. 1509BAINBRIDGE, CHRISTOPHER [14641514] Archbishop of York [15091514]. He was sent to Rome by Henry VIII and rewarded by Pope Julius II with a cardinals hat and a command of the papal army against Ferrara. He was murdered by his chaplain allegedly at the instigation of the bishop of Worcester. BARTHOLOMEW, FRA [1475-1517] Italian painter who was a student of Cosimo Rosselli. He was converted under Savonarola [see 1474] and taking orders joined a Dominican monastery of San Marco. Forsaking painting for a few years he returned to his work and in 1509 he assumed the leading role in the contemporary school of painting in Florence becoming a master of a shop providing altar pieces for the city. MARGARET OF NAVARRE [1492-1549] Champion of the Reform movement in France and sister of Francis I, she first married Charles, duke of Alencon in 1509 and after his death Henry king of Navarre. She came under the influence of the French Reformers giving them refuge when persecuted. She also sought to reform the churches under her control and to influence her brother Francis in favour of the reform movement which was growing at the time in France. She died shortly after being forced by Henry II to marry her daughter to Antoine de Bourbon who became the parents of Henry of Navarre, later Henry IV of France. REUCHLIN, JOHANNES [1455-1522] German humanist and linguist who studied under the Brethren of Common Life [see 1380] and attended the universities of Paris, Freiburg, Basle, and Orleans. Erasmus hailed him as the Triple Tongued for his expert knowledge of Latin and Greek and Hebrew. He was the outstanding Hebraist amongst the humanists of the early 16th century. In 1509 Maximilian the first issued a decree ordering the Jews to turn in their books. Reuchlin, when consulted, advised that the books should not be destroyed saying that only those which were openly blasphemous might be burnt after they had been condemned according to proper legal procedure. Reuchlin was ordered to appear before the Inquisition on the charge of heresy but he won an appeal to Rome. The controversy caused the humanist world to rally to his side and testimonies were written and scathing satires. Although Reuchlin recommended Philip Melanchthon [see 1521] his grandnephew to Frederick the Wise as instructor at Wittenberg, Reuchlin did not join the Lutheran cause. However he hindered the burning of Luthers books in Ingolstadt. Leo X finally condemned Reuchlin writings in 1520. He ranks as the outstanding German humanist of the first years of the 16th century and a promoter of Greek and Hebrew scholarship. 1510LAS CASAS, BARTOLOME DE [1474-1566] Spanish missionary to the West Indies sometimes called the Apostle of the Indies. He was ordained a priest in 1510 and became concerned about the harsh treatment of the natives under the colonial system, and spent the years 1515-1522 travelling between Spain and America, obtaining the power from Charles V to set up projects and enforcing them. In 1521 the Indians revolted against the church-controlled Indian settlement he had established, and blaming his fellow Spaniards for the failure he entered a Dominican order in 1523. He emerged from a long retreat and again campaigned for humane treatment for the Indians, working also for their conversion. He was made bishop of Chiapa in Mexico from 1544 but found he could not even enforce the new laws in his own diocese. The new laws had been promulgated in 1542-43 to improve the lot of the Indians. He eventually returned to Spain to continue his work there. LATIN AMERICA [see also 1735] This is the commonly accepted term for the 21 republics located to the south of the United States together with assorted territories and islands of the Caribbean Sea. Major languages spoken are Spanish, Portuguese, Quechua, and French. The Latin American nations gained their independence from the Iberian conquerors in the early 19th century. The Roman Catholic religion entered Latin America with the Iberian conquest in the 16th century. Spain at that time had just won back territory from the Moors after almost 800 years of struggling and the idea of imposing religion upon the people through military conquest was still strong in the Hispanic mentality. The success of the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, Jesuits, and other Catholic missionaries in bringing the Indian people to choose Christianity was varied. Outstanding among the early missionaries were Bartolome de Las Cacas [see above] and Jose de Acosta. Separation of church and state was unknown. The wars of Independence in the early 1800s caused severe difficulties in the church until the Vatican was finally able to come to terms with a new independent governments. CHAPTER 5. DOMINANT CHURCH: SARDIS THE REFORMED CHURCH 1511-1730 AD SARDIS REVELATION 3: 1-6 1 And unto the angel of the church in Sardis write; These things saith he that hath the seven Spirits of God, and the seven stars; I know thy works, that thou hast a name that thou livest, and art dead. 2 Be watchful, and strengthen the things which remain, that are ready to die: for I have not found thy works perfect before God. 3 Remember therefore how thou hast received and heard, and hold fast, and repent. If therefore thou shalt not watch, I will come on thee as a thief, and thou shalt not know what hour I will come upon thee. 4 Thou hast a few names even in Sardis which have not defiled their garments; and they shall walk with me in white: for they are worthy. 5 He that overcometh, the same shall be clothed in white raiment; and I will not blot out his name out of the book of life, but I will confess his name before my Father, and before his angels. 3:6 He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches. INTRODUCTION The word Sardis means remnant or those who escape. This church has a name that it is living, but God says it is spiritually dead. The challenge for them is to wake up as in Ephesians 5:14. This wakening pictures a remnant of true believers even in Sardis and a return to the Word of God that once had been received and heard. Historically Sardis pictures the Reformation Church of 1500 to 1700 AD. The awakening of men like John Hus, John Wycliff, Martin Luther and others brought a return to the Word of God as the only authority of faith and the truth of salvation by faith in Christ alone. Also the individual priesthood of every believer (1 Peter. 2:5-9) delivered them from the tyranny of the Roman priesthood. The seven Spirits in verse 1 refers back to Isaiah 11:1-2 and shows that the Lord Jesus Christ had the Holy Spirit without measure and therefore had the whole range of gifts applicable to the power of the Spirit. This church had a name that lives but actually they are dead. The Greek word nekros is the word for a dead corpse or observably dead. This is a valid description of the church of the Reformation as it developed in its later stages. They had a name that lived as the Reformation resulted in much doctrinal correctness and good creeds. Nevertheless they were dead and had no spiritual vitality. They became dead because they failed to rectify the basic problem which was the union of church and state. As they broke away from the Roman Catholic Church they too became state churches. The problem at Pergamos was the same as that at Sardis with children entering the State Church by baptism and no requirement of personal faith in Christ. The contrast here is between the Lord who had the Spirit without limit and the Church that does not use the Spirit at all. While we have the indwelling of the Spirit we have different gifts to function in the body but do not have the whole range of gifts 1 Corinthians 12. We can only undertake works that are pleasing to God in the power of the Holy Spirit otherwise we will produce works which are filthy rags in his sight, observably dead works. Even today there are many churches which have got good doctrinal creeds which are composed of the spiritually dead in large measure as the need for a saving faith is not emphasised. MTB HOLY SPIRIT SUSTAINING MINISTRY TO CHRIST In verse 2 the church is exhorted to resurrect that which is about to die, that is to go back to spiritual life as well as good doctrinal creeds. The works they are doing are human works which are not acceptable to God. Spiritual life is impossible without good doctrine but good doctrine without spiritual life is dead. The works of an unbeliever or carnal Christian is not acceptable to God. It is the subject of the indictment of the unbeliever at the Last Judgement Revelation 20:11-15. In verse 3 deadness in a church will result in the Lord coming unexpectedly. If a church is spiritually awake they will not be surprised by the coming of the Lord for His church. In order to remember you need to have learnt something originally. The return of the Lord will be sudden and unexpected. If you are alert however you will expect His return. Those who are dressed in clean garments in verse 4 are ones who have exercised faith and do have spiritual life and have overcome the deadness in the church. We need to be spiritually alive and as free of sin as possible so that we do not defile our garments. If we do sin we need to confess the sin using 1 John 1:9 in order for our lives to be pure and able to have fellowship with the Lord. In verse 5 the Greek word translated clothed is periballo It is in the future tense, indicative mood, the mood of reality, middle voice, the voice says that we benefit from the clothing, third person singular meaning that the Lord will clothe us individually with His righteousness at the point of our conversion. In Revelation 7:14 states that . And they washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. The garments are therefore a symbol of salvation. We are imputed with the righteousness of Christ 2 Corinthians 5:21 The Greek word translated book is biblos, a big book is contrasted with biblion which is used in Revelation 5:1,2,3,4 etc which is a small book or roll. The Lambs book of Life is very large and has the names of a large number of people in it. It appears from this verse that all people start with their name in the Lambs Book of Life and it is smeared or blotted out if they remain unbelievers. This is compatible with the statement that God is not willing that any should perish 2 Peter 3:9. The Lord will name us as believers before God the Father as we are bought with a price, His sacrifice on the Cross. CHRONOLOGY 1511-1520 AD 1511AMSDORF, NICHOLAS VON [14831565] German reformer. Professor of theology at Wittenberg from 1511. A friend and ardent defender of Luther whom he accompanied to the Disputation at Leipzig [1519] and Diet of Worms [1521]. He was ordained in 1524 where he became pastor in Magdeburg and established the Reformation in a form that Luther had done in Wittenberg. Much of his life was spent in acrimonious debate with any who were not followers of pure Lutherism. 1512ALUMBRADOS Mystical Spanish sect with a name meaning enlightened which first appeared among the Franciscan friars in 1512. It emphasised passive surrender to God. The Sacraments and good works were therefore reduced in value and the Inquisition saw this as a tendency to support Erasmus, Reformation, and Luther, and its beliefs were therefore condemned in 1525. While many lived in a morally orthodox fashion some of the leaders were sexually promiscuous making it an easy target for persecution. LATERAN COUNCIL 5 [see also 1215] Summoned by Julius II. No canons were issued, only pontifical constitutions. The chief concern of Julius was to achieve the condemnation of conciliar theory in general, and other decrees of the councils of Constance, Basle, Pisa, plus the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges [see 1438]. Maximilian and Louis XII were persuaded to disavow their previous support of the Council of Pisa. The failure of the Fifth Lateran Council to deal decisively with the issues confronting it led directly to Luthers reform. 1513LEO X Pope [1513-1521]. He was the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent Giovanni de Medici. He became a cardinal-deacon at the age of thirteen. He studied theology and canon law at Pisa and became a member of the College of Cardinals in 1492. He took part in the election of Alexander VI but went into exile during the Savonarolas reign 1494. He became head of the Medici family in 1503 and was able to regain power in Florence through the bloodless revolution of the Florentines in 1512. The following year he received holy orders on March 15th, was consecrated bishop on the 17th and crowned pope on the 19th. Chosen because of his peace loving qualities he loved art, music, and the theatre and was a patron of many humanists. His lavish spending impoverished the papacy. He managed finalisation of the Fifth Lateran Council of 1512-7 which clarified the duties of the pope and king specifically related to Francis I king of France. Leo renewed an indulgence to support the building of St Peters, an act which led to the Protestant Reformation. He succeeded Julius II [see 1503] and was succeeded by Adrian VI [see 1522]. THEOLEPTUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1513-1522] succeeded Pachomius [see 1503]. There is no additional information readily available. 1514ALBERT OF BRANDENBURG [14901545] Archbishop of Mainz. To meet his debts Pope Leo X allowed Albert to sell indulgencies which he left to John Tetzel. It was this act which caused Luther to protest which led to the Reformation. ERASMUS [c.1466-1536] The leading Christian humanist, who wished to reform the church through scholarship and instruction in the teaching of Christ. He was educated by the Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380] at Deventer. He eventually became a monk and secured the position of secretary to the bishop of Cambrai thus escaping the secluded life. After a visit to Italy and another trip to England Erasmus settled in Basle [15141529]. He was the first bestselling author in the history of printing. One book The Praise of Folly appeared in more than 600 editions. There are many interpretations of the career of Erasmus. Some say that he was weak, a Lutheran at heart but from fear a conforming Catholic, others have pictured him as a devotee of reason, and there are those who make him the forerunner of Luther. He said I would to God that the ploughman would sing a text of the Scriptures at his plough and that the weaver would hum them to the tune of his shuttle. I wish that the traveller would expel the weariness of his journeys with this pastime, and to be brief, I wish that all communication of the Christian would be of the Scriptures. He produced a critical addition of the New Testament based on the Greek manuscripts. 1515OECOLAMPADIUS [1482-1531] German Reformer who became the leading Protestant Reformer at Basle. He was brilliant at Latin, Greek, and Hebrew and began his university studies in law at Bologna but transferred to theology at Heidelberg. Further studies at Tubingen and again in Stuttgart led him into contact with Reuchlin [see 1520] and Melanchthon [see 1521]. In 1515 he was called as minister to Basle where he met Erasmus [see 1514] and assisted him with the publication of the Greek New Testament. At Augsburg, where he was a pastor, he was deeply affected by Luthers teachings. The pressure of his work caused him to enter a monastery in 1520 but he withdrew after a short while. He became lecturer in Holy Scripture at Basle in 1523 and later became a pastor in that city. He attended the Colloquy of Marburg in 1529 where he defended the teachings of his friend Zwingli [see 1528]. When the city council of Basle ordered the removal of images from the church and abolished the Mass, Oecolampadius supervised the work. PARACELSUS [1493-1541] He was a medical doctor, chemist, philosopher, and writer, born in Switzerland and later lived in Carinthia a centre of mining, smelting and alchemy, interests that were to occupy him for the reminder of his life. He studied at various German universities and completed his doctorate at Ferrara in 1515. For the next 11 years Paracelsus travelled through Europe practising medicine. He was an innovator in the field of medicine developing various ideas. His philosophy of alchemy and kabbalism grew from the Neoplatonism, hermetic studies and Gnosticism. A friend of Erasmus he was accused by Erastus of the Dualist heresy but he died a member of the Roman Church. PETER OF ALCANTARA [1499-1562] Spanish ascetic who studied at Salamanca and joined the Franciscans in 1515. He was closely linked with the controversial barefoot movement within the order and because of his association it spread to Italy, Mexico, East Indies, and Brazil. He was highly ascetic and revived the Franciscan order. WOLSEY, THOMAS [c.1475-1530] English cardinal who was educated at Oxford and was ordained in 1498. In 1503 he became chaplain to the governor of Calais and so began his public career. He served both Henry VII and Henry VIII as chaplain and in 1514 was made bishop of Lincoln and archbishop of York. In the following years he added further bishoprics and important appointments and became immensely rich. The year 1515 marks the zenith of his power when he was made cardinal by the pope, and chancellor by the king. When in 1518 he was made papal legate he became supreme in both church and state under the king. He was not purely a secular figure as he frequently said Mass. The harmony between the pope and king was broken over the kings divorce and Wolseys career was shattered in 1530 with his great house, Hampton Court, his college at Oxford, and most of his appointments and wealth confiscated. In the days after his fall he made an attempt to fulfil his duties as archbishop of York for the first time but none of this saved him with only his death on the way to London cheating the Royal executioner. WYTTENBACH, THOMAS [1472-1526] Swiss reformer who was educated at Tubingen and lectured at Basle where he was influenced by humanism and new methods of biblical study. He lectured on the New Testament, especially Romans, and attacked indulgences in public several years before Luther. Zwingli [see 1528] was among his pupils in 1506 and later said he learned from Wyttenbach that the death of Christ alone is the price for the forgiveness of sins and also claimed that he owed him his first serious contact with Scripture. He was the peoples priest at Biel from 1515, and from 1523 he publicly supported the Reformation. His marriage in 1524 lead to his deposition. 1516BOLOGNA, CONCORD OF Concord between Francis I of France and Pope Leo X which was the result of a sweeping military victory won by the French king over the papacy and its allies at Marignano. The concord gave a degree of independence to the French Church although canonical investiture remained with the papacy. CAJETAN OF THIENE [14801547] Founder of the Theatine order [see below] which was formed to combat heresy. Made up of regular clergy it sought to maintain the integrity of the Roman Catholic Church primarily by preaching although it cooperated with the Inquisition. It became one of the principle instruments for suppressing the Reformation in Italy. GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO [1483-1540] Italian historian and statesman who studied law at Florence and Padua. In 1511 he became ambassador to King Ferdinand of Aragon. From 1516, three years after Louis X became pope, he served as governor of the Papal States, carrying out this and subsequent public positions with distinction. MYCONIUS, FRIEDRICH [1490-1546] German Reformer who entered the Franciscan Order in Annaberg in 1510. He was an avid student of theology and Scripture and the doctrine of predestination troubled him greatly. In 1516 he was ordained a priest and with the onset of the Lutheran movement found himself greatly in sympathy with it. Feeling himself threatened he fled and went to Zwickau. From there on the invitation of Duke John he went to Gotha where he furthered the classic ecclesiastical and educational reforms winning the friendship of Luther and Melanchthon and later of Justus Menius. He participated in the Marburg Colloquy [1529], the Wittenberg Concorde [1536], Smalcald Synod of 1537, and the Colloquy of Hagenau in 1540. He went to England and had dialogues with the English theologians but was disappointed with Henry VIIIs attitude. He was particularly pleased to assist in the establishment of the Reformation in Saxony. His own spiritual struggles and the integrity of his character make him one of the most appealing figures of the Reformation age. TEXTUS RECEPTUS A Latin term which means the received text of the New Testament. The discovery and collection of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament at the time the Renaissance and the invention of printing led to a number of printed editions of the Greek New Testament in the 16th and 17th centuries. Erasmus [see 1514] published his edition in 1516 and this was followed by a number of editions including 10 editions by Theodore Beza [see 1564] beginning in 1565. This text was basically the Byzantine Text appearing in most of the late manuscripts and was assembled before the science of textual criticism had developed. It underlies the Authorised Version [King James Version]. THEATINES An order founded early in the 16th century by a number of Catholics, including Pietro Caraffa who was later Pope Paul IV, to combat heresy. This order made up of regular clergy who sought to maintain the integrity of the Roman Catholic Church primarily by preaching although this was in cooperation with the Inquisition [see 1163]. It became one of the principal instruments used in suppressing the Reformation in Italy. 1517COPTIC CHURCH The coming of the Turks in 1517 expanded the history of persecution. By 1700 the number of Monophysites [see 451] had been reduced to 5% of the population with only a few monasteries remaining. The reforms of Mohammed Ali in 1840 and additional concessions from the Turks in 1911 allowed for some Coptic participation in government and permitted the establishment of schools and printing presses. The current number of Copts is in the region of 4 million. HALLER, BERCHTOLD [1492-1536] Swiss reformer who studied theology at Cologne, taught for a time, became a spiritual notary in 1517, and assistant and then successor to Thomas Wyttenbach at the church of St Vincent, Berne. Here he became imbued with Zwinglian ideas. One of the circle of evangelical clergy in Berne, he was left alone when the rest were forced to flee in 1523, he himself being tried and acquitted of heresy. He spent his latter years in a round of preaching and visiting, in efforts to strengthen the Reformed cause diplomatically, and in controversy with the Anabaptists. LUTHER, MARTIN Born in Eisleben, the son of a peasant who was very angry when his son became an Augustine monk rather than a lawyer. Luther went to the university of Erfurt and was ordained a priest in 1507. In 1508 he became a lecturer at Wittenberg University where he received a doctorate in 1512. During this period he visited Rome where he was shocked by the decadence. Luther returned home much troubled and for four years went through a major spiritual battle realising that even an ascetic life of a monk was not satisfactory to God. On the advice of Johann von Staupitz, the vicar of his Order he read the Bible. He eventually read Romans 1:17 the just shall live by faith, which revolutionised his life and became the fundamental issue in the Reformation. Albert of Brandenburg, a German prince was seeking to become an Archbishop but had no money. Pope Leo X was willing to grant his desire providing he sold indulgences with half the profit going to Leo so that he could build St Peters in Rome. A Dominican friar named Tetzel was appointed as chief agent for the sale. He was an high pressure salesman advising those who were considering buying that The moment you hear the money drop in the box the soul of your mother will jump out of purgatory causing the sale of indulgences to fall into complete disrepute. As a result Luther wrote 95 theses in Latin and nailed them to the door of the castle church on 31st October 1517 so they could be debated. Within four weeks they had been translated and were being read throughout Europe. When the pope found that this source of funds was drying up Luther was summonsed to Rome but instead it was arranged that he would meet Cardinal Cajetin, a papal legate. Cajetin demanded Luther retract his statement but he refused. At Leipzig in 1519 Luther debated his convictions with John von Eck stating that the papacy was an human institution and that faith in the supremacy of Rome was not needed for salvation. After the Leipzig debate Luther wrote three pamphlets critical of current religious concepts of this time. [a] in Address to the German Nobility he disputed: [1] the elevation of the clergy above the laity [2] that only the pope could interpret the Bible [b] in The Babylonian captivity of the Church he showed [1] the doctrine of Transubstantiation was false [2] the doctrine that men could only be saved through the priest and the Roman Catholic system of sacraments was false. For Consubstantiation see 1328 [3] the laity should also partake of the cup [4] there are two sacraments not seven, baptism and communion, and not confirmation, penance, extreme unction, ordination, and matrimony. [c] in The Freedom of the Christian Man he explained the three foundations of the Reformation [1] SOLA FIDE man is justified by faith alone. [2] SOLA SCRIPTURA the Scripture is the only authority. [3] SOLA GRATIA by grace alone and not of works. In 1521 Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X after burning a papal bull. Leo ordered Emperor Charles V to arrest and execute Luther but instead he summoned him to Worms where he was charged with heresy and ordered to recant. He refused. Leaving Worms under safe conduct he was kidnapped by a group who were sympathetic to his cause and taken to Wartburg castle. He spent 1522 there during which he made a German translation of the New Testament. The rest of the Bible was translated in 1534. In 1525 he married Katharina von Bora, a former nun. They had six children. He died in 1546. NINETY-FIVE THESIS [1517] The generally accepted episode that marks the first public declaration of Reformation principles. Towards the end of 1517 Martin Luther, angered at the deceptions practised on the common people by Tetzels [see below] sale of indulgences at Juterborg and Zerbst near Wittenberg, and agitated by the spiritual crisis through which he was then passing, nailed 95 Theses upon Indulgences to the door of the castle church as a preliminary to a disputation which in fact never took place. The theses were quite conservative with no statement regarding justification by faith or any suggestion of leaving Rome but merely to bring to the popes attention a matter which Luther presumed he would stop. The papal authorities were in no mood for criticism and Luthers action led to the Curia moving against him on the grounds of suspected heresy in June 1518. TETZEL, JOHANN [c.1465-1519] Dominican friar whose one claim to fame was his hawking of indulgences at Juterbock near Wittenberg. His exaggerated claims stirred Martin Luthers pastoral concerns to such a degree that he formulated a set of thesis for academic debate. These are the 95 Theses of 31 October 1517. The indulgencies were ostensibly meant for the building of St Peters Basilica although the elector of Mainz piscopa off some of the funds for payment of his debts to the Fuggers. 1518CAJETAN, TOMMASO DE VIO [14691534] Dominican [see 1216] cardinal and philosopher. Latin name Cajetanus, Italian name Gaetano, Dominican name Tommaso de Vio. Cajetan was one of Luthers most competent opponents when they met on three successive days in Augsburg. He was a recognised proponent of Thomas Aquinas [see 1265] and his celebrated work De Ente et Essentia was directed against Averroism [see 1198]. CARLSTADT, ANDREAS BODENSTEIN VON [1477-1541] German Protestant reformer who wrote 380 theses on the supremacy of Scripture and the fallibility of councils in support of Luthers 95 theses. He debated these against J Eck [see 1530] at Leipzig in 1519 which he reported in a tract entitled Against the dumb ass and Stupid Little Doctor Eck. He was included in the papal bull Exsurge Domine which condemned Luther. He believed infant baptism was not necessary and that communion was a memorial service. He fell out with Luther and was asked to leave Saxony in 1524 eventually settling in Switzerland and for a time was associated with Zwingli in Zurich and Bullinger in Basle. JEROME EMILIANI [1481-1537] Founder of the Somaschi, a Counter-Reformation order of clerks regular, specialising in the care of orphans. Born in Venice, he fought in the Venetian army against the League of Cambrai in 1518. He was ordained in 1518, returned to Venice to devote himself to relieving suffering following the invasion of North Italy and opened a hospital at Verona in that year and the house in Somasca near Bergamo after which his order was named. He also founded Italys first home for prostitutes. He died at Somasca from typhus contracted while tending sufferers. The group was raised to the rank of order by Pius V in 1568. MAROT, CLEMENT [1497-1544] French Protestant hymn writer and poet who was the son of the court poet to Anne of Brittany. In 1518 he entered the circle of Margaret of Navarre [see 1509] where Protestant teaching influenced him. After his capture at Pavia in 1525, Marot wrote a poem on the New Testament for Francis I. In 1536 at Lyons, Marot rejected Protestantism receiving a house in the Paris suburbs from Francis in 1539. Fleeing to Geneva, Marot translated 20 twenty more psalms at Calvins urging and twenty years later Beza completed the hymn book with a 101 of his Psalms added to 49 by Marot. MILTITZ, CARL VON [1490-1529] Papal secretary who studied law at Cologne and Bologna. In Rome through unprincipled manoeuvring he advanced rapidly within the curia until he was appointed papal secretary in 1518. He is best known for his meetings with Luther in 1518-1519. Sent to Saxony with the Golden Rose for Elector Frederick and commissioned only to act with the approval of Cajetan [see above] the papal legate, he foolishly decided to attempt to reconcile Luther with the church. They met at Altenburg in January 1519. He met twice with Luther again but without result. He died by accidental drowning. 1519LEIPZIG, DISPUTATION OF [1519] The debate arranged by Johann Eck [see 1530] in an attempt to discredit Luthers theology. The choice of Leipzig was because Wittenbergers were known to be unpopular in that city. There were three phases in the debate between Eck and the Reformers with the first and third phases between Carlstadt and Eck being of little consequence. In the second phase however Luther debated with Eck and he left the disputation depressed by the levity and insincerity of the proceedings and the hostility of the Leipzig crowd. Eck boasted that he had triumphed over the heretic. It had in fact prepared the way for Luthers condemnation by the Diet of Worms the following year. MELANCHTHON, PHILIP [1497-1560] German Reformer who was a linguist and had humanistic interests. He studied at Heidelberg, Tubingen and Wittenberg. At Tubingen he came into contact with Erasmus [see 1514]. Reuchlin [see 1509] recommended him as a professor of Greek at the University of Wittenberg to Elector Frederick the Wise. He soon embraced Luthers cause. In his Bachelor of Divinity thesis he defended the proposition that the Scriptures alone are authoritative, not the decrees of popes and councils. He accompanied Luther to the Leipzig Disputation and published Luthers early commentaries on Galatians and Psalms. By 1519 his concept of justification, the forgiveness of sins, and reconciliation was already fashioned, a concept which he clung to throughout his life. During Luthers stay at Wartburg Castle after the Diet of Worms [1521] Melanchthon led the Lutheran movement, and he published the first systematic treatment of Lutheran theology in 1521. He was the foremost humanist among the Lutheran reformers, and became the centre of religious controversies because of his stand on the Interim in 1548 and the more extreme statements of some of his followers on free will, conversion, and the Lords Supper. He also wrote the Augsburg Confession. PHILIP OF HESSE [1504-1567] Landgrave of Hesse and the ablest of Luthers princely supporters who assumed power at the age of 15 in 1519 and proved to be a shrewd leader. He first met Luther in 1521 at the Diet of Worms but it was only after his marriage to Christina of Saxony in 1524 that he embraced Protestantism and encouraged the Reformation in his state. Around 1529 he became acquainted with Zwingli and invited the Swiss Reformer to visit Germany to promote unity of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. In 1530 he formed with the Elector of Saxony the Smalcald League [see 1530] a group of Protestant powers for protection against the emperor. Eventually this led to the Smalcald War [1546-47]. After his military defeat he threw himself on the emperors mercy in the interest of his state. He was an imperial prisoner until 1552 when Philip was compelled to assent to the imposition of the Interim of Hesse permitting Roman Catholic practices in his state. On his release he renewed his efforts to bring about unity between the Lutherans and Calvinists while at the same time working for a great Protestant federation and gave aid to the Huguenots. 1520EMSER, HIERONYMOUS [1477-1527] German editor and essayist and Luthers most bitter opponent. After studying at Tubingen and Basle he taught classics at Leipzig. As George of Saxonys secretary at Dresden he was present at the 1519 Leipzig debate with Duke George. Esmer broke with Luther and exposed him in defence of papal primacy; Luther responded in the famous statement On the stinking goat Esmer burning Esmers writings with the canon law and bull of excommunication in 1520. Esmer also attacked Zwingli in 1524, his attacks only terminating with his death three years later. HUTTEN, ULRICH VON [1488-1523] German reformer who at the age of 11 was placed in a monastery with a view to a religious vocation, but fled in 1505 and wandered from university to university, studying classics and humanistic writings. In 1515 he made a bitter attack on the duke of Wrttemberg who had murdered the head of his family. Bitter ironical attacks on the papacy led to an order of arrest from Rome in 1520 and his dismissal from the electors service. He was now caught up in the views of the Reformation and fled to Basle which refused to receive him. In 1522 afflicted by disease and poverty he approached Zwingli who secured him refuge on an island till his death. Hutten is a puzzling figure whose precise influence on the course the Reformation has been hotly debated by historians. He was not without spirituality and derived from Luther not only inspiration to address his German audience in their native tongue but also evangelical sentiments which would characterise his later works. ODENSE, DIET OF [1527] A meeting in Denmark for the Catholic majority and the Lutheran minority, marking a decisive turning point in the history of the Reformation in that country. At his coronation in 1523 Frederick I had promised to protect and preserve the Catholic Church and to oppose and suppress the Lutheran heresy. When the Reformation grew stronger however and spread throughout his kingdom he followed a policy of tolerance and even extended his personal protection to Hans Tausen [see 1541] and other Lutheran preachers. As a result of the Diet of Odense, the principal of religious toleration formed the legal foundation of Fredericks policy of coexistence with a national Catholic Church alongside free Lutheran congregations, until the final accomplishment of the Reformation in Denmark in 1536. SICKINGEN, FRANZ VON [1481-1523] A colourful German knight who supported Charles V and was a potential protector for Martin Luther. The decline of feudalism and the rise of national states, the importance of the burgher class because of a growth industry and commerce, and even the impact of humanism were not understood by him, although he contended for social reform. He was a religious independent, ready to support Martin Luther. He offered Luther a haven in 1520 if he should have to leave Saxony. Von Sickingen was disappointed in Luthers leadership because Luther disclaimed the use of the sword for the spread of the Gospel. Luther dedicated one of his books to him. In 1522 von Sickengen attacked Trier but was defeated and killed in battle. 1521-1530 AD 1521ALEANDER, GIROLAMO [14801542] Vatican librarian who headed the opposition to Luther at the Diet of Worms [see below]. Born in Venice he taught Hebrew, Latin and Greek in Paris from 1503 and was appointed librarian to the pope by Leo X in 1519. He drew up the edict accepted by the diet which condemned Luther. The first martyrs of the Reformation, two Belgian monks were burnt at the stake in 1523 at his instigation. BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN [14851558] German reformer who, convinced by Luthers argument, went to Wittenburg and became a close associate of Luther and Melanchthon. He served as the preacher at the collegiate church there for all but five years of the rest of his life. From 15371542 he reconstituted the Danish Church at the request of Christian III of Denmark. He wrote many books including a highly praised commentary on the Psalms and helped Luther with the translation of the Bible. COCHLAEUS, JOHANNES [1479-1552] Roman Catholic controversialist who from 1521 engaged in bitter controversy with Luther and in 1525 attempted to prevent the printing of Tyndales New Testament at Cologne. He was a canon and attended many conferences between Catholics and Protestants. FIDEI DEFENSOR The title granted to Henry VIII of England by Pope Leo I on 11 October 1521 as a result of his Defence of the Seven Sacraments against Luther, and also his persistent pursuit of a special papal title to parallel those of Catholic King of Spain and Most Christian king of France. Although Henry had not written the reply to Luthers Babylonian Captivity of the Church with his own hand, he had taken a considerable part of its composition and all of the credit for its authorship. It tipped the scales in favour of his demand for a special papal title, despite its misrepresentation of Luthers position and its general theological weakness. When Henry broke with the papacy, Pope Paul III deprived him of the title but it was restored to the king by Parliament in 1544 despite the change in faith. It is still used by his successors on the English throne. The abbreviation Fid. Def. or the letters F.D. have been regularly used on coinage from the time of George I. HENRY VIII [1491-1547] King of England who received a Renaissance education and married Catherine of Aragon, widow of his elder brother Arthur thus continuing the alliance between the Tudors and the Spanish throne. He became king in the same year [1509] with Thomas Wolsey [see 1515] managing the realm for him. Shortly after the appearance of Luthers tracts in 1520 Henry VIII with some help replied in 1521 with Defence of the Seven Sacraments which resulted in the papal grant of the title Defender of the Faith. He became increasingly concerned with his role as king in the spiritual welfare of his people, and with his inability to produce a legitimate male heir which could result in civil war. In 1529 Wolsey was removed from office and Henry began his assault upon papal control in England. Thomas Cranmer was made archbishop and the desired divorce from Catherine of Aragon granted; Henry married Anne Boleyn. Parliament with the guidance of Thomas Cromwell [see 1540] proceeded to pass a series of laws that placed England outside the sphere of Romes control. With the birth of Elizabeth the succession question was still unresolved. Three years later Anne Boleyn was accused of adultery and beheaded. The next day Henry married Jane Seymour who did produce a son, the future Edward VI but 12 days later the queen died. Henry apparently remained basically Catholic unwilling to subscribe to many Protestant doctrines. The Six Articles [see 1539] mark a return to Catholic doctrine as perhaps did his marriage to Catherine Howard. Summing up his reign J.J. Scarisbrick one of his biographers said Few kings had it in their power to do greater good than Henry, and few have done less. LASKI, JAN [1499-1560] Polish Protestant who was the nephew of the primate of Poland. In 1521 he was ordained as a priest and with his elder brother Jerome he went on many diplomatic missions for Poland and thereby met Erasmus in Basle. He also made contact with Zwingli and by 1538 he had converted to Protestantism and in 1543 became superintendent of the churches in the territory of Countess Anna of Oldenburg. PHILIPPINES [see also 1841] The explorer Magellan landed in central Philippines in 1521 and he planted a wooden cross on a hill and so took possession of the country in the name of Spain while Father Pedro de Valderrama said the first Mass. The first serious missionary work occurred in 1565 when five Augustinian missionaries arrived with the conquering Spanish army. Islam had been at work for some time prior to this, thus the Spanish friars achieved often little more than Christianised paganism. The Catholics had so much power that they soon became corrupt and exploitative. There was a reluctance against ordaining Filipinos but eventually after pressure from the Spanish throne the first Filipino priests were ordained in 1702 and by 1750 about a quarter of all parishes were controlled by national priests, a process which expanded when the Jesuits were expelled in 1768. The consequences were disastrous as unprepared and unsuitable men were ordained. In 1776 the king issued a decree saying that Filipinos would only be assistants to the friars and not ordained. WORMS, DIET OF [1521] Charles V in accepting his election as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, pledged himself to call a diet as soon as possible. Moreover the Golden Bull of 1356 made a diet mandatory. A plague in Nuremberg made it necessary to hold the meeting elsewhere and Charles chose Worms. The diet was confronted with the problem of what to do about Martin Luther, as well as the problem of civic administration because of the many territories outside of the Holy Roman Empire held by Charles. On November 28th 1520 Charles commanded Elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony to bring Luther with him to the diet but after discussions this request was rescinded. Finally on March 2nd 1521, Luther was summonsed and promised safe conduct and was required to appear because of his teachings and books. On 17th April he appeared before the diet and asked whether the books were his. On the following day Luther replied to the diet saying Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason, I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not retract anything since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. I cannot do otherwise. Here I stand, may God help me, Amen. On the 19th Charles notified the estates that he would defend the ancient faith against Luther. Five days later Luther in his meeting with church leaders continued to insist on the authority of the Holy Scriptures. He left Worms on 26th April for his return to Wittenberg but on his way was kidnapped and taken to Wartburg Castle. The Edict of Worms dated May 8th declared Luther an outlaw together with his adherents. 1522ADRIAN VI Pope [1522-1523]. He was born in Holland and served as bishop of Rome from 9 January 1522 until his death some 18 months later. He was the last non-Italian pope until HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Paul_II" \o "John Paul II" John Paul II, 456 years later. He is the only HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_people" \o "Dutch people" Dutchman to have become pope. Adrian VI was known for having launched the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" \o "Catholic Reformation" Catholic Reformation in response to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" \o "Protestant Reformation" Protestant Reformation. Adrian VI studied from a very young age under the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Common_Life" \o "Brethren of the Common Life" Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380] and after wards becoming a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorate" \o "Doctorate" Doctor of Theology in 1491 at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven" \o "Catholic University of Leuven" University of Leuven and became vice- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor" \o "Chancellor" chancellor of the university. His lectures were published, recreated from his students notes; among those who attended was the young HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus" \o "Erasmus" Erasmus. In 1507 he was appointed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutor" \o "Tutor" tutor to Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor" Maximilian Is (1493 1519) seven year old grandson, Charles, who was later to become Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" \o "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor" Charles V (1519 56). During the minority of Charles V, Adrian was named to serve with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Jimenez_de_Cisneros" \o "Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros" Francisco Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros as co- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent" \o "Regent" regent of Spain. After the death of Jimenez, Adrian was appointed (14 March 1518) General of the Reunited HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition" \o "Inquisition" Inquisitions of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" \o "Crown of Castile" Castile and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" \o "Crown of Aragon" Aragon, in which capacity he acted until his departure for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome. During this period, Charles V left for the Netherlands in 1520, making the future pope, regent of Spain. In the conclave after the death of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medici" \o "Medici" Medici pope Leo X, his cousin, Cardinal HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII" \o "Pope Clement VII" Giulio de Medici was the leading figure. With Spanish and French cardinals in a deadlock, the absent Adrian was proposed as a compromise and on 9 January 1522 he was elected by an almost unanimous vote. Charles V was delighted upon hearing that his tutor had been elected to the papacy but soon realised that Adrian VI was determined to reign impartially. He immediately entered upon the path of the reformer. His plan was to attack notorious abuses one by one; but in his attempt to improve the system of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indulgences" \o "Indulgences" indulgences he was hampered by his cardinals; and he found reducing the number of dispensations to be impossible as the income had been farmed out for years in advance by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" \o "Pope Leo X" Pope Leo X. Adrian, who had never before been to Rome, was so ignorant of affairs that he had written asking that some suitable lodgings be obtained for him in Rome from where he could discharge his duties as pope. He succeeded Leo X [see 1513] and was succeeded by Clement VIII [see 1523]. COMPLUTENSIAN POLYGLOT The first complete Bible printed in the original languages. The Old Testament four volumes incorporate the Septuagint, Vulgate and Hebrew texts among other things while volume 5, which was the first volume printed, was the first Greek New Testament, though that of Erasmus had been published in 1516. Some 600 copies were produced at the newly founded University of Acala de Henares near Madrid and dedicated to Pope Leo X [see 1513] INDONESIA [see also 1811] There are slight traces of Christianity in Indonesia from the seventh century but little is known of that situation. The first Franciscan missionaries reached the Spice Islands with the Portuguese in 1522 and saw mass conversions in various places. Francis Xavier spent a short period on Indonesian soil. When the Dutch ousted the Portuguese in 1605 some 30,000 Indonesian Catholics became Protestants, following the faith of their new masters. However, the church of the Dutch East India Company catered chiefly for its Dutch employees and local evangelism was scarce and superficial. Christian knowledge was minimal and most converts turned into social groups. The Bible was translated into Malay, the trade language, the New Testament published in 1688 and the whole Bible in 1733. JEREMIAS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1522-1545] succeeded Theoleptus [see 1513]. There is no additional information readily available. PIGHI, ALBERT [c.1490-1542] Roman Catholic apologist who was born in the Netherlands and educated at Louvain then lived in Paris until he went to Rome in 1522. He is remembered as the opponent Martin Bucer [see 1549] and a defender of papal infallibility. Throughout his life his talents were widely used to answer the Protestant challenge. POLYGLOT BIBLES These are Bibles with the text printed in several languages. One might point back to the Hexapla of Origen in the third century but from that time until the advent of printing no further known experiments of like proportions were attempted because of the difficulties involved in hand copying. In 1502 Francisco Jimenes de Cisneros [see 1495] began a comprehensive edition of Scripture and it was published in 1522 in six volumes with the Old Testament presented in a revised Hebrew Massoretic, the Lucianic version of the Greek text and the Vulgate in Latin and the New Testament in Greek and Latin. The Antwerp Polyglot was under the patronage of Philip II and the editorship of Arias Montanus which was followed by the Paris Polyglot in 10 volumes in 1629 where the New Testament had both Syriac and Arabic versions with additional volumes containing the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Arabic versions the Old Testament each with a Latin translation. From London Brian Walton [see 1657] edited a polyglot in six volumes which included Ethiopic Psalms and Persian gospels. Other than these four, polyglots are numerous but only parts of Scripture have received this kind of multilingual treatment. ZWILLING, GABRIEL [1487-1558] German Reformer who was an Augustinian monk and a colleague of the Luther in the Wittenberg Reformation together with Melanchthon [see 1521] and Carlstadt [see 1518]. During Luthers exile at Wartburg during 1521, Carlstadt and Zwilling gave a more radical turn to the Reformation encouraged by the Zwickau Prophets who joined forces with them. Zwilling was a fiery preacher and by October was denouncing the Mass and urging the abandonment of clerical vows. He gained a large following especially in the Wittenberg Augustinian monastery with many monks renouncing their vows. Soon he was attacking images and by December was leading in an iconoclastic riot. The Wittenberg town council recalled Luther to restore order which he did in 1522. Luther recommended Zwilling to a pastorate in Zwickau but subsequently the patron dismissed him despite protests from the people, and in 1549 he spurned the Leipzig Interim of Duke Maurice and suffered for it. .1523ANABAPTISTS They were groups variously called the radicals or left wing of the Reformation who agreed to denounce baptism of infants. The group which commenced in 1523 held that only those who were old enough to understand the meaning of faith and repentance should be baptised. They also held the concepts of the primacy of the Scriptures and the separation of church and state, they expected the imminent return of Jesus Christ, and the majority were pacifists. They believed in a pure believers church and strict church discipline. The most pure Anabaptist practices appeared in Switzerland under the leadership of Conrad Grebel [see 1525] and Felix Manz [see 1527]. Other areas were Balthasar Hubmaier and Hans Denck [see 1525] in southern Germany, the Hutterites [see 1529] in Moravia and the Mennonites [see 1536] in the Low countries. They were successful in converts but persecution and the drowning of Manz caused the group to go underground. In addition incidents in the German city of Munster brought the movement into disrepute. These were the forerunners of the Free Church movement which includes the Baptists today. CLEMENT VII Pope [1523-1534]. He was the illegitimate son of Giuliano de Medici and a cousin of Pope Leo X. He was made archbishop of Florence being granted a special dispensation due to his birth and was made cardinal in 1513. He controlled papal policy during the reign of Leo X but failed to deal with the problems of the Reformation because of timidity and vacillation. He patronised the arts encouraging Cellini, Raphael and Michelangelo. He vacillated between King Francis and Charles V siding with Francis but after the sack of Rome he changed sides supporting Charles. He was equally irresolute over the divorce of Henry VIII but resisted Henrys subsequent break with Rome. He should not be confused with antipope Clement VII [d.1394] who lived at the start of the Great Schism. He succeeded Adrian VI [see 1522] and was succeeded by Paul III [see 1534]. DURER, ALBRECHT [1471-1528] Painter, engraver and woodcut designer who was the son of a Nuremburg goldsmith and travelled widely during his formative years. During his 40s he worked for Emperor Maximilian I. Later in life he was also a friend of Philip Melanchthon. His most famous engravings were composed of forms with curious and moody grotesque people. He was famed for his four apostles painting of 1523-26. He had a deep affinity with the piety and Christian humanism of Erasmus. GUSTAVUS VASA [1496-1560] King of Sweden from 1523. He not only led Sweden to independence from Denmark, but established the Lutheran state church in his domain. During the Swedish War of Independence the Roman Catholic Church made several ill-advised moves and stirred up great opposition to the authorities among Swedes at a particularly sensitive period in their history. The issue that especially led him to break with Rome was his great need the money. His main support was from poor peasants; most of the nobles having been massacred by the Danes in 1520. The Roman Catholic Church controlled a great percentage of Swedens wealth; some claim it was as much as two thirds of the land. The Diet and Ordinances of Westeras [see 1527] confiscated most of the church property. Gustavus Vasa ordered the teaching of the Gospel in the schools and provided for royal confirmation of the higher clergy. JUD, LEO [1482-1542] Swiss reformer who became a pastor in 1512 and succeeded Zwingli at Einsiedeln in 1519. One of the earliest followers of Zwingli he was a staunch supporter of the Zwinglian Reformation. In 1523 Jud became pastor of St Peters Zurich where he preached against images and set off a wave of iconoclasm. He played a part in the suppression of convents. He helped Zwingli in his conflict with the Anabaptists. Jud made a Latin translation of the Hebrew Old Testament and was author of a Swiss-German version of the Prophets [1525] which was incorporated into the complete Zurich Bible of 1529 preceding Luthers version by five years. MICHAEL V Patriarch of Antioch [1523-1541] see also 1497 and 1541. REUBLIN, WILHELM [c.1482-1559] Anabaptist Reformer who was born in Germany where he was ordained. After parish work in Tubingen and Griessen he became peoples priest in Basle in 1521. Crowds listened to his scriptural expositions and supported him when the bishop complained about his attacks on the Mass. He went to Zurich and was the first Swiss priest to marry in 1523. With others he was expelled after the 1525 Disputation. After a debate on baptism in Strasbourg, Reublin was whipped from Esslingen in 1528 then denounced as a false prophet by fellow Anabaptists in Moravia in 1531 and four years later withdrew from the group. SARKILAX, PETER [d.1529] Finnish Reformer who having studied at the University of Rostock from 1516 was in Germany when the Reformation began and returned to Finland in 1523. He was seized with the spirit of the Wittenberg movement, acting boldly and openly in favour of it as a member of the diocesan board of Turku. During the time in Germany he married and so was one of the first Lutheran pastors to break the celibacy regulations. In his work he was constantly stressing the need of pure doctrine free from papal heresy. The most important result of his activity was that Mikael Agricola [see 1554] the chief figure in the Finnish Reformation, during his youth was deeply influenced by him. 1524ARESSON, JON [14841550] Icelandic bishop of Holev [15241550] who was also a poet. He was the son of poor parents who rose quickly to eminence in the church and was consecrated in 1524. He invited a Swedish printer to set up the first printing press in Iceland in 1530. He resisted the imposition of Lutherism in Iceland by Christian III of Denmark. He captured the Lutheran bishop Marteinn and seized his see in 1549 but was captured and eventually beheaded. CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO [14721539] Archbishop of Bologna who was ordained in 1510 after the death of his wife. He was a great diplomat and attempted to unite the Christian princes for Pope Leo X in a crusade against the Turks. In 1524 he was made Roman protector of England and Henry VIII made him bishop of Salisbury. He was deprived of that appointment in 1535 after Henrys divorce case which he had worked on with Thomas Wolsey [see 1515]. CORPUS CATHOLICORUM or Catholic body were associations of Catholic bishop princes in north and southern Germany in an attempt to stamp out heresy. CORPUS EVANGELICORUM or evangelical body which composed of delegates from the Protestant states of the Holy Roman Empire charged with the protection of Protestant interests in the Imperial Diet. It was not until the end of the Thirty Year War at the Diet of Ratisbon in 1653 that a clear structure appeared. Saxony was chosen as the permanent centre of the Corpus Evangelicorum which now consisted of thirty nine Protestant states. Both corpus groups lasted until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. ILLUMINATI [Alumbrados] Members of a Spanish group of mystic tendencies. At the dawn of the 16th century, Spain was touched by a religious movement which brought about renewal. The Alumbrados or Illuminati or enlightened ones were mystical in nature, drawing from Neo-Platonism certain concepts also used by the SadiIies or Islamic mystics. In 1524 Pedro Ruiz de Alcarez wrote to the Inquisition after four months imprisonment, identifying the movement with the Franciscan Order. The key term was love of God. The perfection which Alcarez taught was a submission to Gods will rather than an eradication of evil from the soul. PEASANTS REVOLT [1524-1525] German revolutionary mass movement among peasants because the territorial princes ignored their customary rights and introduced new taxes. After vainly looking to a reformed and strengthened empire for justice some engaged in sporadic violence from 1502 to 1517. Luthers theological views and attacks on greedy princes, merchants, and clergy, although misunderstood by the peasant leaders, helped to ignite the uprising. It broke out in June 1524 in the Black Forest and spread rapidly over southern and central Germany until late April 1525 by which time some 300,000 peasants were under arms. However Luthers harsh uncompromising opposition to them and the combined forces of the Hessian, Saxon, and Brunswick princes led to the defeat of the peasants in 1525. The Swabian League suppressed the movement in other areas and within six weeks it had been brutally crushed almost everywhere. The revolt was extremely detrimental to the Reformation. Even though Luther soon moderated, the disillusionment of the peasants turned against him and the Catholics portrayed it as a divine judgement against Protestants and thus discouraged further defections from Rome. WALTHER, JOHANN [1496-1570] German composer closely associated with Martin Luther at Wittenberg. In 1524 they published in that city the famous Little Sacred Songbook. This was not a collection of hymns but a choral collection in four or five vocal parts. It was the first Protestant book of its kind and went through many editions with changes of contents, and marks the beginning of the enormous literature of Lutheran choral music. 1525ALBERT OF PRUSSIA [14901568] became the Duke of Prussia. He was Grand Master of the Teutonic Order but on the orders of Luther dissolved the order. He came under the influence of Andreas Osiander [see 1549] and during his reign Prussia adopted a strict form of Lutheranism making it a Protestant state. Theological differences between Osiander and Melanchthon [see 1519] led to political disputes but a strict form of Lutherism was adopted and declared binding on all teachers and preachers in Alberts domains. BASCIO, MATTEO DA [14951552] He formed the Capuchins, a reformed branch of the Franciscan Order returning to simplicity, poverty and austerity. They became a powerful force in the Counter Reformation. BLAUROCK, GEORG [14921529] Swiss Anabaptist evangelist who was a priest from Chur who responded to Zwinglis preaching and who embraced Anabaptist teaching after considerable Bible study. He founded the first Anabaptist congregation in 1525 where he won more than 150 converts. Expelled from Zurich by the local authorities in 1527 he became an itinerant preacher winning thousands to Christ in Central Europe and setting up assemblies. Hapsburg officials eventually captured him in 1529 and burnt him to death for heresy. DENCK, HANS [1495-1527] He was an Anabaptist leader born in Bavaria and studied in Ingolstadt. He went to Basle where he became a friend and student of Oecolampadius [see 1515]. In 1523 he went to Nuremberg to teach at St Sebalds. There he became involved in a judicial trial of the three impious painters. Spiritualism together with the ideas of Thomas Munzer and Andreas Karlstad influenced him greatly. About October 1525 he was forced to leave Nuremberg and he became a wanderer throughout south Germany. He established himself as the leader of the Anabaptists in Augsburg. In his writings he opposed the doctrines of predestination, the bound will, justification by faith, the sufficiency of Christs atonement, the authority of the Scriptures, the necessity of baptism and the Lords Supper, and the ministry. He returned to Basle in 1527 where he succumbed to the plague. FABER, JACOBUS [1455-1536] French humanist who spent some years in the schools of Italy, and in Paris where he studied classics. This awakened in him the importance of the language for the study of the Bible, which in turn helped him to create an interest for others and thus promote Christian humanism. His Latin translation of Pauls epistles in 1512 published with a commentary, resulted in his being branded a heretic, especially by theologians of a mediaeval outlook on the questions of transubstantiation, justification, and the merit of good works. He was denounced by the government in 1525 and had to flee to Strasbourg. He never accepted the Reformed doctrines of grace, justification, and predestination, but there is a link between him and the Anabaptists. He had an interview with Calvin about the time of Calvins conversion in 1534 which may have proved of significance in the latters break with Rome. FRANCK, SEBASTIAN [1499-1542] Humanist and spiritual Anabaptist. He studied at Heidelberg and was ordained a priest in 1524 and became a Lutheran in 1525. He left the Lutheran ministry and moved to Strasbourg in 1529 where he became an Anabaptist but with increasingly mystical views. Expelled from Strasbourg and from Ulm for his views he eventually settled in Basle as a printer in 1539. Franck regarded the Bible as a book full of contradictions and in the end became a solitary figure who found no realm of truth left but the inner life of a few mystics. GREBEL, CONRAD [c.1498-1526] Leader of the Swiss Brethren movement commonly called Anabaptists. While being educated at Basle, Vienna and Paris he encountered Humanism. Returning to his home in Zurich he made contact with Zwingli [see 1528] and other humanists and studied Greek with them. About 1522 he was converted to biblical Christianity and began to work for reform in Switzerland. He became dissatisfied however with the incomplete reformation advocated by Zwingli. On 21 January 1525 the Anabaptist movement was born when Grebel baptised George Blaurock [see above] and then Blaurock baptised others present making thereby a gathered church. This action provoked the wrath of the city council and led the persecution of the Brethren. Grebel himself, weakened by imprisonment, died at Maienfeld the following year. HETZER, LUDWIG [1500-1529] Anabaptist reformer, translator and hymn writer. He was expelled from Zurich in 1525 and led a group of Anabaptists at Augsburg, was banished to Basle, then stayed with Capito in Strasbourg in 1526 where he was joined by Hans Denck. The three were gifted in Hebrew, and Hetzer busied himself translating the Prophets. By 1527 he was tending toward anti-Trinitarian spiritualism. He was accused of adultery in 1528 and was beheaded at Constance the following year. He composed hymns which were highly prized by the Hutterite tradition. HUNGARY [see also 955 and 1787] In the latter half of the 16th century Protestantism made its way into the country. Lutheranism made great headway in Hungary and after 1525 many Hungarian students went to Wittenberg for their training in theology. Calvinism later had an impact particularly among the Magyars, while Lutheranism had a greater appeal to the German and Slavonic peoples of the kingdom. On the other hand the upper classes, particularly the landed aristocracy, remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church, and the activity of the Jesuits also helped to keep the Protestants as a minority in Hungary. JOHN OF AVILLA [1500-1569] Spanish missionary and scholar who studied at Salamanca. He dispensed the family fortune to the poor after his ordination 1525 and desired to go to America as a missionary. He was persuaded to work in Spain instead and was there as a missionary in Andalusia for nine years. A great preacher and councillor he pleaded strongly for reform and denunciation of vice in high places, which brought him before the Inquisition, where he was declared innocent. He helped found the University in Granada in 1537 but his greatest work was in reforming Spanish clerical life, with a large circle of disciples around him who taught in colleges he founded. His most famous writings were on Christian perfection. JOHN THE CONSTANT [1468-1532] Saxon prince and brother of Frederick the Wise. He became an early supporter of the Lutheran cause and urged his brother to protect Luther from the ban of the empire. He welcomed Luther when he preached at his own court in Weimar in 1522. He was reluctant to suppress Muntzer and Carlstadt and at first tolerated their radical reforms. When on the death of his brother he became ruler sole ruler in 1525 he confessed himself a Protestant and entered into a treaty with Philip of Hesse in 1526. He defended Protestant interests at the Diet of Speyer and accepted the Schwabach Articles [see 1529]. He agreed to the formation of a Protestant league of defence against the emperor, Ferdinand, leading to the peace of Nuremburg in 1532. MUNZER, THOMAS [c.1490-1525] A leader of the Radical Reformation [see below]. Munzer was educated at Leipzig and Frankfurt. He seems to have made a favourable impression on Luther and with his approval received a call to preach at Zwickau where he became acquainted with a radical group called the Zwickau Prophets [see 1522] an he preached in a violent way against the clergy. He emphasised the importance of the Holy Spirits guidance and the need for lay involvement in the work of the church. This caused controversy and Munzer went to Prague where he called upon the populace to help him bring in a new age. Little interest was raised in Prague, and after some months of controversy in Germany he went to the south of the country where he preached to the townspeople of Muhlhausen and helped to involve them in the Peasants Revolt [see 1524] which led to the defeat of the rebel forces and Munzers execution. His teachings influenced other Anabaptists. Marxist historians emphasise Munzer because he anticipated later social revolutionaries. SMALCALD LEAGUE A league of protestant princes formed to protect their religious interests against the league of Roman Catholic princes called the League of Dessau. At the Diet of Smalcald in 1535 the League agreed that new members would have to provide for such teaching and preaching as was in harmony with the Word of God and the pure teaching of the Augsburg Confession. Unsuccessful attempts were made to reconcile Protestants and Catholics, and as a result of the Smalcald War the Protestants were defeated at the Battle of Muehlberg in 1547due in part to the defection of Mortiz of Saxony. However at the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 the Protestant princes secured the right to regulate religious affairs in their territories. TWELVE ARTICLES, THE [1525] A statement of the grievances of German peasants against feudal lords drawn up at Memmingen. The peasants wanted abolition of serfdom, rights to fish in streams, hunt game and cut wood, a just rent, abolition of feudal death taxes as well as the right to appoint their pastors and control the amount of tithes. The last article asserted that their demands must be in conformity with Scripture and would be withdrawn if such were not the case. Luther agreed with their demands and urged the feudal lords to grant these requests, however when the peasants revolted Luther turned against the peasants and in a tract urged the lords to exterminate them to prevent anarchy. TYNDALE, WILLIAM [c.1494-1536] English Reformer and Bible translator who was educated at Oxford as well as Cambridge. Tyndale became impressed by the ignorance of the clergy and laity alike and became convinced that it was impossible to establish the lay people in any truth, except the Scripture were plainly laid out before their eyes in their mother tongue. He did not receive any encouragement from Cuthbert Tunstall [see 1530] the bishop of London so he left England never to return. The printing of his first New Testament in English was begun in 1525 at Cologne but a police raid stopped the work and it had to be finished later that year at Worms. Tunstall, Thomas More [see 1529], and William Warham [see 1504] archbishop of Canterbury, attacked him relentlessly and secret agents were sent to trap him as he moved around from his Antwerp base where sympathetic English merchants protected and helped him. Tyndale also embarked on the Pentateuch and left other Old Testament translations uncompleted. He was much troubled by people printing pirated versions of the New Testament. At the same time, he was writing commentaries, and compiling theological works which were often translations or rough paraphrase of Luther or Lutheran works but traces from 1529 onwards appeared of the growing influence of the Swiss Protestant theology. Arrested near Brussels in 1535 he was finally strangled and burnt in the following year. 1526CAPITO, WOLFGANG FABRICIUS [14781541] German Protestant reformer and author who was the son of a blacksmith. He studied medicine and theology and became an expert in Hebrew and published a grammar in that language. He corresponded with Luther and Zwingli and produced commentaries on Habakkuk [1526] and Hosea [1528]. He worked with Bucer [see 1549] on the Tetrapolitan Confession [1530]. GABRIEL VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1526-1569] see 1483 and 1573. The see was vacant from 1569 to 1573. HOMBERG, SYNOD Of [1526] This synod was called by Philip of Hesse to reorganise the church in his territory. At the synod, Frenchman Francis Lambert [see below] who was formerly of the Franciscans was mainly responsible for producing an ambitious scheme of church reform. This developed the understanding of the priesthood of all believers, creating a democratic church in which the local congregation had the right of appointing pastors and excommunicating, and the general supervision was given to an annual synod which appointed three visitors to examine local churches. The scheme was abandoned when Luther rejected the proposals as he had become sceptical of the laity and more dependent on princes since the Peasants War. LAMBERT, FRANCIS [1486-1530] Reformer of Hesse who joined the Franciscan Order and became a noted preacher. Influenced by Luthers writings from 1520 and by Zwingli from 1522 he left the order and travelled under an alias to Wittenberg to study the Reformation in its original setting. He was called to Hesse by Landgrave Philip [see 1519] in 1526. Here even though Lambert was distrusted because he was French he took a leading part in the promotion of the Reformation in Hesse and from 1527 was professor of exegesis of the new University of Marburg. STURM, JAKOB [1498-1553] Reformer and statesman whose family had given the city of Strasbourg able magistrates for nearly 2 centuries. He studied at Heidelberg and Freiburg and became a city councillor being appointed chief magistrate of Strasbourg in 1526. An early adherent of Reformation doctrine he advocated an alliance of all German and Swiss evangelical groups. He was supported in this by Martin Bucer [see 1549]. Sturm was one of the original Protestants at the Diet of Speyer in 1529 and took part in the Marburg Colloquy [see 1529] and presented the Tetrapolitan Confession [see 1530] to the Augsburg Diet [1530]. Through his influence Strasbourg joined the Smalcald League [see 1525] but after the disasters of the Smalcald War had to sue for the pardon of his city from Charles V. 1527AGRICOLA, JOHANN [14941566] He had a dispute with Melanchthon on the relationship between repentance and faith. He served as Luthers secretary at the Leipzig Disputation in 1519 but was rejected by Luther who refuted his arguments. In 1540 Agricola went to Berlin where he was appointed court preacher and general superintendent. GEORGE, MARGRAVE OF BRANDENBURG-ANSBACH [1484-1543] German prince and patron of the Reformation who is also known as George the Pious. In 1523 he gained possession of the principality of Jagerndorf in Silesia and he brought in settlers to encourage economic development. George also introduced the Reformation into both this location and Ansbach which he inherited in 1527 because the unexpected death of his elder brother. He resisted the efforts of the Catholic king, Ferdinand I of Bohemia to expel him from Silesia and stood firmly for Protestantism in the Diets of Speyer [1529] and Augsburg [1530]. MANZ, FELIX [1498-1527] Anabaptist Reformer and martyr who acquired a thorough knowledge of Latin, Greek and Hebrew before joining Zwingli in 1519. He was alienated by his caution in reform, and with Grebel and Hetzer formed the original Swiss Brethren congregation. He distributed some of Carlstadts Eucharistic tracts in 1524, and in 1525 faced Zwingli in what was the first baptismal disputation. The council proclaimed Zwingli victorious and decreed that all children were to be baptised on pain of banishment. The Brethren promptly performed believers baptism at Manzs house thus breaking with Zwingli. Manz endured several imprisonments, but many were encouraged to become Anabaptists. After further baptismal disputations more severe measures were introduced and in 1526 this included capital punishment by drowning for those who were re-baptising. On the 5th January 1527 Manz was drowned in the River Limmat, the first Protestant martyr at the hands of Protestants. QUINONES, FRANCISCO DE [1480-1540] Spanish reforming cardinal who entered the Franciscan Order in 1498 and originated the mission of the Twelve Apostles to Mexico in 1523. He was subsequently minister-general of his order for five years and became a cardinal in 1527 and bishop of Coria in 1531. He negotiated with Charles V on behalf of Pope Clement VII and prepared the Treaty of Barcelona in 1529. He defended the interests of Catherine of Aragon in the matter of Henry VIII divorce. He introduced a recital of all the Psalms through the week and the reading of nearly all the Bible through the year. It became a bestseller until proscribed in 1558 and greatly influenced Thomas Cranmer [see 1533] in the preparation of the Book of Common Prayer. VALDES, JUAN DE [c.1500-1541] Spanish humanist and Reformer who was educated at Alcala University in 1527. He was greatly influenced by Erasmus and accepted Luthers doctrine of justification but remained Catholic. He collaborated with his twin brother Alfonso in two dialogues that criticised the church. He was brought to court over a dialogue of his own and moved to Italy where he became chamberlain to Pope Clement VII in 1533. Valdes wrote a number of commentaries and translated part of the Bible into Spanish. He paved the way for Protestant ideas by his emphasis on religious feeling and disregard of ecclesiastical authority so that after his death many of his friends, including Peter Martyr [see 1552] and Bernardino Ochino [see 1542], left the church. His followers were named Valdesians. WILLAERT, ADRIAEN [c.1490-1562] Flemish composer who went to Italy early in his career and was active in North Italy. In 1527 he was elected as the leader of music at St Marks in Venice where he specialised in writing for multiple choirs. Willaert is considered the founder of a distinct Venetian school and was equally important as the composer of instrumental and vocal secular music. 1528BERNE THESIS Held in January 1528 after the City of Berne in 1527 had resolved to hold a disputation upholding the authority of the Word of God in religious affairs. The group that met for the three weeks included Zwingli [see below]. The series of meetings ended with the council abolishing the mass and church images and became the vehicle of Bernese entry into Swiss Protestantism. CAPUCHINS Reformed Franciscan Order who after their formation in 1525 under Matteo da Bascio [1495-1552] was approved by Pope Clement VII [see 1523]. They desired to return to the primitive simplicity of the order. They cared for plague victims. They were nearly suppressed in 1542 when their third general Bernardino Ochino [see 1542] became a Protestant but survived and they became a powerful tool in the Counter Reformation. In 1619 they became a fully independent branch of the Franciscans. CRUCIGER, KASPAR [1504-1548] Reformed scholar who was a professor at Wittenberg from 1528 until his death. He served as secretary at Worms and Ratisbon in 1541. One of his great legacies was to preserve in shorthand many of the lectures and sermons of Luther with whom he collaborated in Bible translation. HAMILTON, PATRICK [1503-1528] Generally regarded as the proto-martyr of the Scottish Reformation. He was sent to Paris University for five years, and then St. Andrews University, Scotland where he was fired up by Lutheran opinions expressed by those for whom the word of God had become a living force. In 1527 he fell foul of Archbishop Beaton and was compelled to flee to the land of Luther. Later that year he returned to Scotland intent on preaching the gospel. Early in 1528 Beaton summoned him to St Andrews ostensibly to debate, but in reality to put him to death apparently before influential friends could muster support. Hamilton was burnt at St Andrews. His murder did not have the intended effect of intimidation but instead caused great discussion which resulted in the Reformation being accelerated. OLIVETAN [c.1506-1538] Protestant Reformer and cousin of John Calvin who studied at Paris and Orleans and earned the nickname Olivetan. His real name was Pierre Robert but he earned the nickname of Olivetanus because he burned the midnight oil. An early French Protestant he fled from Orleans to Strasbourg in 1528 following his evangelical conversion. He taught in Geneva from 1533 to 1535 then resigned to return to Italy where he died. He is best known for his religious influence on the young Calvin and his translation of the Bible into French. SWEDEN [see also 1130 and 1856] The Danish king Christian II attempted to subjugate Sweden in relation to the Reformation when he murdered 80 of its leaders in the 1520 Stockholm Bloodbath. The young Gustavus Vasa [see 1523] gathered a peasant army and drove the Danes out. Vasa was crowned king in 1528. All sympathisers with King Christian fled including Archbishop Tolle. Gustavus Vasa appropriated the possessions and revenues of the church. Lutheranism came through Olavus Petri [see 1529] who taught at the cathedral school in Strangnas and became friendly with the archdeacon Lars Anderson [1450-1552]. Vasa met both men and invited them to Stockholm with Petri as the preacher and Anderson as chancellor. Reforms included the abolition of compulsory confessions and clerical celibacy, preaching was aided by having a Swedish Bible as an important part of worship. The group selected by Gustavus played a significant part in the reforms. Olavus prepared a Swedish hymnal and Swedish Mass, in all of which Luther was a prime influence. They saw that the principle of the Peace of Augsburg spoke that rulers could determine the religion to be followed, and therefore reversed this in Sweden where faith was decided by the people themselves. After this, there were many attempts to change the church, Eric XIV introduced Calvinism; John III sought a rapprochement with Rome; Charles IX introduced Calvinism again. All failed and the country remained Lutheran. In 1638 commercial and evangelical interests in American Indians produced a Swedish colony in Delaware and until 1791 the Church of Sweden continued to send clergy and finance to it. ZWINGLI, ULRICH [1484-1531] Swiss Reformer who was the son of a village magistrate who typical of prosperous farmers who controlled local government looked to the church as the best means of improving their childrens status. Zwingli was educated at Vienna where he became aware of humanism. He completed his studies at Basle where he absorbed the biblical interests of his teacher Thomas Wyttenbach [see 1515] and formed a circle of friends including Leo Jud [see 1523] and was later brought into direct contact with Erasmus [see 1514]. In 1525 the mass was abolished in Zurich and he moved beyond Erasmus to form his own Augustinian biblical theology within the environment of a Swiss city-state. Zwingli can be rightfully remembered as the first of the Reformed theologians. His own radical followers led by Conrad Grebel [see 1525] and Felix Manz [see 1527] endangered his alliance with the magistrates who support he believed was essential. After the Second Disputation in October 1523 they broke with him in 1525 and formed a separate church. They re-baptised and as Anabaptists were viewed as a threat to public order; the first of them was drowned in Lake Zurich with Zwinglis approval in 1527. Succeeding years were marked by increasing political activity. He hoped to open the entire Confederacy to the preaching of the Gospel and to create a European-wide anti-Habsburg alliance. By 1528 the urban cantons of Basle, Schaffhausen, and Bern, the most powerful of the Confederates, as well as Constance, had accepted Zwinglis reform programme and allied themselves with Zurich, but he and Luther failed to reach an agreement on the question of Christs presence in the Eucharist [see 1529 Marburg Colloqy]. This failure left the Swiss Protestants divided and exposed to counter-offensive by the Forest Canton which ended with Zwinglis death at the Battle of Kappel which halted the expansion of the Reformation in German Switzerland. 1529BRENZ, JOHANN [14991570] German reformer. Educated at Heidelberg he was ordained as a Catholic priest in 1520 but ceased celebrating mass in 1523 and gave himself over to biblical studies and exposition. He took a firm stand against the Peasants Revolt [see 1525]. He was one of the leading contributors to the 1529 Marburg conference on doctrine which was called for by Philip of Hesse. He fled Swabia in 1548 and found protection in Stuttgart for the rest of his life. HUTTERITES Anabaptist sect who first emerged in Moravia in 1529 and were reorganised by Jacob Hutter in 1533. Even though Hutter was martyred in 1536 they developed their distinctive ideas, in particular their pacifism and Christian communal living, in the comparative peace and security of Moravia. Until 1599 they enjoyed their golden period expanding into Slovakia and building up about 100 farm colonies with membership of about 25,000. The Counter-Reformation at last caught up with them in the person of the persecuting cardinal, Franz von Dietrichstein, and their discomfiture was completed by the Catholic victory at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. They retreated to Slovakia and Transylvania where they survived for 150 years producing rich devotional literature. Renewed persecution fell upon them during the reign of Maria Theresa [1740-1780] and in 1770 they removed to the Ukraine. In Russia they flourished but the introduction of military conscription in 1870 determined them to migrate to the USA where they settled mainly in South Dakota. MARBURG COLLOQUY [1529] A meeting of Protestant theologians to try to form a united front against the Roman Catholic threat. The efforts at harmony originated with Martin Bucer [see 1549] and the Strasbourg theologians, but were frustrated by Luthers firmness. It was in response to political pressure that Landgrave Philip of Hesse brought Zwingli, Oecolampadius, Bucer, Capito, and John Sturm and other Swiss and Strasbourg theologians together with Luther, Melanchthon, Jonas, Brenz, Cruciger and Osiander the Lutherans at Marburg, so that they might discuss the divisions on the meaning of the Lords Supper. As a result of their discussion 15 articles were issued expressing general agreement on doctrines such as the Trinity, the person of Christ, justification by faith, baptism, good works, confession and secular authority. The 15TH article which dealt with Communion, rejected transubstantiation and the idea of the Mass as a sacrifice, insisting on the laity receiving both the bread and the wine as spiritually partaking of the body and blood of Christ. There was however still continuous division amongst Protestants. MORE, SIR THOMAS [1478-1535] English lord chancellor. Educated at Oxford he at one time thought of becoming a priest but eventually turned to law, although at all times he sought to live a very ascetic life. In 1504 he entered Parliament and subsequently rose to the position of chancellor after the fall of Wolsey in 1529. Although a devout Roman Catholic he was very much taken with the humanism of the time as indicated by his large circle of friends such as Dean Colet, Erasmus, Holbein, and others who were prominent in literary and artistic circles. He became greatly interested in social reform and out of this concern came his famous book Utopia in which he sought to describe the ideal state where there was no private property or money and all things were in common. He was no Protestant and he wrote a number of books against William Tyndale and Martin Luther. He may also have helped Henry VIII write his defence of the seven sacraments. He was eventually executed as result of his refusal to take an oath renouncing the authority of the pope. PETRI, OLAVUS [1493-1552] Swedish Reformer and brother of Laurentius [see 1541] he was educated at Wittenberg and witnessed the posting of the 95 Theses [see 1517]. His 1529 manual was the first vernacular service book of the Reformation. At the 1527 Diet of Vasteras an order for the preaching of the pure Word of God ended the Roman Catholic ascendancy. In 1540 he retired after a failure to report a murder plot against the king. He adapted Luthers work, and by his death had transformed the Swedish ecclesiastical scene. SCHWABACH, ARTICLES OF Lutheran confessional document written in 1529 and probably composed by Luther prior to the Colloquy of Marburg. It was submitted to the elector of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg on 16 October 1529. The seventeen articles in their final form became the basis of the first part of the Augsburg Confession of 1530 and the test of admission to the Lutheran League of North German States. The 10th article asserted that in the bread and wine the body and blood of Jesus Christ are actually present according to the word of Christ. The articles were directed against Catholics, Zwinglians, and Anabaptists, and affirmed the main lines of the Lutheran understanding of the Eucharist. 1530AUGSBURG CONFESSION of 1530 was a summary of evangelical faith presented to Charles V [see below] from the Diet of Augsburg. The statement prepared by Luther and others contained 28 items which were then reviewed by 20 Roman Catholic theologians. They accepted 9 outright, 6 with qualification and the rest were rejected. The final confession provided the standard confession of the Lutheran church. CHARLES V [1500-1558] Holy Roman emperor and king of Spain who became heir to a far greater empire than Charlemagnes. Born and reared in Flanders he was initially resented by the Spaniards but he earned their loyalty by identifying with their national traits, religious zeal and by marrying a Portuguese princess. Three great problems plagued his reign, the Protestant revolt in Germany, the Turkish threat, and a continuing struggle with France over control of Europe. He was the last emperor to be crowned by the pope in 1530. Needing help against the Turks and unable to crush the Protestants at the Diet of Augsburg [1530] he made a truce with the Protestant princes at the Nuremburg Standstill in 1532. However when divisions appeared in the Protestant ranks he turned on them and defeated the Smalcald League [see 1525]. This defeat together with the unpopular theological settlement at the Augsburg Interim in 1548 forced the Protestants into alliance with Henry II of France in 1552 resulting in more conflict. Realising that the protestants could not be destroyed a final agreement was forged at the Augsburg Treaty [see 1555]. ECK, JOHANN [1486-1543] Roman Catholic scholar and orator. He is best known for his opposition to Martin Luthers theological position. He was a professor in Ingolstadt from 1510 until his death. His defence of a 5 percent interest rate on loans in 1514, in opposition to mediaeval prohibitions, gained him the favour of such capitalists as the Fuggers. He was largely responsible for procuring the bull against Luther in 1520. In 1530 he presented 404 propositions against Luther and composed the text of the Augsburg Confession. His translation of the Bible into German in 1537 lacked originality. FABER, JOHANN [1478-1541] Bishop of Vienna. He became chaplain and confessor to Ferdinand I in 1524 and conducted several important missions for Ferdinand including one to engage the assistance of Henry VIII against the Turks. He was appointed to the see of Vienna in 1530. He belonged originally to the humanistic and liberal party and his friendship with Erasmus [see 1514] led to an initial sympathy with the Reformation leaders, including Zwingli and Melanchthon, but after a visit to Rome in 1521 he became an adversary of the Reformation and defended Catholic orthodoxy in conferences and disputations and burned heretics in Austria and Hungary. He wrote against Luther and in defence of celibacy and papal infallibility. PIRCKHEIMER, WILLIBALD [1470-1530] German Catholic scholar who studied at Pavia and Padua. In Nuremberg he promoted the study of the classics to his sisters who were said to have been among the best educated women in Germany. Six of the seven entered religious orders, and three of his five daughters became nuns. He returned to Roman Catholicism after he had followed Martin Luther for a few years. His artistic studies put him in the front ranks of German humanists. TETRAPOLITAN CONFESSION [1530] A Protestant confession of faith drawn up by Martin Bucer [see 1549] and Wolfgang Capito [see 1526] at the Diet of Augsburg and presented by Jakob Sturm in the name of the cities of Strasbourg, Memmingen, Lindau, and Constance. Its purpose was to prevent a rupture in German Protestantism. The Confession was not generally accepted as was the Augsburg document but it did become a symbolic formula of the four cities. With Bucers Greater Catechism it was accepted by Strasbourg as binding on that city in 1534. It was on the basis of this document that the magistrates decreed the banishment of persistent Anabaptists. TUNSTALL, CUTHBERT [1474-1559] Bishop of Durham who, while studying at Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua, made friends with William Warham [see 1504], Thomas More [see 1529], and Erasmus [see 1514], and other foreign scholars. Warham made Tunstall his chancellor in 1511, and Henry VIII sent him on various political missions making him bishop of London in 1522 and of Durham in 1530. He had at first opposed the royal supremacy, but later preached vigorously in its favour. The support of Tunstall was of crucial importance to Henry VIII because of the wide respect in which he was held. Tunstall however remained Catholic in doctrine. With the accession of Edward VI he was deprived of his see but restored again under Mary only to be deposed under Elizabeth as he refused to assist with the consecration of Matthew Parker [see 1559] and to take the Oath of Supremacy. He was kept in custody at Lambeth Palace until his death a few months later. 1531-1540 AD 1531BILNEY, THOMAS [14951531] Protestant martyr who went to Cambridge to study law. He was ordained in 1519 was arrested on a number of occasions for preaching reformed doctrine. He was converted after reading 1 Timothy 1:15. He was arrested in 1527 for heresy and released only after promising not to preach reformed doctrine. Early in 1531 he set out on a preaching tour of Norfolk and was arrested, tried and condemned. He was burnt at the stake and was the first of the Cambridge Protestants to be martyred. BULLINGER, JOHANN [15041575] Swiss reformer who received his education first at the Brethren of Common Life [see 1380] and at Cologne where the Reformation writings decisively influenced him. He succeeded Zwingli [see 1528] at Zurich in 1531. He wrote extensively and played an important role in the writing of the Helvetic Confessions [see 1536]. During the reign of Mary I of England many exiles from Britain were assisted by Bullinger. He had some influence on the English Church of his day. GARDINER, STEPHEN [1490-1555] Bishop of Winchester educated at Cambridge he became private secretary first to Wolsey and then to the king. He was employed in legal proceedings against heretics and in negotiations with Rome annulling the kings marriage. In 1531 he was made bishop of Winchester and three years later argued that the pope had no legitimate jurisdiction over other national churches and that the kings and princes are entitled to supremacy in their respective churches. Unsympathetic with Protestant doctrines, he was generally regarded as responsible for the Six Articles [see 1539]. He was deprived of his offices in the reign of Edward VI but Mary restored him making him lord high chancellor. With Bonner [see 1540] he organised vigorous proceedings against Protestants, taking a leading part in the trials of John Bradford [see 1555] and John Rogers [see 1555]. He died a wealthy man, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral. MUSCULUS, WOLFGANG [1497-1563] German Reformer who studied in a humanist school where he met M. Bucer [see 1549]. In 1512 his family urged him to enter the Benedictine monastery but in 1518 while still there he was sent package of Luthers books that made him the Lutheran preacher. He left the monastery in 1527 and after serving Bucer as his secretary went to Augsburg as a preacher. Here he was part of a struggle between the Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Anabaptists, and the Reformed faith of Bucer. He left Augsburg in 1548 and through H. Bullinger [see 1531] was appointed professor of theology in Berne. At Berne he published many works whose influence was felt in a number of European countries. SEEKERS A small 17th century sect of Independents [see 1640]. The sect was heir to Quietist ascetic tendencies on the Continent. They were first noted by Sebastian Franck [see 1525], and embraced by Dirck Coornheert [see 1566] a Dutch theologian. The visible church with its doctrines, organisation, and ceremonies, was repudiated while the true believer waits and seeks the church of apostolic power which God will establish. Seeker ideas had been taught by Bartholomew Legate [1575-1612] an English cloth merchant trading with Holland who was burned at Smithfield for Arian heresy. The Seekers were earnest, peaceable, spiritually minded people and appear to have had large meetings in North England and in Bristol. From 1652 onwards they were almost entirely absorbed by the Quakers. 1532ENGLAND, CHURCH OF [see also 1066 and 1750] By the 16th century the situation was such that it was a reasonably easy matter for Henry VIII [see 1521] to use his divorce from Catherine of Aragon as grounds for detaching England from papal obedience. The Parliament of 1532-36 created Henry supreme head on earth of the Church of England. During 1536-1539 the monasteries were dissolved, but otherwise the church retained a Catholic position. Under Edward VI [see 1552] the church underwent a liturgical and doctrinal reformation, linked to the two prayer books of 1549 and 1552 the latter of which being distinctly Protestant in character. The accession of Mary Tudor [see 1553] commenced a period of Roman Catholic reaction during which many of the Edwardian reformers were martyred, including Thomas Cranmer [see 1533], Nicholas Ridley [see 1555] and Hugh Latimer [see 1555] as well as many ordinary people. Elizabeth I [see 1558] restored the Protestant form in the Elizabethan Settlement [see 1559] and resulted in the 39 articles of religion. Puritan hopes were dashed when James I [see 1603] maintained Elizabeths policy, and further conflict resulted from the emergence of a high church party. With the restoration of Charles II [see 1660] the Church of England was restored to its position as the national church. FAREL, GUILLAUME [1489-1565] French reformer who by about 1520 due to his training as a humanist adopted reforming ideas. In 1523 he was influenced by radical ideas on the Eucharist stemming from the treaties of Cornelius Hoen which Farel may have translated into French. In the same year growing intolerance and persecution led to his expulsion from France. From 1526 he became the leader of a band of evangelist preaching mainly in French-speaking Switzerland. His own fiery preaching often lead to rough handling by mobs of opponents. In 1532 he began to evangelise Geneva, and in 1535 that city accepted the Reformation. Farel was instrumental in persuading John Calvin to serve the Church in that city in 1536. He was expelled from Geneva in 1538 and went to Neuchatel where he continued to undertake evangelistic work in France especially at Metz where he died. FIRTH, JOHN [1503-1533] Protestant martyr who was educated at Eton and Cambridge and was made a junior canon by Wolsey at Christ Church Oxford. He was briefly imprisoned in 1528 for his Lutheran views. In Marburg he helped Tyndale [see 1525] in this translation work. He returned to England in 1532 where his writings against the doctrines of Purgatory and Transubstantiation precipitated his arrest on the orders of Sir Thomas More [see 1529] on a charge of heresy. He refused to recant, and condemned to death was burnt at Smithfield. Some 10 works are credited to him, including one of the first anti-papist books in English. MYCONIUS, OSWALD [1488-1552] Swiss humanist, Reformed minister, and theologian. He studied at Basle where he became a humanist friend of Erasmus [see 1514]. He taught classics at Zurich from 1516 and was the decisive voice in the call of Zwingli [see 1528] as peoples priest in 1519. Though neither ordained nor possessing an academic degree, when Oecolampadius [see 1515] died in 1531 he moved to Basle where the following year he became chief pastor and professor of New Testament at the University, two crucial posts he held until his death. He followed Oecolampadius on the separation of church and state and on discipline, and took a middle position between Zwingli and Luther on the Eucharist problem, believing the two positions could be easily reconciled. SOTO, DOMINIC DE [1494-1560] Spanish theologian who studied philosophy at Alcala and theology at Paris and became a member of the Dominican Order 1525. In 1532 went to Salamanca to take his orders university chair in theology. Charles V, to whom he was later confessor, appointed him imperial theologian to the Council of Trent. Refusing the see of Segovia, he was elected prior at Salamanca in 1550 and two years later took the first chair of theology there. 1533AUGUSTA, JAN [15001575] Leader of the Bohemian Brethren who commenced negotiations with Luther, Bucer and Calvin to form a large evangelical party. They were not successful. He was imprisoned from 15471564 by Ferdinand of Hapsburg. In 1564 he attempted to unite the Brethren with the Utraquists to form the national evangelical party of Bohemia but again failed. BARNABITES The congregation of Clerks Regular of St Paul founded in Milan in 1533 by Antonio Zaccaria and Bartolommeo Ferrari and Giacomo Morigia to preach missions and conduct educational work in the city. During the 17th century they spread into France and Central Europe and today there are a bout 35 houses. COP, NICHOLAS French scholar former royal physician and one of the circle with Calvin in Paris who was elected rector of the University of Paris in 1533. Giving the All Saints sermon he contrasted the slavery of the law which man cannot fulfil with the saving merits of Christ. He minimised the value of good works and reviled the leading teachers of the Sorbonne for their intolerance. The theologians proceeded against him for heresy and he fled into obscurity to Basle. CRANMER, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1533-1555]. Thomas Cranmer was born in Nottinghamshire in 1489. He was educated at Cambridge from the age of fourteen and, in 1530, became archdeacon of Taunton. He was influenced by Lutheran and Humanist opinions and became strongly anti-papal. In 1529 Henry VIII commissioned him as ambassador to Europe and while there married Margaret niece of Lutheran reformer Osiander. The course which he recommended in regard to the divorce of Queen Catherine brought him into favour with King HYPERLINK "http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon41.html" Henry VIII and, in 1533 he was appointed archbishop of Canterbury. On the death of Warham he was made archbishop of Canterbury. He supported Thomas Cromwell in securing an official English translation of the Bible for which he wrote a preface. In the last years of Henrys reign and under his protection Cranmer began the task of changes to the liturgy producing in 1544 the first English service. He was involved with the plot to make Lady Jane queen only after strong persuasion from the dying Edward VI. On the accession of Mary he was condemned to death on the charge of treason and was forced to watch the burning of Latimer and Ridley. He signed a number of recantations but on the eve of his death he refuted them and was burnt at the stake on 21st March 1556. He succeeded William Warham [see 1503] and was succeeded by Reginald Pole [see 1556]. ZACCARIA, ANTONIO Founded the Paulines in Milan, also called the Barnabites, to preach missions and conduct educational work in the city. They were the congregation of Clerks Regular of St Pauls who were given the church of St Barnabas. During the 17th century the order spread through France and Central Europe. 1534BARTON, ELIZABETH [1506-1534] Mystic Maid of Kent, whose trances attracted attention. She claimed to be in touch with the Virgin Mary but her utterances had a political character. She condemned Henry VIII when he divorced Catherine of Aragon and later said that he was no longer king in the sight of God which resulted in her condemnation and execution. BASLE CONFESSION OF 1534 which was published by the city council and was a document divided into 12 sections concerning God; Man; Gods care for us; Christ; the Church; Lords Supper; Excommunication; Government; Faith and Works, Day of Judgement; Rules; and a warning against the Anabaptists [see 1523]. From this year until 1826 the confession was read each Holy Week in the churches of Basle and until 1872 all ministers had to subscribe to it. FRANCIS XAVIER [1506-1552] Jesuit missionary to the East Indies and Japan. He studied law and theology at the University of Paris where he met Ignatius Loyola [see 1548]. Together with six others he became an associate in the founding of the Society of Jesus in 1534. The society vowed to follow Jesus in poverty and chastity, and to evangelise the heathen. It was as a missionary that Xavier excelled and earned fame as an outstanding missionary pioneer and organiser. Ordained in Venice in 1537 he was appointed a papal legate and sent to evangelise the East Indies. He arrived in Goa in 1542 and spent three years preaching and serving the sick. He was very successful in evangelising the pearl fisherman of south-west India. He arrived in Japan in 1549, studied the Japanese language and within two years established a flourishing Christian community of 2000. He was driven out by Buddhist monks while his community suffered great persecutions. He paid a short visit to China and return to Goa in 1552 the year of his death. He used the Inquisition in his ministry which significantly detracted from the glory of numerous conversions. MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN [1489-1552] German biblical scholar who studied at Heidelberg, Tubingen, and Vienna, and became a Franciscan monk. In 1529 however he joined the evangelical cause and assumed a teaching position at the University of Basle. He was an outstanding scholar of Semitic languages, writing Hebrew and Chaldean grammars. His two-volume edition of the Hebrew Bible was printed in Basle in 1534 and was supplied with a literal Latin translation and notes. Miles Coverdale [see 1535] is known to have used this edition for his English translation of the Old Testament. PAUL III Pope [1534-1549]. He was educated at Rome and Florence where he received instruction from well known humanists. Alexander VI made him a cardinal in 1493 and he eventually became the dean of the Sacred College. He led a scandalous life fathering four illegitimate children before his ordination in 1519 after which he became somewhat reformed. Although nepotism was a prominent feature of his pontificate he did start some reform trends in motion. He appointed several cardinals who were dedicated reformers and in 1536 formed a commission of nine distinguished churchmen to examine abuses in the church and report on the necessary steps for reformation. The report tabled in 1538 was seen to be superficial by the Protestants. It became used as the basis for the work of the Council of Trent. In 1540 the Jesuits were recognised and other reform orders such as the Ursulines, Barnabites and Theatines encouraged. However both religious and secular rulers frustrated his plans. Opposition between Francis I and Charles V caused problems but with the peace of Crespy in 1544 Paul III was able to launch the Council of Trent in 1545. He succeeded Clement VII [see 1523] and was succeeded by Julius III [see 1550]. PHILIPS, DIRK [1502-1568] Mennonite theologian who was the son of a Dutch priest. He was educated and able to use Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. He left the Franciscans and converted to Anabaptist beliefs in 1530. At the wish of the brethren his elder brother Obbe [see 1534] ordained him as an elder in 1534. With Obbe and Menno Simons he was a firm opponent of the Munsterite doctrines. He was probably the leading theologian of the early Dutch and North German Mennonites. PHILIPS, OBBE [1500-1568] Dutch Anabaptist leader and brother of Dirk Philips [see above]. He studied medicine and witnessed the execution of the first Anabaptist martyr in the Netherlands, Sicke Freercks in 1531. Drawn to Anabaptists influenced by Melchior Hofmann he was baptised in 1533 and began to preach and baptise but was forced to move first to Amsterdam and then to Delft where he baptised and ordained David Joris in 1534. He also baptised and ordained Menno Simons [see 1536]. He remained aloof from the revolutionary Anabaptist responsible for the Munster catastrophe, leading the peaceful Anabaptists who are often called the Obbites. Later he withdrew and Menno Simon became the leader of the group. ROTHMAN, BERNT [c.1495-1535] German Anabaptist leader. Rothman was a powerful preacher and the chief evangelical Reformer of his native town of Munster. He introduced a Lutheran style Reformation to Munster in 1532-33 despite vigorous official opposition. However the reform in Munster took an unexpected twist when in May 1533 Rothman became an Anabaptist. In 1534 a large numbers of Anabaptists flocked to the city. As a result radicals took over Munster in order to make ready for the Kingdom of God to be established there shortly at Christs second coming. Various leaders became the dictators of the theocratic state in which both communism and polygamy were introduced. When the ill fated Munster kingdom fell to a besieging force in June 1535 Rothman reportedly died in the fighting. SUPREMACY, ACT OF [1534] This piece of legislation was passed by the English Parliament during the reign of Henry VIII. It declared the king to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England. Although it was repealed during the reign of the Roman Catholic queen, Mary Tudor, it was restored under Elizabeth I in 1559, except that the reference now was to the supreme governor. This is the basis on which diocesan bishops are still appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the prime minister. 1535AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, HEINRICH CORNELIUS [1486-1535] Soldier and wandering scholar who, disillusioned with the learning of the day, sought to make a synthesis of Christianity, Neoplatonism, Pythogoreanism, and Cabalism resulting in his work De Occulto. Though he had much in common with the reformers he did not seek the destruction of the church and his attitude to the Bible, which he believed contained mistakes, was also different. ALESUIS, ALEXANDER [15001565] Scottish Catholic who was applauded for his public refutation of Luthers arguments. Selected to reclaim Patrick Hamilton [see 1528] he converted to Protestantism and after imprisonment fled to Germany where he met Luther. He returned to England in 1535 where he was warmly welcomed by Cranmer [see 1533], Latimer [see 1555], and Henry VIII [see 1521] himself, who secured a position for Alesius at Cambridge where he was the first to deliver lectures on the Hebrew Scriptures. When Henry changed his mind by upholding transubstantiation and clerical celibacy in 1540 he returned to Germany. He was the first to plead for free circulation of the Scriptures in his native Scotland. BIBLE VERSIONS Tyndale section listed in order [for Middle English see 1384, for Elizabethan 1560] 1450. Early Modern English becomes the common language of Britain about now. 1453. Moslems take Constantinople. Great exodus of Greek scholars from there to Western Europe, bringing with them Greek manuscripts of the Bible. 1456. First printed book: Gutenberg Bible, containing the Latin text. 1488. Birth of Miles Coverdale. Hebrew Old Testament first printed by Jews at Soncino, Italy. 1516. Erasmus first Greek New Testament (first printed Greek New Testament). 1525. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/tyndale.html" Tyndales English New Testament (first printed English text) published in Germany. 1526. Copies of Tyndales New Testament enter England, many burned. 1527. Erasmus 4th Greek New Testament 1531. Tyndales Pentateuch is published. 1534. Tyndales New Testament and Pentateuch revised. Cranmer petitions Henry for creation of an authorised English version. Luthers first complete German Bible. 1535. Tyndales last revised New Testament. Tyndale betrayed to Roman Catholic authorities, charged with heresy and imprisoned. He continues to translate the historical books of the Old Testament. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/coverdale.html" Coverdales Bible published in England (first printed English Bible). Erasmus 5th edition of the Greek. 1536. Tyndales New Testament reprinted in England. Tyndale condemned. He commits his manuscript to his friend John Rogers. 1537. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/matthews.html" Matthews Bible published by John Rogers in Germany, giving Tyndales translation of the New Testament, Pentateuch, and historical books of the Old Testament. Matthews and Coverdales Bibles licensed for unhindered sale in England. 1538. Coverdale in Paris editing Great Bible. English bishops instructed to display largest English Bible in parish churches. 1539. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/greatbible.html" Great Bible (dedicated to Henry VIII) published and authorised in England. Taverners Bible (a revision of Matthews Bible) published. 1540. 2nd edition of Great Bible with preface of Cranmer, called Cranmers Bible. 1543. English Parliament bans Tyndales version and all public reading of Bible by laymen. 1546. Henry VIII bans Coverdale version. Stephens publishes his first Greek New Testament. 1547. Edward VI becomes king of England. Parliament removes restrictions on printing and reading of English versions. 1549. Stephens 2nd Greek New Testament. 1550. Stephens 3rd Greek New Testament. 1551. Last edition of Matthews Bible. Stephens 4th Greek New Testament. 1553. Last edition of Coverdale Bible. 1556. Bezas Latin New Testament. 1557. William Whittinghams English New Testament published in Geneva. English exiles there begin work on English Old Testament. BIBLIANDER, THEODOR [15041564] Studied in Zurich and Basle and then taught in Leugnitz before returning to Zurich where he succeeded Zwingli as professor. He could speak thirty languages and was one of the most important Swiss exegetes of his day. He published a Hebrew grammar in 1535 as well as commentaries and a translation of the Koran which the magistrates at Basle attempted to ban. He was also a pioneer of missionary work among the heathen disputing Calvins doctrine of predestination. CONTARINI, GASPAR [1483-1542] Venetian ambassador and cardinal whose general integrity led Pope Paul III [see 1534] make him a cardinal in 1535 even though he was a layman. He had demonstrated his theological credentials previously in his defence of the immortality of the soul [1516] and his writings against Luther [1530]. In 1541 he attended the Diet and Conference of Ratisbon where he made a valiant attempt to bring back the Lutheran movement into the church. COVERDALE, MILES [1488-1569] Bible translator who was ordained in 1514 and became an Augustine Friar. Under the influence of his prior Robert Barnes he embraced Lutheran teaching and abandoning his order in 1528 preached against the mass, images, and confession until forced to leave the country. In 1535 Coverdales edition of the Bible became the first printed English Bible. He enjoyed the patronage of Thomas Cromwell [see 1540] who commissioned him to revise Matthews Bible [see 1537] which on completion in 1539 culminated in the publication of the Great Bible. He became bishop of Exeter in 1551 but was imprisoned and sent into exile in Geneva under Mary before returning to England in 1559. Tyndale version of the Scriptures dedicated to Henry VIII. FISHER, JOHN [1469-1535] Roman Catholic martyr educated at Michaelhouse, Cambridge, where he became master in 1497. As the chaplain of Lady Margaret Beaufort he enjoyed her support for raising academic standards. In 1504 he became bishop of Rochester and chancellor of Cambridge. Against Lutheran ideas of reform he defended traditional Roman Catholic doctrine. He was scholarly, an admirer of the Erasmus [see 1514] and was genuinely interested in moderate reforms. He opposed Henry VIIIs desire to divorce Catherine of Aragon. His property was confiscated, and in 1534 he was put in the tower for refusing to take the oath relating to the Act of Succession. Pope Paul III now created him cardinal. The king was infuriated and within a month Fisher was brought to court charged with treason, found guilty, and was executed in 1535. MERICI, ANGELA [1474-1540] Founder of the Order of Ursulines [see below] at Bresica in 1535. A follower of St Francis she began religious schools for girls in Italy. She was the superior of the Ursulines until her death. The order existed to combat immorality and to train wives and mothers in the faith with the sisters living outside in the community which enhanced the impact of the order. URSULINES The oldest womens teaching order of the Roman Catholic Church founded in Bresica in 1535 by Angela Merici [see above] and named after St Ursula the patron of the foundress. It was a society of virgins dedicated to Christian education while living at home. It was approved by Paul III in 1544. On entering the order members took a fourth vow to devote themselves to education. The order was temporarily halted during the French Revolution but growth subsequently continued in the 19th century. In Quebec Canada, convents were founded under Marie Guyard [see 1631]. 1536ASKE, ROBERT [15011537] Leader of the Pilgrimage of Grace, a group of 30,000 who came from Yorkshire and marched on London in opposition to the Reformation under Henry VIII. Henry broke up the group by promising to listen to them but eventually repudiated his promise and had Aske hanged. CALVIN, JOHN [1509-1564] French reformer who was the second of five sons and though originally considered training for the priesthood studied law at Orleans. When his father died in 1531, Calvin returned to Paris to continue his literary studies where he had numerous contacts with people with Protestant tendencies and as a result became one of the leaders of the Protestant movement in Paris, which led him to concentrate his attention to Biblical studies. When his friend Nicholas Cop [see 1533] was elected rector of the University of Paris, Calvin assisted him with his speech in which Cop advocated reformation of the church along the lines of Luther. There was a backlash against the speech and Calvin and Cop were forced to leave Paris. In March 1536 he published in Basle seven chapters of his Institutes prefaced by a letter to Francis I of France defending the Protestants against their adversaries. After spending a few more months wandering Calvin with his brother and half sister headed for Strasbourg where Protestantism had been accepted. He had to travel via Geneva expecting only an overnight stay but Protestant preacher Guillaume Farel [see 1532] who had brought about considerable reform in Geneva heard that he was in the city and persuaded Calvin to stay and assist him. Both eventually were forced out of the city and at the invitation of Martin Bucer [see 1549], Calvin set out again for Strasbourg. He would have probably stayed there for the rest of his life if it had not been for Jacopo Cardinal Sadoleto [see 1539] a well known humanist attempting to get Geneva back under papal control. He sent a letter to the council who sent it to Calvin to reply which he did very effectively. He re-entered Geneva on 13th September 1541 at the request of Farel. Calvins one great aim was to make Geneva a holy city conformed to the will of God. By strict discipline Geneva was changed and it became a power in the 16th century world. People reacted to it. The final test came when Michael Servetus [see 1553] and escapee from the Inquisition [see 1163] for denying the doctrine of the Trinity arrived in Geneva, was held and eventually burnt at the stake with Calvins agreement. Although thousands of Protestants were burnt at the stake during the 16th century Calvin has been constantly vilified for his part in this single execution. His wife Idelette died in 1549 leaving her husband a sad and lonely man. He did not look after himself and by the time of his death on 27th May 1564 at the age of 54 he had burnt out. To many since his time Calvin has been the epitome of rigour and cheerlessness in this life. DENMARK The reformation in Denmark from 1515-1560 as in other countries was a complicated process closely bound up with social and political conditions. The way was prepared by a biblical humanism of the Erasmus type. During the period of 1523-1536 the preaching of some Lutheran ministers brought about a spiritual revival that finally led to the official completion of the Reformation in 1536. During the Age of Orthodoxy 1560 to 1700 nothing but pure Lutheranism was tolerated in the kingdom. About 1660 Denmark became a hereditary and absolute monarchy while about 40 years later the influence of German Pietism was felt in Denmark. [See 960 and 1752] DISSOLUTION OF THE MONASTERIES In the early 16th century one in every 375 people in England were in a religious order. Monasteries were great landowners and 30 abbots were lords in Parliament. The widespread view that they were wholly corrupt is probably exaggerated. However, the supposed corruption allowed the official case against the monasteries to rest on moral grounds, even though the motive was to gain finance for the Crown. Henry VIII needed money, and Thomas Cromwell saw in the dissolution a good way to enrich the royal purse. The dissolution began when Parliament gave its approval in early 1536 to an act for the suppression of smaller monasteries. This meant in practice that 243 were actually closed, which was three of every 10 religious houses. Many of the dispossessed monks and nuns transferred to larger houses. In the north of England the dissolution provided rebels with a popular cause and rallying cry. The Pilgrimage of Grace [see below] was however soon put down. Between 1537 and 1540 the larger abbeys and houses of the friars were gradually taken over through a process of surrender. By March 1540 the religious orders in England were no more. HELVETIC CONFESSIONS These confessions were two creedal standards of the Swiss Reformed churches. The first is remembered primarily as an attempt to reconcile Lutheran and Zwinglian views before the spread of Calvinism. The second was a major Calvinistic or Reformed confession, accepted as a standard not only in Switzerland, but also in the Palatinate, France, Scotland, Hungary, and Poland, and was well received in the Netherlands and England. JOHN OF LEYDEN [1509-1536] Militant Anabaptist [see 1523]. When Anabaptism was spreading rapidly in the northern Low Countries in the late 1520s, John was rebaptised by Jan Mattheys of Haarlem who was a vibrant millennial preacher. He went to Munster where many of the lower classes had turned Anabaptist, taken control, banned unbelievers, and incurred a siege by the outraged bishop of Munster. In the resulting battle Jan Mattheys was killed, and John the tailor of Leyden was crowned king of the New Zion. He instituted community of goods and polygamy, and executed his opponents. Protestant nobles joined Catholic forces against the city and after its fall the defenders were slaughtered in 1536 with their leader among the dead. The memory of Munster helped to shape the stereotype of Anabaptists as radicals and revolutionaries. MENNONITES A body of conservative evangelical Christians descended from the Anabaptists [see 1523] of the 16th century. The founder was a disciple of Zwingli [see1528] named Conrad Grebel [see 1525]. The Anabaptists split into two parts a radical part as shown by Munster 1534 to 1535 and a peaceful wing led by Obbe and Dirk Phillips [see 1534]. Menno Simons [see below] who united with the other Obbenites in 1536 adopted the name Mennists now as Mennonites. Dutch Mennonites began settling in the Danzig area in the 1540s and then went to Russia beginning in 1788. There were 5000 martyrs by 1600. Mennonites began to settle in the New World as early as the 1640s but the first permanent settlement was Germantown near Philadelphia in 1683. After World War II three waves of Mennonites from Russia migrated to the Americas complementing other migrations from Europe. The Mennonites in North America are in three major conferences the Mennonite Church representing those who came to the United States before the civil war, secondly the General Conference Mennonites comprising the three waves of immigration from Russia and thirdly the Mennonite Brethren who originated as a revivalist movement in Russia in 1860. They stress the Free Church principles as well as believers baptism and pacifism. Discipleship to Christ is stressed, as is church discipline. They emphasise a life of prayer and of holiness. Infants are regarded as saved. They have vigorous programmes of missions and ministering to the needy in many lands. PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE [1536-1537] A revolt that began primary against ecclesiastical policies of Henry VIII of England. There were many facets of social discontent in the north of England where it took place. It was led by Robert Aske [see above] and a number of the leading members of the Northern aristocracy such as Thomas DArcy. The rebels who came primarily from Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and Durham demanded that Henry change both his councillors and his policies. In particular they demanded that the move towards Protestantism be arrested. Although the rebels professed great loyalty to him, Henry defeated them by dividing and then overwhelming them after which in true Tudor style he exacted a bloody revenge with over 200 executions. SIMONS, MENNO [1496-1561] Founder of the Mennonites. Simons was born in Germany and was a Catholic priest who began reading Luther and other Reformers and was attracted to the Anabaptists. In 1536 he joined the group around Obbe Philips [see 1534] and became a leading figure in the Anabaptists movement. He travelled widely through the Netherlands and north Germany coast, spreading the gospel, disputing with other Protestants, and was often forced to move on. His last years were spent in Holstein. Suspicious of dogmatic theology Menno Simons relied on the Scriptures taken literally. He held to an imminent second coming of Christ. TEN ARTICLES, THE [1536] A summary of articles of faith of the new Church of England which were adopted by convocation to comply with the wishes of Henry VIII. The Bible, the three universal creeds, and acts of the first four councils were said to be authoritative. Baptism, the Lords Supper, and penance were accepted sacraments. Transubstantiation in the Lords Supper was not mentioned. Images could be used but they were not to be worshipped, and intercession might be made to the saints. Justification was more closely linked with faith, though works helped to justify. Prayers and masses for the dead and Purgatory were denied. These articles which revealed Lutheran influence were replaced in 1537 by another statement, the Bishops Book [see 1537]. WITTENBERG, CONCORD OF [1536] This was an agreement reached by Lutheran and Zwinglian theologians on the disputed doctrine of the Lords Supper. Following a preliminary conference between Bucer [see 1549] and Melanchthon [see 1521] in 1534, a large group of theologians including Luther gathered at Wittenberg in 1536. The reunion soon collapsed largely through the refusal of the Swiss Zwinglians to accept the Concord. The south German pastors however used it as a bridge to cross over into Lutheranism. 1537ANTINOMISITIC CONTROVERSY The dispute between Johann Agricola [see 1527] and Philip Melanchthon [see 1519] about the relationship between repentance and faith. Melanchthon held that the moral law was required to produce conviction of sin and repentance as the prelude to faith while Agricolas view, which Luther called Antinomian, maintained that repentance is the fruit not of the law but of the Gospel and that the law has no relevance to the Christian. The conflict was temporarily resolved in 1527 mediated by Luther but flared again in 1537 and was never really resolved. CORTESE, GREGORIO [1483-1548] Benedictine prior and cardinal who attempted to reform the Catholic Church urging Pope Leo X [see 1513] to restore Christian morality. At his island monastery of Lerins he also studied Protestant writings. In 1537 he joined a number of other scholars on the reform commission of Paul III [see 1534] who made him a cardinal in 1542. He died before his monastic simplicity could be corrupted by the Baroque papacy. FROMENT, ANTOINE [1510-1584] Reformer of Geneva. Educated at Paris he accompanied Guillaume Farel [see 1532] on his evangelistic tours through Switzerland. He went to Geneva in 1532 and opened an elementary school to teach French, but turned his lessons into sermons. His followers daily increased. He became pastor in 1537 and was engaged by Bonivard, the republics historian, to help in his Chronicle published in 1549. He renounced his ministry and became public notary in 1553 and a member of the Council of 200 in 1559. He had domestic troubles, was banished after adultery 1562 but was permitted to return in view of his past services and reinstated as notary in 1574. GENEVAN CATECHISM The first Genevan catechism was drawn up by John Calvin in 1537 and was originally in French and was then translated into Latin. It would seem, however, to have been somewhat verbose and not easily memorised so the catechism was revised to a simpler form in 1541 which set forth very basic doctrines of the Christian faith. GERMANUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1537-1579] see 1505 and 1579. MATTHEWS BIBLE First English authorised version of the Bible and the basis of later versions. Its editor was John Rogers [see 1555], chaplain to the English merchants at Antwerp, a friend of Tyndale, and the first Marion Martyr. It is made up of Tyndales Pentateuch, Tyndales 1535 New Testament, Coverdales Ezra-Malachi and Apocrypha, and Joshua to Chronicles in a version later shown to be Tyndales. Carefully edited by Rogers it appeared in 1537 probably printed in Antwerp and was commended by Cranmer to Cromwell. Dedicated to King Henry and Queen Anne under the pseudonym Thomas Matthew its use in churches was prohibited, despite its royal license. NORWAY [see also 1796] Norwegians came under Christian influence through the contact of Vikings with Christian countries and through the missionary efforts from Denmark and England. The first Christian kings such as Olav [see 1015] promoted the Christianisation of the country and an archbishopric was established at Trondheim in 1153. The Reformation was introduced in 1537 by command of the king of Denmark and Norway. The 17th century was characterised by Lutheran Orthodoxy with Pietism coming shortly after 1700 and leaving a lasting influence upon Norwegian church life. Confirmation was introduced by royal command in 1736 and was made compulsory. SMALCALD ARTICLES [1537] Drawn up by Martin Luther they were the response to the invitation of Paul III to the council he called to be held at Mantua in 1537. In addition Philip Melanchthon [see 1521] added the Treatise of the Power and Primacy of the Pope. The Smalcald Articles dealt with ancient creeds, Christology, the Mass, chapters and cloisters, the papacy, Purgatory, pilgrimages, monastic life, relics, indulgencies, and the invocation of saints were condemned. The pope was branded as the very Antichrist and the apostle of the devil. Fifteen points of doctrine were singled out in the third part for special treatment. It also stated that the pope does not rule by divine right and it gave arguments from Scripture and the Church Fathers. 1538BISHOPS BOOK The name given to The Institution of a Christen Man which was a compromise doctrinal statement of the English bishops in 1537. It was more conservative than the Ten Articles [see 1536]. Henry VIII did not approve it and in 1538 started to extensively correct it. GROPPER, JOHANN [1503-1559] Roman Catholic theologian who served as an adviser to the archbishop of Cologne. In 1538 together with the canons of Cologne Council he published a handbook of Christian doctrine which contained an exposition on the Decalogue, the Creed, and the seven sacraments. At Worms [1540-41] he took a mediating position between Roman Catholics and Lutherans, in which he evidenced the influence of Erasmus. He participated in the Council of Trent but declined the appointment as cardinal by Paul IV. PALLADIUS, PEDER [1503-1560] Danish bishop and Reformer who became a Protestant about 1530 and pursued theological studies at Wittenberg [1531-1537. Here he became closely connected with Melanchthon [see 1521]. He was appointed the first evangelical bishop of Zealand the main diocese of Denmark, and from 1538 he was also professor of theology at the University of Copenhagen. Because of his talents he was well qualified for the task of carrying out the Reformation in the local congregations. This he did with untiring energy. He also had a share in the translation of the Danish Bible for Christian III in 1550. STURM, JOHANNES [1507-1589] Protestant educationalist who was educated at the school of the Brethren of the Common Life [see 1380] and Louvain University. He joined himself to the French humanists. Bucer [see 1549] influenced him to Protestantism and he went to Strasbourg actively furthering the Reformation and yet seeking to reconcile Protestants and Roman Catholics. He reorganised the educational system at Strasbourg founding the gymnasium on a humanistic model in 1538 with himself as rector. Sturm is generally regarded as the greatest educator of the Reformation. He was consulted by Calvin and by Thomas Platter of Basle. He was expelled from Strasbourg in 1581 for his liberalism but eventually was permitted to return. THIRTEEN ARTICLES [1538] Latin manuscript discovered among the papers belonging to Archbishop Cranmer [see 1533] and possibly connected with discussions between conservative Lutheran ministers, invited to England in 1538 by Henry VIII, and an English committee of three bishops and four doctors. The articles are closely akin to the Augsburg Confession. 1539The GREAT BIBLE published in English under the authority of Henry VIII. BEATON, DAVID [14941546] Archbishop of St Andrews [15391546]. After study at Glasgow university and sitting in Parliament as abbot of Arbroath he was sent to Francis king of France as emissary in 1533. In 1537 he was made a cardinal before becoming archbishop of St Andrews two years later. He had Scottish reformer George Wishart [see 1545] burnt at the stake in 1545. He was assassinated in St Andrews the following year. SADOLETO, JACOPO [1477-1547] Cardinal, humanist, and biblical scholar. He was a member of Clement VIIIs Curia from 1524 to 1527 and emerged as an exegete. He wrote a controversial commentary on Romans in 1535. Reginald Pole [see 1556] warned Sadoleto not to neglect theology and was greatly impressed by him. John Calvin replied to Sadoletos famous letter to the Genevans in 1539, deploring his emphasis on the safety of ones soul in contrast to Gods glory. Whether for his Catholic friends like Pole or Protestant foe like Calvin, Sadoleto never ceased to work for reform. SIX ARTICLES, THE [1539] The Act of Six Articles was pushed through Parliament by Henry VIII of England and came to be known as the whip of six strings because non compliance with it was punishable by death and confiscation of property. Protestants complained that the Reformation was going backwards. The English Church had become independent of Rome but its theology did not change under Henry. The Six Articles taught transubstantiation, verbal confession to a priest, celibacy of the clergy, and Communion in one kind i.e. with bread only needed to be given to laymen. 1540BARNES, ROBERT [14951540] Reformer and martyr who graduated with a DD at Cambridge in 1523. He escaped from England having been examined by five bishops regarding what was considered to be an unorthodox sermon in 1526 and had been sentenced to be burnt. He became an intermediator between Henry VIIIs government and the German Protestants. He was caught up in a fight between the Roman Catholics and the Protestants, and with Henry VIII taking the side of the Catholics he and two others were burnt for heresy and Thomas Cromwell [see below] beheaded. BONNER, EDMUND [15001569] Bishop of London [15401549, 15531559]. Educated at Oxford he was ordained as a priest in 1519 and entered the service of Cardinal Wolsey [see 1515]. He supported Henry VIIIs divorce and after Wolseys fall enjoyed royal favour. He was appointed to the see of London in 1540 but under Edward VI he opposed the Protestant regime and was deprived of his see. Reinstated by Mary and acting as her agent in royal persecution he became intensely hated by the people of London and was deposed a second time by Elizabeth and spent the last ten years of his life in prison. CROMWELL, THOMAS [1485-1540] English statesman who from 1520 served under Wolsey [see 1515] and survived his masters disgrace to enter Parliament in 1529. By 1535 Cromwell was vicar-general and thus effectively the controller of the church. His injunctions of 1536 and 1538 showed he was in favour of having a Bible in every church to reduce the level of superstition. He also worked towards the dissolution of the monasteries and was created earl of Essex in 1540. He attempted to forge an alliance with the Lutheran princes but this offended Henry VIII partially because of the unattractiveness of Anne of Cleves. The result was condemnation in June 1540 under the Act of Attainder for heresy and treason and his execution the following month. FAMILY OF LOVE A sect founded by Henry Nicholas [1501-1580] in Emden about 1540 as a result of a series of visions he had received. Nicholas, who never left the Roman Catholic Church into which he was born, is said to have claimed to be an incarnation of the deity and to have taught a mystic pantheism. They were heavily persecuted on the Continent but took root in England where laws were enacted against them under Elizabeth I in 1580. They ceased to exist after the restoration in 1660. GRAFTON, RICHARD [d.1572] Chronicler and printer who was a prosperous London merchant and are convinced Protestant. He arranged, in association with Edward Whitchurch, for the printing of Matthews Bible produced under royal licence in Antwerp in 1537. The following year Grafton was in Paris supervising the printing of the Great Bible which was Cloverdales revision of Matthews Bible. Halted in his efforts by the Inquisition he escaped to England where a year later the Great Bible was published. In its revised edition of 1540 this remained the official Bible of the English Church until the Bishops Bible in 1568. He was subsequently a member of Parliament for London and later Coventry. HAGENAU, COLLOQUY OF [1540] Called by Emperor Charles V in an attempt at reconciliation between his Lutheran and Roman Catholic subjects. It had no permanent results. It was adjourned to meet in Worms in November 1540. HUGUENOTS A nickname for the French Calvinists. Under Francis I [d.1547] persecution of Protestants was sporadic; his sister Margaret, indeed, made Navarre a centre of reform-minded humanists. By the 1540s Calvinism had spread rapidly through France bringing increased repression under Henry II [1547-1559] with special courts set up to try heretics, who were often burnt at the stake. As martyrs multiplied, so Calvinism spread, aided by massive mission efforts from Geneva. Powerful noble classes adopted the new faith, notably the Bourbons led by Antoine of Navarre. With the death of Henry, the princely family of the Guises who were militant Catholics opposed any toleration of the heretics. The massacre of St Bartholomews day in 1572 was an attempt to wipe out their Huguenot leadership. During Henry IV reign [1598-1610] the Huguenots felt secure, however after his assassination their position slowly worsened. Louis XIV [1643-1715] was determined to make France the most powerful state in Europe and this involved ruling at state committed to one religion. Repressive measures were instituted and in 1685 the Edict of Nantes was revoked. Calvinism was now illegal. Hundreds of thousands of Huguenots left in a mass exodus from the land of the Sun King. Those who stayed suffered sentence to the galleys, hangings, and other punishments. By the time of the death of Louis XIV a regular underground church had been organised by Antoine Court [see 1715] and later led by Paul Rabaut [see 1756]. By the latter 1700s with the spread of the Enlightenment ideas by such people as Voltaire persecution for religious reasons seemed increasingly antiquated and by 1787 the Huguenot remnant gained limited civil rights. ICELAND [see also 1056 and 1801] A succession of able Lutheran bishops appeared after 1540 and the Reformation entered into the constructive period. The two sees of Holar and Skaholtt were happily united under the energetic bishop, Gudbrandur Thorlaksson [1570-1627], and the next two centuries saw the zenith of the Lutheran preaching, hymn writing, and devotional literature. The first complete translation of the Bible appeared in 1584. JESUITS The name given in 1542 to a brotherhood founded six years earlier by Ignatius Loyola [see 1548]. He had been joined by six others, Francis Xavier [see 1534], Pierre Faber, James Laynez [see 1558], Alphonsus Salmeron, Nicholas Bobadilla, and Simon Rodriguez. They vowed to go to Palestine or anywhere the pope would send them. They soon gained a reputation in Italy as preachers, leaders of retreats, and hospital chaplains. In 1539 they formed a Company of Jesus in Rome, dedicated to instructing children and illiterates in the law of God. It grew greatly from its establishment in 1540 to 1555. They established orphanages, houses for reclaiming prostitutes, schools, centres of poor relief, and even a system of banking for destitute peasants. Their missionary work expanded; one of their most famous missionaries was Francis Xavier. By the time Loyolas death in 1556 the Societys direction of ministry had changed and its influence was felt more acutely among the aristocracy than among the poor. The Jesuits were the popes strong support in the Council of Trent. They also found themselves spearheading the intellectual attack on the Reformation and becoming the foremost Catholic apologists. The 18th century saw them expelled from Portugal [1759] France [1764] and Spain [1767]. The Society was suppressed in 1773 by Clement XIV but was restored under Pius VII in 1814. The society is today still a powerful force in the world of education. JONAS, JUSTUS [1493-1555] Protestant reformer and scholar who studied at Erfurt and attended the Marburg Colloquy [see 1529] and the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 as well as participating in the Council of Wittenberg in 1536. As pastor in Halle he contributed to the progress of the reform movement where he opposed the Augsberg Interim [1548]. His contributions to the Lutheran Reformation include hymn writing, church visitation, organisational ability, the drafting of church orders, and preaching. NICHOLAS, HENRY [c.1502-1580] Founder of the Family of Love or Familist sect [see above]. He was born in Munster and reared in a devout Christian home and as a boy claimed to receive visions from God. He became a businessman and around 1540 founded a religious movement which emphasised communal living, mystical enlightenment, experiential holiness, the second coming of Christ, and a church comprising believers only. This last belief often led to them being misidentified as Anabaptists [see 1523]. Nicholas spent much of his adult life in the Low Countries where he was constantly in trouble because of his religious views. He wrote many books but throughout his life experienced consistent persecution. RHENANUS, BEATUS [1485-1547] German humanist who was a son of a butcher. He studied at Paris where Lefevre dEtaples [see 1525] was teaching Aristotelian philosophy. He was at Basle from 1511 to 1526 and there he became a close friend of Erasmus and eventually published his works and a biography in nine volumes in 1540. He was also friendly with Luther and Martin Bucer, introducing Bucer to the works of Erasmus. At first like Erasmus, Rhenanus favoured the Reformation but later reacted against it. SCHWENKFELDERS These were followers of the teachings of the aristocratic German diplomat and lay theologian Kaspar von Schwenkfeld [1498-1561]. Early acquaintance with Andreas Carlstadt [see 1518] and Thomas Munzer [see 1525] led him to adopt many of the principles of the Reformation but he had definite convictions of his own concerning the Lords Supper, and Christology. It was due to his understanding of Christology that led to him being branded a religious outlaw in 1540 by a convention of evangelical theologians led by Melanchthon. Schwenkfeld published an article stating his belief that God is the Father of Christs humanity and deity. With his followers he withdrew from the Lutheran Church after 1540 and established a community of worshippers. They readily grew in Swabia, Silesia, and in Prussia. Because of persecution under Charles VI the groups withdrew to Holland, England, and eventually America where a small group still exists, practicing Quaker like concepts. TALLIS, THOMAS [c.1505-1585] English composer who is considered to be the greatest composer in England before Byrd [see 1589]. Tallis in his later years was closely associated with Byrd and they were jointly granted by Queen Elizabeth a twenty one year monopoly to print music in the realm. Tallis was organist at Waltham Abbey until its dissolution of 1540. After that he became a gentleman of the royal chapel where he remained until his death. 1541-1550 AD 1541DOROTHEUS IV Patriarch of Antioch [1541-1543] see also 1523 and 1543. HERMANN VON WIED [1477-1552] Church reformer who became archbishop elector of Cologne in 1515. Ardent for reform but hostile to the Protestant system, especially Anabaptism, he convened a provincial council in Cologne in 1536 which under Groppers [see 1538] guidance enacted disciplinary and reforming cannons. Disappointed at the outcome, the theologically unsophisticated Hermann welcomed the 1541 Regensburg Recess instruction to institute and establish a Christian order and the reformation and invited Bucer, Melanchthon, and other Protestants to promote renewal and compile a new church order for his territory. After a pivotal Catholic-Protestant struggle he was excommunicated by Paul III in 1546 and deposed by Charles V in 1547. At the last he was completely Protestant and died in the principality of Wied. PAGNINUS, SANTES [1470-1536] Dominican scholar and disciple of Savonarola [see 1474]. He went to Rome in 1516 and was in Avignon from 1523 to 1526 and thereafter at Lyons. It was there he finished his Latin version of the Bible translated from original languages. His Bible republished in 1541 was better than the Vulgate but was not intended to supersede it. PETRI, LAURENTIUS [1499-1573] Archbishop of Uppsala who was one of four royal scholars sent by Gustav Vasa [see 1523] to Wittenberg to help in the 1526 translation of the Swedish New Testament. In 1531 he was, amid some protest, elected archbishop of Uppsala, a diocese still Catholic. Two catholic bishops were however replaced by evangelicals in 1536. Petri contributed to the first completed Swedish Bible of 1541. He strived to protect church revenues from the state and sought to transform the Swedish Church after the manner of his beloved Melanchthon at Wittenberg. PFLUG, JULIUS [1499-1564] Bishop of Naumburg who was educated at Leipzig and pursued humanistic studies at Padua. He was in the service of the Duke George of Saxony at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 hopeful that the Erasmus [see 1514] and Melanchthon [see 1521] could find a peaceful solution to the religious split caused by the Lutheran movement. His election as bishop of Naumburg was nullified by Elector John Frederick for a period of eight years. Pflug attended the Diet of Ratisbon in 1541 where he made suggestions for concessions to Cardinal Contarini [see 1535]. He attended the Council of Trent in 1551. Here again in his writings he pleaded for religious unity, the furtherance of political peace, and the strengthening of imperial power. RATISBON, COLLOQUY OF [1541] This marked the high point of Charles Vs effort to reconcile the Roman Catholics and Lutherans, and came after the colloquies of Hagenau [see 1540] and Worms [see below]. Here Melanchthon, Bucer, and Pistorius were spokesmen for the Protestants; and for the Roman Catholics Pflug, Eck, and Gropper. Bucer and Gropper were largely responsible for the 23 doctrinal items but generally it was rejected and ended in failure. TAUSEN, HANS [1494-1561] Danish Reformer and bishop who was a monk in his youth and pursued theological studies in various European universities. While studying in Germany he became a fully convinced adherent to the Reformation. He was sent to Viborg and before long a large congregation gathered around his dauntless and popular preaching of evangelical truth. Tausens superiors were alarmed and tried to stop him by expelling him from the monastery and from his order. He nevertheless continued preaching and in 1526 King Frederick I gave him personal protection so that he might continue his work of Reformation unhindered by the clerical authorities. From 1529 he worked in Copenhagen and here again his preaching gave rise to a vigorous Reformation movement. After the official accomplishment of the Reformation in Denmark [see 1536], Tausen went to become a lecturer in the theology in Roskilde. In 1541 he was appointed bishop of Ribe. In this capacity he worked at the practical accomplishment of the Reformation within his diocese until his death. He is the most outstanding figure among the pioneers of the Reformation in Denmark. WORMS, COLLOQUY OF [1540-1541] The adjourned Colloquy of Hagenau [see 1540] met in Worms in November 1540, although the talks did not get started before January 1541. Here Johann Eck [see 1530] was the spokesman for the Roman Catholics while Philip Melanchthon [see 1521] lead for the Protestants. Agreement was reached at the meeting on the doctrine of original sin but because of the impending Diet at Ratisbon [see 1541], the discussions were broken off to be resumed there. 1542CASTELLIO, SEBASTIAN [1515-1563] French born Protestant teacher went to Geneva where he opposed Calvins doctrine of predestination. When plague broke out in Geneva in 1542 he was one of three volunteers, the others being Calvin and Peter Blanchett who offered to serve as pastor to a hospital treating plague victims. As a result of opposing Calvin rejecting that the State should be responsible for punishing heretics he left Geneva and went to Basle where he published French and Latin translations of the Bible. HOLY OFFICE Organised in 1542 by Pope Paul III, the Holy Office was established to serve as the last Court of Appeal in heresy cases brought before the Inquisition. Sixtus V in 1587 increased the number of cardinals designated to serve on it from 6 to 13. While the pope may preside over the deliberations of this body it customarily functions without him. It was subject to further reorganisation as a result of Vatican Council II. INDIA [see also 1320 and 1793] By 1534 a bishop was at Goa, head of a powerful church but not one which could have pleased Francis Xavier [see 1534], founder of Jesuit missions in the East, when he arrived in 1542. Xavier recommended the Inquisition in India. At Cape Comorin he instructed and established the neglected converts who had been won from the pearl fisher community, and he laid foundations for the Jesuit work in India. The Jesuits responded to an invitation from Akbar the Mogul emperor and conducted a mission at his court which proved fruitless. In the south the Italian Jesuit Robert de Nobili [see 1605] led the way in trying to overcome the foreign appearance of Christianity by means of accommodating Hinduism. It was the arrival of Protestant missions which gave to India the Bible. The first Protestant missionaries were the German Lutherans B. Zeigenbalg [see 1706] and H. Pluetschau [see 1706] sent personally by Frederick IV of Denmark to his trading territory at Tranquebar in South India. By 1714, Zeigenbalg had translated and printed the Tamil New Testament, the first in an Indian language. Tranquebar was a tiny territory but the mission established there had major impact. Even before there were British missionaries, Anglicans were so inspired by the news at Tranquebar that they gave financial support to English missions at other places in South India staffed by German Lutherans. The East India Company acknowledged these missions and even lauded a man of the calibre of C.F. Schwartz [see 1750] but they became alarmed at the mounting pressure in Britain that it should itself make provision for mission work. The company thereafter for two decades pursued a policy of strictly forbidding the entry of missionaries into areas under their control. MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS [1542-1587] Daughter of James V and Marie de Guise-Lorraine who became queen when only six days old. During her minority the pro-English and Protestant interests gained at the expense of a pro-French Catholic group and in 1560 the Estates of Parliament abolished the authority of the Pope in Scotland, forbade the celebration of Mass and adopted a Reformed Confession of Faith, the Scots Confession. Marys upbringing was French and Catholic and she was consort of Francis II of France. Regarded by Catholics as the rightful queen of England because of her descent from Henry VII and Elizabeths alleged illegitimacy, Mary was for the rest of her life the focus of international intrigue. Her personal rule in Scotland was remarkably successful at its beginning. While she incurred the opposition of John Knox over Mass in her private chapel, she conciliated moderate opinion by acquiescing to the division of the church revenues whereby a third was shared by the Protestant ministers and the Crown, an in legislation implying the recognition of the Reformed Church. In 1567 she was deposed by a coalition of nobles who proclaimed her son by Lord Darnley as James VI. A series of Catholic plots to place Mary on the English throne resulted in her execution at Fotheringay in 1587. MORONE, GIOVANNI [1509-1580] Bishop of Modena from 1529 where he became close friends with the group of Catholic reformers gathered around Pole [see 1556], Contarini [see 1535], Cortese [see 1537], and Flaminio. When he became a cardinal in 1542 heresy broke out at Modena. The academy signed a confession of faith prepared by Cortes and Contarini which involved Morone as bishop. Unpublished letters from his vicar in Modena proved that Marone knew what was happening and approved of its progress. From 1553 to 1555 he studied the English problem and attended the Diet of Augsburg in 1555. Paul IV seized Morone and cast him into the Castel Sant Angelo during 1557-59. As president of the Council of Trent during 1563 Morone made possible the effective reforms of the church. OCHINO, BERNARDINO [1487-1564] Italian Reformer who entered a Franciscan Order in 1504 and later went into the stricter rule of the Capuchins [see 1528] in 1534 of whom he was elected general from 1538-42. He became convinced that ecclesiastical mediation could not gain salvation for man. As a result conflict arose and Ochino criticised the Inquisition in a sermon in Venice in 1542. Summoned to Rome he escaped to Geneva where he was warmly received by Calvin. In 1545 he settled in Augsburg where he became minister of the Italian church. When the city fell to the imperial forces he escaped to Basle and Strasbourg before finding refuge in England. Thomas Cranmer received him kindly and arranged a position for him in the church of Canterbury and a royal pension. When Queen Mary came to the throne he returned to the Continent eventually moving to Poland but was forced to leave and finally settled in Moravia where he died of plague. SLEIDANUS, JOHANNES [1506-1556] Historian of the Reformation. He studied at Liege and Paris among other universities and entered the service of Cardinal du Bellay and represented Francis I in diplomatic negotiations with the Smalcald League [see 1525]. Dismissed for his Protestant opinions he settled in Strasbourg in 1542. Martin Bucer [see 1549] persuaded Philip of Hesse to appoint him historian of the Reformation in 1544. The first volume was finished the following year. He represented Strasbourg and a group of imperial cities at the Council of Trent in 1551 and became professor of law at Strasbourg where he finished his great work on the history of Reformation. He died in poverty. 1543COPERNICUS, NICOLAUS [1473-1543] Polish doctor and astronomer whose great work De Revolutionibus which marks the beginning of the modern scientific era did not appear until the year of his death. It said, In the middle of all sits the sun on his throne, as upon a royal dais ruling his children the planets which circle about him. In 1541 his researches were ridiculed in a comedy and his works were placed on the papal index [see 1559] 1616-1758. HOSIUS, STANISLAUS [1504-1579] Polish Counter-Reformation controversialist and cardinal who was born in Krakw where he received humanistic training. He studied law at Padua and Bologna and returning home eventually became the royal secretary. He was ordained a priest in 1543 and became bishop of Culm in 1549 then of Ermland in 1551. His burning desire was the eradication of the Protestant heresy. He spoke strongly against Johann Brenz [see 1529] Jan Lasco [see 1521], and his educational programs and violent repressive measures made him perhaps the greatest of the Polish counter-reformers, winning him the nickname hammer of the heretics. In 1558 Paul IV called him to Rome where he became a leading voice in the curia playing an important role in the final sessions of the Council of Trent. JOACHIM IV Patriarch of Antioch [1543-1576] see also 1541 and 1577. 1544AMBROSIANS Anabaptist sect. The name Ambrosians is given to a 16th century HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptist" \o "Anabaptist" Anabaptist sect, as also to various HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic" \o "Catholic" Catholic HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosians" \o "Ambrosians" religious orders. This sect laid claim to immediate communication with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" \o "God" God through the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Spirit" \o "Holy Spirit" Holy Spirit. Basing their HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" theology upon the words of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_John" \o "Gospel of John" Gospel of John 1: 9 There was the true light which lighteth every man, coming into the world They denied the necessity of any HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest" \o "Priest" priests or ministers to interpret the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible. Their leader Ambrose went so far as to hold further that the revelation which was given to him was of a higher authority than the Scriptures. The doctrine of the Ambrosians, who belonged probably to that section of the Anabaptists known as Pneumatici, may be compared with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_light" \o "Inner light" Inner light doctrine of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" \o "Religious Society of Friends" Quakers. The name of Ambrosians had been used earlier by an order founded by Ambrose of Milan. It was given the Augustine Rule in 1375 but was dissolved in 1650. ESTIENNE, ROBERT [1503-1559] Scholar printer. He was appointed in 1539 as printer in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew to Francis I. Becoming a Protestant he provoked severe attacks from the Sorbonne because of his biblical annotations. In 1551 he fled to Geneva, embracing the Reformed faith. In 1544 he began to print a Greek New Testament, helped by his son Henri and published the New Testament in two tiny volumes 2 years later. The text was taken chiefly from the fifth edition of the Erasmus. He was responsible also for the verse division of the New Testament, first printed in his fourth edition in Geneva in 1551. FLACIUS, MATTHIAS ILLYRICUS [1520-1575] German Lutheran theologian. He was a Croatian orphan who worked his way through school and studied with the humanist Baptista Egnatius, a friend of Erasmus, in Venice [1536-39]. He studied at three universities including Wittenberg where he underwent a deep spiritual crisis which ended only when he was converted to evangelical doctrine through contact with Luther. He became a professor of Hebrew in 1544 and lectured on Aristotle and the Bible. He subsequently differed with Melanchthon over the compromise Augsburg Interim in 1548 and then wandered from Jena, Antwerp and finally to Frankfurt where he died. His fame rests upon his Clavis the history of hermeneutics, and the Magdeburg Centuries an interpretation of church history which is extremely anti-papal and had a strong effect on later Protestant thought. MERBECKE, JOHN [d. c.1585] English musician and theologian who was organist at St Georges Chapel Windsor from 1541. As a Calvinist he was sentenced to the stake in 1544 for his writings against the Six Articles [see 1539] and for his compilation of the first biblical concordance in English which had threatened the use of Latin in worship. He was pardoned evidently because Bishop Stephen Gardner had a high regard for his musicianship. He wrote many theological works, a hymn for three voices and a Mass for five. 1545CANON LAW DECRETALS Papal letters that gained special authority from as early as a letter from Pope Siricius [see 384] in 385. With the decretal of Gratian [1140], scholars have drawn a line between old and new decretals with all decretals after the Council of Trent [see below] being classified as new. In 1904 Pius X [see 1903] ordered a complete review which was published in 1917. [See also canon law at 325] CHANTRY The aisle of a church set apart for the offering of mass for the benefit of the founder or some other holy person. All chantries in Britain were dissolved by Acts in 1545 and 1547. COUNTER-REFORMATION The movement for reform and missionary expansion within the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries caused in the main by the Protestant Reformation. Many new groups were formed including the Theatines [see 1524], Capuchins [see 1528], Somaschi [1532] Barnabites [see 1532], Ursulines [see 1535], Jesuits [see 1540] and Oratorians [see 1575]. The conservative wing of Catholicism introduced the Inquisition in 1542 and the Council of Trent [1545-63]. With Pius V [see 1565], who was militantly anti Protestant, internal reform began in the Roman curia and Vatican, issuing edicts on simony, blasphemy, sodomy and concubinage in his own church. Encouraged by Pius V, an alliance of Catholic princes existed, including Philip II of Spain, to defend the church and destroy Protestantism through the Armada of 1588 and the Thirty Year War from 1618. ECUMENICAL COUNCILS [See also 325 and 1123] The last three councils which were all convoked by popes and which best fit the characteristics described by modern Roman Catholic theology were Trent [1545-1563]; Vatican I [1869-1870] and Vatican II [1962-1965]. FIELD PREACHING Generally associated with Scotland, field preaching has passed through a number of distinctive phases in the last 450 years. Beginning with George Wishart [see 1545] in the early stages of the Reformation struggle when churches were either not viable or inadequate to hold the huge crowds. It came into its own in the second half of the Covenanting period. It was after the Restoration of Charles II with the subsequent legislation which drove so many ministers from their parishes, that men like John Welsh and John Blackadder, Richard Cameron [see 1608] and Donald Cargill [see 1680], took to the moors and the mountains where great meetings were held with 10,000 to 15,000 people attending, and where sacraments were celebrated. With the coming of George Whitefield [see 1737] and the Evangelical Revival, field preaching took on new dimensions with as many as 30,000 people gathered at Cambuslang in 1742 to hear the famous evangelist. Later came the advent of the great Highland open air communions, which were to remind a characteristic feature of religious life in the North down to the 20th century. STERNHOLD, THOMAS [c.1500-1549] Scholar of the Psalms who was educated at Oxford and entered royal service with Henry VIII and continued to serve Edward VI. He was a member of Parliament for Plymouth [1545 -1547] and composed metrical versions of the Psalms which appeared in 1547 dedicated to Edward VI. This work helped to popularise Psalm singing in the Elizabethan times. TRENT, COUNCIL OF [1545-1563] Considered by the Roman Catholic as the 19th ecumenical council this long drawn out council was brought about initially by the continuing success of the Protestant movement. While Emperor Charles V was in favour of the council Francis I of France was not. Charles considered the council a means to reunite Christendom while the papacy saw the council as the means to halt Protestantism. Although the council did not satisfy Protestants and some Catholics, it did provide the foundation for a revitalisation of Catholicism through, for example, the Roman Catholic Catechism of 1566, the Revised Breviary of 1568, and the Missal of 1570. The council set the boundaries of Catholic belief, but did not always carefully and minutely define the details of belief thus allowing some hope for further ecumenical efforts. WISHART, GEORGE [c.1513-1546] Scottish Reformer and martyr who was born into a noble family and after graduating from Aberdeen taught Greek at Montrose. Charged with radical tendencies he went to England and then to the Continent where he became knowledgeable with the first Helvetic Confession [see 1536] and was the first to translate into English. Having returned to England and spent a year teaching at Cambridge in 1542 he then went back to Scotland to preach the Gospel. In Dundee he ministered fearlessly to those sick and dying of the plague and there survived an attempt on his life. He was protected for a while by John Knox but finally captured and taken to St Andrews, and against the will of the regent and people, at the instigation of David Cardinal Beaton [see 1539] was condemned to death and burnt at the stake. 1546ASKEW, ANNE [15211546] Protestant martyr from Lincolnshire who due to avid Bible study came to dispute transubstantiation causing a stir in her area. Even under the torture of the rack for recantation having already been examined by Bishop Bonner [see 1540] she refused to recant and was burnt at Smithfield in 1546. DIONYSIUS II HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople (1546-1555) succeeded Joannicus I [see below]. There is no additional information readily available. HAMILTON, JOHN [1512-1571] Archbishop of St Andrews, Scotland, and the last Roman Catholic to hold that office. He studied at St Andrews University, later spending some time studying in France and in 1543 was privy seal to which was added lord treasureship. After protracted controversy he was in 1546 consecrated as bishop of Dunkeld but was soon translated to St Andrews. Even after the Reformation in 1560 he maintained his opposition, continued to be known as archbishop of St Andrews, retained his seat in Parliament, and baptised the future James VI after the Roman form. Supporter of Mary Queen of Scots in her trials, Hamilton was finally indicted as a traitor and hanged at Stirling. JOANNICUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1546] succeeded Jeremias I [see 1522]. There is no additional information readily available. VULGATE The Latin version of the Bible derived from the work of Jerome [see 382] and declared by the Council of Trent in 1546 as the only authentic Latin text of the Scriptures. In 382 Damasus bishop of Rome commissioned from Jerome a revision of the Latin Gospels. He proceeded to revise the Psalms and other Old Testament books on his own accord. In 386 he settled in Bethlehem where he engaged in translation of the Church Fathers, commentary work, and further Old Testament books based on the Septuagint, using also the Hebrew and Origens Hexapla. ZURICH AGREEMENT [1551] In 1546 Bullinger sent Calvin a work on the sacraments. Calvin criticised it frankly and the response from Bullinger resulted in the first draft of the Agreement in November 1548 consisting of twenty four propositions. The two met in Zurich in 1549 to draw up the twenty six articles on the sacraments and they were published in 1551 and widely circulated in Switzerland. It stated that in the Lords Supper we partake of Christ by the power of the Holy Spirit and that sacramental grace however comes only to the elect. 1547BROWNE, GEORGE [d.1556] Primate of all Ireland [15471553]. Educated in an Augustine friary at Oxford he later became general of the Mendicant Orders [see 1210] in England. He attracted notice for his sermons in which he advocated praying to Christ alone and not to images of the saints. Thomas Cromwell [see 1540] saw his potential usefulness to the kings cause and appointed him bishop of Dublin to promote royal supremacy over the church and suppress monasteries. This he did but his ministry was hampered giving messages in English to a largely non English speaking Irish audience. He became primate of all Ireland during the reign of Edward VI but was deposed on the accession of Mary I. BOURGEOIS, LOUIS [15101561] French Protestant musician who was invited to come to Geneva at the time of Calvins return in 1541 and four years later was appointed chief musician of the city. In 1547 he produced a harmonisation of Clement Marots psalms using popular tunes which he composed. Because of some of the tunes he published he was imprisoned in 1551 but released after the intervention of Calvin. Unable to withstand the rigours of the Geneva city fathers he returned to Paris in 1557 dying there four years later. CATHERINE DE MEDICI [1519-1589] French queen from 1547 was deeply involved in intrigue in the Wars of Religion. She was known for the calling of the Colloquy of Poissy [see 1561] and her move towards toleration of the Huguenots but this was abandoned in 1568 partially due to her jealousy of the increasing influence of Coligny over her son Charles IX. As a result she plotted the action of the Massacre of St Bartholomew [see 1572] for which she accepted responsibility. HOMILIES, BOOKS OF These were authorised sermons issued into books by the Church of England in the reigns of Edward VI and Elizabeth I. They were to provide the Protestants sermon models for the new simplified style of topical preaching as well as a proper theological base. They were not published until 1547 although Thomas Cranmer had broached the idea as early as 1539. The first six homilies presented the sufficiency of Scripture, the sinfulness of man, justification by faith alone, evangelical faith, and sanctification. They were revoked by Mary and reinstated by Elizabeth. A second book was produced in 1562-63 and the two volumes consolidated into a single volume in 1632. HOTMAN, FRANOIS [1524-1590] French jurist, scholar and reformer. Hotman became one of the foremost legal experts and law professors of his day. His conversion to Reformation doctrines in 1547 led to a life of uncertainty and periodic exile. Hotman argued for a limited constitutional monarchy in France. He died in poverty at Basle. JOHN FREDERICK, ELECTOR [1503-1554] German Lutheran prince, the son of Elector John the Constant, educated under the Lutheran Spalatin [see 1508]. He strongly supported Luther and helped published early editions of his works. His reign as elector was crucial in the establishment of a Lutheran state church. He was taken prisoner after the defeat of the Smalcald League [see 1530] at Muhlberg in 1547 by Charles V and released in 1552. He then established his government at Weimar and founded the University of Jena to replace Wittenberg. 1548ADIAPHORISTS Named after the Greek for insignificant things they were a group who supported Philip Melanchthon [see 1521] who maintained that the concession made by Protestants in the Leipzig Interim [1548-1552], which was never implemented, were insignificant. These things, actions [neither bad or good and not forbidden in the Bible], ceremonies which are neither commended nor forbidden, and doctrines although found in the Bible, are considered to be of such minor importance that they can be discarded. Many Protestants such as Calvin believed Melanchthon had sacrificed too much. AUGSBERG, INTERIM OF The attempt by Emperor Charles V to establish religious unity in Germany. Charles who was pro Roman Catholic was very much aware of the strength of the Protestants but after their defeat he thought he could bring pressure for religious unity. However the compromise proposed satisfied no one and eventually led to the defeat of Charles, and at the Peace of Augsburg [see 1555] the ability of all states to choose whether it adopted Lutheran or the Roman Catholic religion. BARLOW, WILLIAM [d.1568] Anglican bishop who was a member of the reforming party under Henry VIII. His writings which show Protestant inclinations were condemned in 1529 but seven years later he was accepted as bishop of St Davids, and of Bath and Wells in 1548. He fled abroad when Mary came to the throne, returning on her death and became bishop of Chichester. Barlow translated part of the Apocrypha of the Bishops Bible and was also a member of the commission for reforming church law. BLAURER, AMBROSE [14921564] Zwinglian pastor who was a son of a member of the town council in Constance. He was educated at Tubingen where he met Melanchthon [see 1519]. He became a Benedictine in 1509 but was converted from Catholicism by Luthers writings in 1522 and preached in Germany and Switzerland. He was much persecuted by the authorities. BRES, GUIDO DE [15221567] Belgian Protestant martyr who fled to England in 1548 where he joined a refugee congregation in London. He returned home to Belgium in 1552 where he helped draft the Belgic Confession. The Spanish authorities which ruled Belgium became concerned by the inroads of the Reformation in that country. In 1561 he was again forced to flee. After the fall of Valenciennes, de Bres who failed to persuade the radicals to surrender was executed for rebellion. His concern for unity, pastoral zeal and theological leadership made him a notable reformer. FERRAR, ROBERT [c.1500-1555] Bishop of St Davids, Wales. Reportedly a graduate of both Oxford and Cambridge he joined the Augustinians. Influenced by Lutheran literature he was compelled to recant in 1528. Records are conflicting but he became bishop of St Davids in 1548 an appointment savagely resisted by a greedy and turbulent chapter who opposed him on legal technicalities and absurd charges. He was imprisoned and on the accession of the Roman Catholic Queen Mary was transferred to a London jail where John Bradford and other Protestants renewed his Reformation principles. Deprived of his bishopric in 1554, Ferrar was found guilty of heresy and burnt at Carmarthen. He told a spectator that if he saw him once to stir in the pains of his burning he should then give no credit to his doctrine. IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA [1491-1556] Spanish ecclesiastic reformer and mystic, founder of and first general of the Society of Jesus. On the death of his father he attached himself to the court of King Ferdinand, pursuing a military career. In 1521 at the fortress of Pamplona, Loyola was struck by cannonball resulting in one leg being badly mangled thus ending his military career. While recuperating at the castle of Loyola he read Ludolph of Saxonys Life of Christ. Inspired to become a soldier for Christ he vowed lifelong chastity and soon entered the monastery at Manresa. He spent nearly a year in ascetic practices experiencing several mystical visions and composed the basis of his Spiritual Exercises. After a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1523 he went to Paris for study and gathered around him a band of associates who became fired with Loyolas ideals. After graduation Loyola and six dedicated colleagues vowed together to a life of poverty, chastity, and a career of service in the Holy Land or failing that of an unreserved service to the pope. They won a favourable response from Paul III and in 1548 Loyola was unanimously chosen general for the society. Heavy stress was placed on education and preparation. Loyola founded the Roman College in 1551. Based on these ideals the Jesuits took the lead in the Catholic reform movement. UDALL, NICHOLAS [1505-1556] English scholar and dramatist who was educated at Oxford and in 1534 was appointed headmaster of Eton but was removed seven years later for an unnatural crime. After some time in jail he held ministries in the Church of England. He translated the first volume of Erasmuss New Testament into English which was published in 1548. When Mary Tudor came to the throne he reverted to Roman Catholicism and later became head of Westminster School but died shortly afterwards. 1549BUCER, MARTIN [14911551] Dominican who became a noted reformer and took charge of the Strassbourg reformers in 1523 where he taught among others Calvin. He established himself as the chief statesman among the reformers and was present at all the diets from Marburg [1529] onwards. He tried to overcome the split between Luther and Zwingli on the Lords Supper. Bucer was the leading Protestant negotiator for agreement with the Catholic church of Germany especially at the conferences of Leipzig [1539], Worms [1540] and Regensburg [1541]. He was exiled to England and in 1549 influenced the revision of the Book of Common Prayer. He was a profuse writer of Bible commentaries and the author of The Kingdom of Christ which he wrote for Edward VI. COMMON PRAYER, BOOK OF The official service book of the Church of England and came into use on Whitsunday 1549. The title indicates that it replaced three of five main Latin service books. The new services were conservative in form and ceremonial keeping close to the mediaeval Sarum Rite. In light of the criticisms made by continental reformers Martin Bucer [see above] and Peter Martyr [see 1552] prayer for the dead, reservation of the sacrament, vestments and various features were eliminated from the revised book which was published in 1552 [see also 1559]. At the Restoration, a New Act of Uniformity [1662] enforced what was essentially the same book to the exclusion of Dissenters. Worship and Doctrine Measure of 1975 finally replaced the 1662 Act and gave general synod the right to approve new forms without recourse to Parliament. JAPAN [see also 1862] Although some claim evidence of Nestorian influence on early Japanese Buddhism, Christianitys introduction to Japan is generally held to be the arrival of the Spanish Jesuit, Francis Xavier [see 1534], with two Japanese converts in 1549. Under the patronage of the ruling warlord, the Roman Catholic faith spread rapidly. In 1587 however the warlords successor issued an edict immediately banning all missionaries. Persecutions set in with thousands dying for their faith, including 26 Christians who were publicly crucified. For the next 250 years Japan was cut off from the outside world after which the isolation was forcibly broken. OSIANDER, ANDREAS [1498-1552] German Reformer who studied at Ingolstadt and was ordained a priest in 1520. He revised the Vulgate on the basis of the Hebrew text. As a reformer in Nuremberg he promoted the distribution of the Lords Supper under both kinds, bread and wine. As a participant in the Colloquy of Marburg [1529] he sided with Luther and Melanchthon against Zwingli and Oecolampadius regarding the Lords Supper. After Osianders appointment as pastor and professor at Konigsberg in 1549 he attacked Melanchthon on justification, setting forth that in justification the new believer become partakers of the divine nature. He received little support of his views which were repudiated at the Formula of Concord in 1577. He also wrote to the anonymous preface to the first edition of Copernicus great work on astronomy. RESERVED SACRAMENT The practice of keeping the bread and sometimes the wine consecrated at the Eucharist for the purpose of communion, especially for the sick. Justin Martyr mentions the custom of sending a portion of the elements to those absent, and Tertullian spoke of home-communion. Reservation by private persons in their own home was common at least until the late fourth century. It survived among hermits into the 13th and 14th centuries. The first Anglican Prayer Book in 1549 provided for a reservation for the sick but this was dropped in the Second Prayer Book in 1562, and in 1661 the prayer book ordered the elements remaining after the service to be consumed. In more modern times the practice has now widely been restored. UNIFORMITY, ACTS OF There are four British Parliamentary measures called the Acts of Uniformity. [1] The Act of 1549 where Edward VI commanded the use of the First Book of Common Prayer in English churches. [2] The Act of 1552 also by Edward VI which enforced the use of the Revised Prayer Book and extended the penalties of the former act. [3] The Act of 1559 enforced Queen Elizabeths compromise religious settlement and regulated the ecclesiastical discipline of the Church of England for the next ninety years. It also repealed all the legislation of Queen Mary which had restored Roman Catholic practices. [4] The Act of 1662 was the most important of these laws restoring the Anglican establishment and was passed by the Cavalier Parliament of Charles II following the Restoration and the first are those acts of systematic repression known as the Clarendon Code [see 1661]. It commanded universal adoption of a slightly revised form of the Elizabethan Prayer Book and a declaration of loyalty and repudiation of the National Covenant. So far as Dissenters were concerned the Act was made practically inoperative by the Toleration Act of William and Mary in 1689. Historically, ecumenists have valued it as providing for unity, evangelicals have held to it as a safeguard for the 39 Articles, but High Churchmen have found it restrictive. 1550BROTHERS HOSPITALLERS Lay order founded by John of God [d 1550] at Granada. In 1572 Pius V [see 1566] approved the order and it spread through Europe to distant colonies with other hospitals in Rome, Naples, Milan, then in Paris in 1601. The brothers were expelled from their 40 hospitals in France during the Revolution. Beyond personal sanctification they seek their patients spiritual and physical well being. DU BOURG, ANNE [1520-1559] French Protestant martyr who trained as a lawyer and became professor of law at Orleans in 1547 receiving his doctorate three years later. (Anne is a boys name in the Frisian language.) In 1558 he became a member of parliament in Paris but the following year fell into disfavour with Henry II because he became a Protestant. He made a violent attack on the Roman Catholic church and advocated reform. Arrested for the bold declaration of his position Du Bourg was tried for heresy. He used every legal means of escaping punishment through appeals to different courts. The electorate of the Palatine of the Rhine pleaded mercy to the king, to name him professor of law at Heidelberg, but in vain. Finally his appeal was rejected and he was condemned, strangled and burned. His martyrdom caused widespread horror, particularly among university students, some of whom had been responsible for his conversion. HOOPER, JOHN [d.1555] Protestant martyr and Anglican bishop who graduated at Oxford and later as a monk moved to London after the dissolution of the monasteries. After reading some Reformation material he was converted to Protestantism and sought to spread his views at Oxford. As a result of his activities he had to twice flee from England and in 1546 he married a woman from Antwerp. For a brief period they settled in Zurich where he enjoyed the friendship of H. Bullinger [see 1531] and correspondence with H. M. Bucer [see 1549] and J. Lasco [see 1521]. He returned to England in 1549 and in 1550 was nominated to the see of Gloucester but his consecration was delayed until 1551 due to his opposition to the vestments. A year later he was made bishop of both Gloucester and Worcester but with the accession of the Catholic Mary he was imprisoned, deprived, degraded, and publicly burnt. He was a good bishop, preaching several times each day, visiting all the parishes of his dioceses, was generous to the poor, denounced ruthless landlords, and sought to persuade his clergy and people to read the Bible. JULIUS III Pope [1550-1555]. He was from a Tuscan family of lawyers, and after completing humanist studies took to jurisprudence in Bologna. Following training he became chamberlain to Julius II [1503-1513]. He held administrative posts under Clement VII and Paul III but was taken hostage by Imperial forces in the sack of Rome in 1527. As one of three papal legates he opened the Council of Trent as its first president. The first council ended in 1549 and after his election as pope in 1550 he ordered its reopening in 1551. On the accession of Mary Tudor of England in 1553 Julius sent Reginald Pole as legate to England. Pope Julius III fostered reform in the church, encouraged the Jesuits, and was a generous patron of Renaissance humanism. He succeeded Paul III [see 1534] and was succeeded by Marcellus II [see 1555]. 1551-1560 AD 1551BOLSEC, JEROME [d.1585] A Carmelite from Paris who was expelled from the city after a sermon favouring Protestantism. He went to Geneva but found himself in dispute with Calvin over the doctrine of predestination and was banished from Geneva in 1551. He returned to Paris but had to leave again on his refusal to accept a ruling of the Council of Orleans in 1563 ordering him to recant. He eventually returned to the Roman Catholic church and took his revenge publishing slanderous biographies on Calvin [1577] and Beza [1582]. GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE [c.1510-1572] French composer who was apparently converted to the Huguenot faith before 1565 having already shown great interest in the metrical psalms and tunes being compiled at Geneva. Starting in 1551 he published at intervals eight books, each containing a selection of eight of the Geneva psalms in extended motet settings. As part-singing was not permitted in church by Calvin, these ambitious works must be regarded as Huguenot madrigals. His work had wide circulation in the Netherlands and Germany as well as in France and Switzerland. He perished in the St Bartholomews Day [see 1572] massacre in Lyons. OLD BELIEVERS Dissident groups of Russian Orthodox in conflict since 1666 when Nikon, patriarch of Moscow [see 1652], introduced reforms of ritual in line with Orthodox practices elsewhere but had been declared radical at a council of 1551. The dissidents adhered to the older practices. Avvakum [see 1653] their leader, went into exile in 1664 and others were exiled, fierce persecution leading many to flee to remote parts such as Siberia or Karelia. Monks, peasants, Cossacks, and townsfolk were amongst them. They were brutally treated and many committed suicide. Persecution lasted until the end of Peter the Greats reign; Peter III and Catherine II were more tolerant but Nicholas I [1825-1855] renewed the efforts of coercion. Penal laws persisted until 1903 when alleviation was introduced. PHILIP NERI [1515-1595] Founder of the Congregation of the Oratory. He was born in Florence and influenced by the Dominicans and Benedictines. He went to Rome where he earned a living as a tutor, and wrote poetry, and studied philosophy and theology. From 1538 he devoted himself to helping the citys sick and poor and this resulted in the great Trinity Hospital. There gathered around him a group who ministered to the needs of the many pilgrims who came to Rome. He was ordained in 1551 and began to establish his Oratory [see 1564]. Philip was challenged because of his unconventional methods of talking about faith, his emphasis upon action and his direct missionary activity. It was reported that laughter was the word frequently linked with Philip Neri and this may well account for the success he had in missionary work. SAXON CONFESSION [1551] Protestant confession of faith drawn up by Philip Melanchthon at the emperors request for the Council of Trent. It followed the main lines of the Augsburg Confession of 1530 but was less conciliatory to the Roman Catholics. The Scriptures as understood by the ancient church were declared as the only unalterable foundation of faith. The distinctive Christian doctrines were elaborated around the two articles of the Apostles Creed on the forgiveness of sins and the church. Unlike the Augsburg Confession only the theologians signed it and it was presented to the Council of Trent in 1552 together with the Wurttemberg Confession of 1552. 1552BALE, JOHN [14951563] Bishop of Ossory who converted to Protestantism in his thirties and supported them by writing miracle plays and prose. He enjoyed the patronage of Thomas Cromwell [see 1540] but became a refugee in Germany from the death of Cromwell to the death of Henry VIII. In 1552 he became bishop of Ossory. His strong Protestant zeal created hostility and he had to exile himself in Holland during the reign of Mary I. He returned to England after the accession of Elizabeth I. His works were marred by the bitter and somewhat coarse language which gained him the name Bilious Bale. CATHARINUS, AMBROSIUS [1485-1553] Bishop of Conza. Dominican theologian who, influenced by Savonarola [see 1474] became a Dominican in 1519. He wrote against Luther in 1520 and even wrote against a fellow Dominican, Cardinal Cajetan [see 1516]. He was not afraid to deviate from the Dominican concepts on predestination, original sin, and the Virgin Mary. He played a major part in the Council of Trent [see 1545] and was made bishop of Conza in 1552. EDWARD VI [1537-1553] King of England who was the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour. He reigned for six years and was only 16 when he died. Physically frail, intelligent, and sincere, he was naive and inevitably became the tool of councillors, notably the earl of Northampton whose motivation was by no means religious. Edwards reign saw decisive moves in a Protestant direction. England became a sanctuary for the persecuted. English Bibles were freely printed. The 1552 Prayer Book was a strongly Protestant version which set forth the sacraments as essentially an act of remembrance. His reign saw few executions. The Roman Catholic bishop Stephen Gardiner, though imprisoned and deprived of his see was able to write six volumes of theological controversy. PETER MARTYR [1491-1562] Protestant Reformer who was born in Florence and dedicated by his father to St Peter Martyr [see 1232]. He was educated by the Augustinian Order. Influenced at first by Juan de Valdes [see 1527] he turned to the writings of Bucer [see 1549] and Zwingli [see 1528] and became a serious student of the Bible. Because of his unorthodox views he was transferred to Lucca as prior of San Frediano and there his preaching attracted large crowds. Having fully adopted Protestant views he fled Italy and took refuge first at Zurich then at Basle. He became professor of theology at Strasbourg and there he married a former nun. Peter was invited to go to England by Archbishop Cranmer [see 1533] where he gained a government pension and was appointed as a professor at Oxford. His preaching in Christchurch attracted much attention and he had a part in the Prayer Book of 1552. After Marys succession he was imprisoned but with Gardiners [see 1531] help he was allowed to return to Strasbourg. He however went to Zurich where he enjoyed a happy relationship with Bullinger [see 1531] and the English refugees who were there. WURTTEMBERG CONFESSION [1552] This document was one of a number of publications prepared by Protestant theologians after the opening of the Council of Trent as a basis for ecumenical debate with the Roman church leaders. Following the Augsburg Confession [1548], the Leipzig Interim [1549], and the Saxon Confession [1551], J. Brenz [see 1529] at the request of Duke Christopher of Wurttemberg drew up this statement of faith containing 35 articles and reflecting the mind of the Protestant church in that state. Predominantly Lutheran it contained some concessions the Calvinists and a number for the Roman Catholics especially with respect to the Real Presence in which Brenz was inclined to pursue dogmatic definition more systematically than Luther. However all thoughts of Catholic-Lutheran reconciliation was ended by the Settlement of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. 1553BECON, THOMAS [15121567] English reformer who was educated at Cambridge and studied under Latimer [see 1555]. After posts as a vicar he became chaplain to Cranmer [see 1533]. In 1553 he was imprisoned in the Tower of London on the death of Edward VI but was released due to mistaken identity. He fled to Germany returning as a canon of Canterbury on the accession of Elizabeth I. A well liked writer he contributed to The Book of Homilies. CHALDEAN CHRISTIANS Founded by the appointment of their first Patriarch by Pope Julius III on February 20 1553. It had its origins as an offshoot of Nestorians [see 428]. The Diarbekir patriarch quarrelled with the Nestorian head and sought recognition from the Roman Catholic pope. FORTY-TWO ARTICLES ACT [1553] The accession of Edward VI to the throne in 1547 marked an important step in the development of the Reformation in England. Under the influence of Thomas Cranmer the young king began to exercise a direct influence on the church. As a result Cranmer drew up the Forty-Two Articles Act, which became the first truly Protestant confession of faith for the Church of England. They were revised in 1562 by the Convocation of the Anglican clergy, and in 1563 they were promulgated by Elizabeth as the Thirty-Nine Articles Act. LOUIS OF GRANADA [1504-1588] Spanish Dominican mystic, preacher, and writer who was born into a poor family and received schooling thanks to the aid of a noble and a Dominican priory which he entered in 1524. At the end of his studies he adopted the name Louis of Granada and was introduced to Christian humanism and perhaps mysticism. In 1553 he became confessor to Queen Catherine of Portugal and three years later was elected provincial of his order in Portugal and spent the last three decades his life there. Amongst others he influenced Francis of Sales and Vincent de Paul. MARY TUDOR [1516-1558] Queen of England who was the third and only surviving child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. Early in life she was a pawn on the chessboard of international politics. At the age of two she was betrothed to the Dauphin of France and at six promised to Emperor Charles V. The divorce of her parents great troubled her and after 1531 she never saw her mother again. In 1533 she was declared a bastard and cut out of the succession to the throne. During 1536 to 1547 her life was easy and carefree and for the six years after the death of her father her problems were chiefly religious. She liked Edward VI but disliked his Protestantism. In 1553 she was proclaimed queen in London and entered her capital in triumph. Parliament annulled the divorce of Catherine of Aragon establishing Marys legitimacy and restored the church to what it was at the end of Henry VIII reign but within weeks her popularity was gone because first she was a Spaniard, a Tudor second, and an English Tudor last. She sought Philip II of Spain as a husband and in 1555 re-established power to the ecclesiastical courts to deal with heresies. In 1555-1556 many people including Cranmer, Hooper, Latimer and Ridley were burnt as heretics. Marys actions ensured that England would be a Protestant country after her death. SERIPANDO, GIROLAMO [1493-1563] Archbishop of Salerno who lost his parents when he was very young and the age of 14 entered the Augustinian Order where he studied Greek Hebrew and theology. In 1517 he became a professor at Bologna and subsequently became superior general in 1539 of his order. Seripando attended the Council of Trent where he showed great concern in the debates to preserve the doctrine of the purity of the text of Scripture. In 1551 he resigned as superior general and withdrew to contemplation. He emerged in 1553 to go on a mission for the city of Naples to Emperor Charles V. After the mission he became archbishop of Salerno. Pius IV made him a cardinal and eventually president of the council. He was a prolific writer. SERVETUS, MICHAEL [1511-1553] Anti-Trinitarian theologian and physician who studied biblical languages as well as mathematics and theology at the universities of Zaragoza and Toulouse and then went into royal service for Charles V. He left royal service and travelled to Basle, and then Strasbourg where he met Martin Bucer and other Protestants which stimulated his early radical theological ideas. In order to convert the Moors and Jews he felt that the Christian teaching of the Trinity would have to be reinterpreted. He decided that the most serious error was the belief in the eternal existence of the Son and his publicising of this concept resulted in attacks from orthodox scholars so he became a physician including working in Vienne as physician to the archbishop where he returned to the study of theology. He now repeated his earlier attacks on the doctrine of the Trinity and was arrested and condemned by the Inquisition but escaped and went to Geneva. Again he was arrested condemned and this time he was burnt. His execution provoked controversy over toleration of religious differences. 1554AGRICOLA, MIKAEL [15101557] Bishop of Abo [15541557]. Finnish reformer who laid the foundation of evangelical Christianity, theological training, preaching and education in Finland. He translated the New Testament into Finnish from the original Greek in 1543 although the influence of Luther is seen. He also translated part of the Old Testament. In 1549 he published a church manual. He has been called the Father of Finnish Literature. MARIANA, JUAN DE [1536-1624] Spanish Jesuit who became a Jesuit in 1554 and read history theology and philology at Alcala after which he lectured in theology at Rome, Sicily, and Paris as well as preaching widely. He wrote a book which advocated the peoples right to kill tyrants and make the Jesuits responsible for the assassination of Henry IV of France and the Gunpowder Plot in England. This view was condemned by the Order in 1610. 1555AUGSBURG, PEACE OF After the defeat of Charles V [see 1530] by Protestant princes in 1552, the Peace of Augsburg gave individual states and city states autonomy in deciding whether to remain Roman Catholic or Lutheran. The Calvinists and Dissenters were not included and were allowed to sell up and leave. This permanently shattered the concept of a unified church of Christendom and weakened Christianity in Europe as it gave secular control of the church in Germany. BRADFORD, JOHN [15101555] English Protestant martyr who, having seen military service under Sir John Harrington at Boulogne in 1544 went to Cambridge, graduating in 1549. Here he became a fellow and was a personal friend of Marin Bucer [see 1549] and had John Whitgift [see 1583] among his pupils. He was licensed to preach by Nicholas Ridley [see below] in 1550. On the death of Edward V in 1553 he was arrested with Edwin Sandys [see 1575], Nicholas Ridley, Hugh Latimer [see below], and Thomas Cranmer [see 1533]. After examination he was burnt at Smithfield in 1555. His piscopal ty saw him as a person of gentle character and a bold preacher JOASAPH II Patriarch of Constantinople [1555-1565] succeeded Dionysius II [see 1546]. There is no additional information readily available. LATIMER, HUGH [1485-1555] English Reformer and martyr. Educated at Cambridge he was appointed bishop of Worcester and 1535 and was twice imprisoned for his beliefs during the reaction of Henry VIIIs later years, and with Cranmer [see 1533] and Ridley [see below] he was to become one of the most celebrated victims of the persecution under Queen Mary being burned at Oxford in October 1555. He was a great preacher being forceful and having a vivid presentation. Latimer saw the preachers office was to teach the truth. He always asserted that the way a man lives will be a clue to what he believes. LIBERTINES Commonly associated with two groups of opposition to Calvin in Geneva. The first were Genevan patriots and influential families (not known as Libertines in their century) who led the republic to independence and the Reformation. They resented the dominating influence of Calvin and foreigners in Genevan affairs and a bitter struggle with Calvin ensued ending in their complete disgrace in 1555. The second group, called Libertines by Calvin, were a group who were spiritualists, professing a pantheistic, antinomian creed, denying evil, and rejecting all formal Christianity. They came to Geneva from France, but Calvin traces their beginnings to one Coppin of the Netherlands. This group was suppressed in Geneva in 1555. MARCELLUS II Pope [1555]. He was the last pope not to change his name on his accession. He was born Marcello Cervini, and educated locally, and at Siena and Florence, where he became proficient in writing Latin, Greek, and Italian. He also received instruction in jurisprudence, philosophy, and mathematics. Marcello had an interest in astrology, and his father Riccardo, upon discovering that his sons horoscope presaged high ecclesiastical honours, set the young Cervini on a path to the priesthood, and he was ordained a priest in 1535. His father and Pope Clement VII were personal friends, and Marcello was set to work on astronomical and calendar studies, a project which was intended to bring the year back into synchronisation with the seasons. After the Sack of Rome he fled home, but eventually returned and was appointed a papal secretary for Pope Paul III (153449). He was not consecrated bishop until the day he himself was elected pope. His house in Rome became a centre of Renaissance culture, and he corresponded with most of the leading humanists. During theCouncil of Trenthe was elected one of the councils three presidents, along with fellow cardinals Reginald Pole and the future Pope Julius III. He was credited with defending the universal claims of the papacy in spiritual and temporal affairs, and in 1550 he was granted the supervision of the Vatican Library. Marcellus II was elected as a compromise candidate. He desired to reform many of the inner workings of the church but he quickly fell ill. He was bled, and appeared to begin to recover. In his first audience with the ambassadors of France and Spain, he warned the ambassadors that their monarchs should keep the peace that had been agreed upon or the pope himself would come and admonish them. When the Spanish ambassador asked for pardon for having killed a man, the pope replied that he did not want to start his reign with such auspices as absolution from homicide. Within days he suffered a stroke and died on the 22nd day after his pontificate ranking him sixth on the list of 10 shortest-reigning popes. He succeeded Julius III [see 1550] and was succeeded by Paul IV [see below]. PAUL IV Pope [1555-1559]. He received a good education at home with his cardinal uncle who was able to secure an appointment in the Roman Curia for him. He served as papal envoy on several occasions being in England in 1513 to collect the Peters Pence from Henry VIII for Leo X, to Flanders 1515-17, and Spain 1517-1520. It was probably this last appointment which provoked an anti Spanish feeling which was to affect the policies of his pontificate. He was active in the reform movement within the church being the co-founder of the Theatines in 1524. He was made a cardinal in 1536 by Paul III and remained a staunch supporter of the Counter-Reformation reorganising the Italian Inquisition. This zeal for reform produced some drastic measures during his pontificate with a fervent promotion of the Inquisition especially against holders of high office, and the publication of the Index of Prohibited Books lessened his popularity as did his nepotism although he expelled all his nephews before the end of his reign. In his attempt to apply mediaeval concepts of papal power to 16th century politics he was unable to stem the tide of Protestantism in northern Europe. He succeeded Marcellus II [see above] and was succeeded by Pius IV [see 1559]. PHILPOT, JOHN [1516-1555] Protestant martyr who was educated at Winchester and New College Oxford where he qualified in law and subsequently travelled in Europe. Philpot was nearly arrested by the Inquisition for expounding Protestant notions in controversy with a Franciscan friar. Returning to England he became archdeacon of Winchester in the reign of Edward VI and after attacking transubstantiation he fell foul of his bishop and Queen Mary and was imprisoned. After examination at Newgate in London he was burned at the stake at Smithfield. RIDLEY, NICHOLAS [c.1500-1555] Reformer and bishop of London who was educated at Cambridge and in 1527 went to the Sorbonne where he may have witnessed some of the Reformation controversies. He returned to Cambridge in 1530 where he spent much of his time reading the Scriptures and learning them by heart. Seven years later he was appointed chaplain to Cranmer [see 1533] and the following year as vicar of Herne, Kent, in Cranmers diocese. In 1540 became chaplain to the king and was consecrated the bishop of Rochester in 1547 followed three years later by his translation to London. He had previously thought transubstantiation to be a primitive doctrine then from 1545 was convinced of its error and persuaded Cranmer who in turn persuaded Latimer of the error of transubstantiation. Ridley helped compile the Book of Common Prayer of 1549 and its revision in 1552, in which his theology on the Eucharist was given clearer liturgical expression. He was active in preaching on social questions and promoted the foundation of schools and hospitals. He was to return to his native see of Durham but on the death of Edward VI he supported the attempt to put Lady Jane Grey on the throne and when that failed he was deprived and imprisoned. In 1554 he was taken with Cranmer and Latimer to Oxford where he stood firm on his views and after the burning of the Reformers had began in 1555 Ridley and Latimer were sentenced to die at the stake. As the fires were lit Latimer cried out Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this day light such a candle by Gods grace in England as I trust shall never be put out! ROGERS, JOHN [c.1500-1555] Protestant martyr who was educated at Cambridge and from 1532 was rector of a London church. In 1534 he became chaplain to the English merchants in Antwerp where he assisted in smuggling forbidden books into England. Here he met William Tyndale [see 1525] who was then engaged in the translation the Old Testament, and embraced the Reformed faith. After Tyndales martyrdom he used his manuscripts together with the already published translation of Miles Coverdales work [see 1535] to produce his influential Matthews Bible in 1537 which was to be a major inspiration in all those translations which led up to the Authorised Version of 1611. He married and moved to a pastorate at Wittenberg in Germany where he studied Melanchthons writings several of which he later translated. He returned to England in 1548 and three years later was made divinity lecturer at St Pauls Cathedral. With the advent of Queen Mary he was arrested and put in Newgate Gaol with J. Hooper [see 1550] and others. After cruel sufferings he was burned at the stake in 1555 in the presence of his wife and children, the first Protestant martyr of the new reign. .1556CANISIUS, PETER [15211597] Dutch Roman Catholic reformer who became a Jesuit [see 1540] novice in 1543. He wrote three catechisms and did for the Catholics what Luther had done for the Protestants. He was an unsparing critic of abuses and by his leadership attracted many other talented men to the order. GILPIN, BERNARD [1517-1583] Anglican minister educated at Oxford who at first had no inclination towards the Reformed faith but during the reign of Edward VI proceeded slowly towards the Reformed position. From 1552 to 1556 he resided in France returning to England when he was presented by his great uncle, the easy-going Bishop Tunstall of Durham, to a living in the county. Now began his lifelong series of missionary tours and social and educational works among the neglected masses which earned him the title Apostle of the North. Arrested in 1558 he would have undoubtedly perished in the flames if it were not for Queen Marys timely death. To the end he continued his tours, denouncing ecclesiastical scandals and arousing hostility. POLE, REGINALD Archbishop of Canterbury [1556-1558]. Reginald Pole was the son of Sir Richard Pole and Princess Margaret, Countess of Sailsbury, niece of both Edward IV and Richard III. He was born in Staffordshire in 1500 and educated at the house of the Carmelite friars in Oxford. He matriculated at Magdalen College and became dean of Wimborne Minster and, afterwards, dean of Exeter. He studied in Italy and France and, as he was known to be opposed to the kings divorce and to his anti-papal policy. Due to these views he thought it wiser to remain abroad. In 1536, he was summoned to Rome by Pope Paul III, who insisted that he should take deacons orders and be made a cardinal. In the following year, he was appointed papal legate. He was present at the opening of the Council of Trent and he was employed by the pope in missions to the king of France and other princes with the view of forcibly restoring the papal authority in England but this ended in failure. The accession of Queen Mary, in 1553, changed the aspect of affairs however. Pole returned to England and became archbishop of Canterbury in 1556. His mentor Paul III had died in 1549 and Paul IV regarded him with dislike and suspicion. Having plunged into a war with Spain, Paul IV withdrew his legates from all parts of Philips dominions and, though Pole desired to remain neutral he found himself suspected of heresy and deprived of his status of legate. Pole died very shortly after Queen Mary and therefore did not see the final overthrow of papal dominion in England. He succeeded Thomas Cranmer [see 1533] and was succeeded by Matthew Parker [see 1559]. 1557ACONCIO, GIACOMO [14921566] An evangelical Catholic who later supported the Protestants. He fled to Basle in 1557 on the accession of Pope Paul IV and went to England in 1559. He wrote Satanae Stratageneta in 1565 pleading for tolerance within Christendom. CONGREGATION, THE A name adopted by leaders of the Protestant Party in Scotland who in December 1557 entered into a band which bound the signatories to strive for the most blessed Word of God. The group was a major factor in the build up that gained momentum with John Knoxs return in 1559 and climaxed when the Scottish Reformation became a reality in 1560. FREDERICK III of the Palatinate [1515-1576] He succeeded his father John II in 1557. In 1537 he married Mary, daughter of Margrave Casimir of Brandenburg, who had been reared as a Lutheran. Eleven years later he announced his conversion to the Evangelical cause. He became heir to the electorate of the Palatinate where not only Lutheranism but also Calvinism had found a strong foothold and this caused a controversy about the correct doctrine of the Lords Supper. With the help of various divines Frederick supported Calvinism in Heidelberg and commissioned the writing of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563. In 1570 the Presbyterian form of church government was introduced in the Palatinate. His son Louis VI returned to Lutheranism. 1558BARTHOLOMEW OF THE MARTYRS [1514-1590] Archbishop of Braga in Portugal became a Dominican friar in 1528 who taught theology and philosophy before being reluctantly made archbishop. He enforced clerical reforms and began a seminary in his palace. He visited methodically his 1300 parishes and resigned his see in 1582. He authored more than thirty works. CLEMENS, JACOB [c.1510-1558] Flemish musical composer who may have been the imperial choirmaster under Charles V. His compositions include metrical psalms, masses and motets. ELIZABETH I [1533-1603] Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 who was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. She succeeded her Roman Catholic sister Mary at a time when the country was divided and nearly defenceless. Three decades later, the Armadas bid for a Spanish Catholic England had been defeated, the flag of St George flew in all the oceans, and the country was experiencing extraordinary cultural flowering. Due to her life before becoming queen she had learnt to screen her thoughts from others and to circumvent difficulties with a resourcefulness which was just when England need it. With rival religious dogmatism she was impatient but of the providence of God she had no doubt. Setting about securing a religious settlement [see Elizabeth Settlement 1559] she sensed her subjects were now basically Protestant and prepared to move in that direction. The Scottish Reformers need for military help was met at precisely the right moment, and the succession of James Stuart, king of Scotland was prepared for. ERASTUS, THOMAS [1524-1583] He studied theology at Basle and then medicine and philosophy at Bologna and Padua. In 1558 he became physician to the elector Palatine and professor of medicine at Heidelberg. In the city there was a strong Calvinist party led by Casper Olevianus [see 1562] which wanted to introduce a Presbyterian form of government and discipline in the church. Erastus, a Zwinglian in theology opposed this and eventually had to leave the city. Six years after his death, Castelvetro who married his widow, published a work found among his papers stating that the state has the right to intervene and over rule in church affairs. The Church of England is sometimes described as Erastian in that the bishops are appointed by the Crown and major changes must have the agreement of Parliament. LAYNEZ, JAMES [1512-1565] Spanish Jesuit theologian and leader in the Counter-Reformation. In 1533 he moved to the University of Paris joining Ignatius of Loyola. He was one of six who took vows in 1534 that founded the Society of Jesus. The group moved to Italy where Laynez spent his remaining life as a powerful counter Protestant preacher and philosophical theology teacher. He became the second general of the Jesuits in 1558. He decisively shaped the uncompromising canons of justification, the sacraments, purgatory and papal absolution. He died in Rome. UNITARIANISM A religious concept which rejects the doctrine of the Trinity and the deity of Christ. It is founded on reason and experience. Unitarians believe in the goodness of human nature and dont accept the doctrines of the Fall, the Atonement, and eternal damnation. Unitarians require openness to divine inspiration, and in church government they are Congregationalists. As an organised movement, Unitarianism first appeared in Poland and Hungary in the Reformation period. In Poland the physician Blandrata dominated the early phases of the movement from 1558 and it was most obvious among the Socinians [see 1578], but after the death of Fausto Sozzini in 1604 they lost their influence and in 1658 Jesuits took over their college in Racov and they were expelled from Poland. English Unitarianism is traced to John Biddle [see 1647], Theophilus Lindsey in 1774, and the scientist Joseph Priestly [see 1767] who ministered to Unitarian congregations then went to the United States of America in 1794. English Unitarians were recognised by law in 1813. Unitarianism has been more successful in the United States of America than anywhere else where it developed in the Congregational churches of East Massachusetts. Thomas Jefferson held anti-Trinitarian views. In 1805 the anti-Trinitarian liberal Henry Ware was appointed to the theological chair at Harvard. Traditionally centred at Harvard Divinity School, American Unitarianism created other seminaries and preparatory schools, and had foreign work for liberal Christianity and religious freedom in Holland. In 1961 the Unitarians in the USA merged with Universalism to form the Unitarian Universalist Association. Unitarianism has evolved into a creedless movement stressing the many forms of divine revelation and the inherent goodness of man. It stresses the religion of the Sermon on the Mount and the oneness of the human family. In the early church anti-Trinitarianism was expressed in Monarchianism [see 200], Adoptianism [see 200] and Arianism [see 325]. 1559COX, RICHARD [1500-1581] Bishop of Ely who became convinced of Reformed views while at Cambridge. He became the first dean of Christs Church Oxford in 1547 and helped to compile the order of Communion the following year and the Prayer Books of 1549 and 1552. On the accession of Mary he was deposed and went into exile at Frankfurt in 1555 where he came into conflict with John Knox [see below] with the latter wanting more reform. He was appointed bishop of Ely in 1559 a post he held to 1580. He also translated Acts and Romans for the Bishops Bible [see 1568]. ELIZABETHAN SETTLEMENT The changes effected in English ecclesiastical affairs after the Protestant Elizabeth I [see 1558] had succeeded the Roman Catholic Mary in 1558. Briefly, these involved the abolition once more of papal power in England, and the restoration of Henry VIIIs [see 1521] ecclesiastical legislation, with penalties for recusants; an Act of Supremacy that declared the Queen to be supreme of all persons and causes, ecclesiastical as well civil; an act of uniformity [see 1549], accepting Edward VIs [see 1552] Second Prayer Book, making orders about vestments and ornaments, and re-enacting Edward VIs Articles of Religion reduced from 42 to 39; and the dissolution of those monasteries that had been restored by Mary. The settlement only gained partial success as it was opposed by Papists and Puritans. Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth in 1570 but the short shrift given to priests who infiltrated the country about 1579 showed where the majority opinion lay. The emergence of an essentially Protestant religion identified in English minds with patriotism and the rejection of Spain and other foreign elements. Elizabeth never asserted the Divine Right [see 1688] theory that was to prove the downfall of the following Stuart dynasty. GALLIC CONFESSION [1559] The French Calvinist Confession of Faith. Its history begins with the statement of faith sent by the Reformed churches in France to Calvin in 1557 during a period of persecution. Working from this and probably with the help of Beza and Pierre Viret, Calvin wrote a confession for them. This took the form of 35 articles. When the persecution subsided, 20 delegates representing 72 churches met secretly in Paris in 1559 to produce a church constitution and confession of faith. Calvins thirty five articles were all used in the confession, except for the first two which were expanded into six giving 40 articles altogether in the Gallic Confession. GENEVAN ACADEMY Founded in 1559 under the influence of John Calvin who believed that one of the great needs in the Reformed Church was an educational institution that would prepare, not only ministers to preach the gospel, but men who could take their place as Christians in every walk of life. Influenced by the example of Martin Bucer and John Sturm in Strasbourg, he desired to extend the public school established in 1537 to cover the whole course of education. He succeeded in this, with Theodore Beza becoming the first rector along with three other professors. From the academy in Geneva in the years following its foundation many leaders of the Reformation in other countries such as France, Hungary, Holland, England, and Scotland went out to carry on the Calvinistic tradition. INDEX OF FORBIDDEN BOOKS A list of books which are prohibited reading for members of the Roman Catholic Church. This practice is in keeping with a tradition which regards certain works as dangerous to the faith and morals of the Catholics. Under Pope Gelasius l [see 492] a decree was issued which divided books into three categories: authentic scriptural ones, recommended works, and heretical works. The formal codification of forbidden books took place under Paul IV. One of the tasks of the Congregation of the Inquisition was to compile a catalogue of forbidden books. This was published with papal approval in 1559, the first such list to bear the official title of Index. Revisions of the index occurred under various popes, the last of which took place in 1948. In 1966 at Vatican Council II it was stated that no further editions of the index would be issued, and its chief value today is historical. Catholics are still, however, bound to abide by certain guidelines prohibiting the reading of books which constitute possible spiritual danger. KNOX, JOHN [1511-1572] Scottish reformer educated at St Andrews and ordained in 1536. He converted to Protestantism and was subsequently influenced by John Rough and George Wishart [see 1545], a disciple of Lutheran and Swiss theology. Following Wisharts martyrdom in 1546 Knox contemplated going to Germany but renewed action against heretics caused him to go to St Andrews Castle where he was called as preacher. When the castle fell, he was taken to France as a galley slave. While serving as a galley slave he wrote a compendium of Protestant thought embracing Luthers doctrine of justification. He was freed in 1549 and went to England where his sermons attacked the mass as idolatrous and he was summoned to answer those views. Following Marys succession he fled to the Continent. He met with Calvin [see 1536] in Geneva, Bullinger [see 1531] in Zurich, as well as other Swiss leaders posing questions on rebellion against idolatrous monarchs and female sovereigns. Knox went back to Scotland in 1555 then returned to Geneva in 1556 but the Protestant lords in Scotland sought his return, and he arrived in May 1559 and played a major role in drafting the Scots Confession [see 1560] which Parliament approved in August 1560. After Mary Stuarts return in 1561 Knox denounced her masses and court life at Holyrood House. Knox was a man of conviction and courage, whose declamations against idolatry overshadowed the warmer side of his nature. His most famous work was History the Reformation of Religion within the Realm of Scotland published in 1644. MAGDEBURG CENTURIES [1559-1574] A major Protestant reinterpretation of the history of the Christian church to 1308 written by Matthias Flacius [see 1544] in collaboration with six other Lutherans. It is severely antipapal and based on selected sources. It resulted in a response [1588-1607] by Cesare Baronius [see 1568] based on sources in the Vatican library. MYSOS, DEMETRIUS [1719-1750] He was a deacon from Constantinople who was sent to Wittenberg in 1559 by Patriarch Joasaph II [see 1555] to study firsthand the reformers and their teachings. He stayed six months studying under Philip Melanchthon [see 1521], attending services and lectures and studying the reformers creedal documents. Leaving Wittenberg for Constantinople in 1559 he carried with him a letter from Melanchthon to the patriarch and also a Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession. Mysos wrote a letter to Melanchthon in October 1559 revealing the effect his contact with the reformers had had upon him. Some authorities suggest he spent three years trying to introduce Lutheranism into the villages of Transylvania. He was one of the first Orthodox clergy to have any real contact with the Reformers. PARKER, MATTHEW Archbishop of Canterbury [1559-1575]. Matthew Parker was born in Norwich, in 1504, and educated at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. He was ordained in 1527 and was appointed dean of the college of St. John the Baptist at Stoke-by-Clare and chaplain to Anne Boleyn and to the king. In 1544, he was elected master of his college at Cambridge and vice-chancellor of the university; and, upon the accession of Queen Elizabeth, he took part in the revision of the prayer book. He was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury in Lambeth Palace chapel in 1559. Parker possessed all the qualifications Queen Elizabeth expected from an archbishop except celibacy. He mistrusted popular enthusiasm, and he wrote in horror of the idea that the people should be the reformers of the church. He was not an inspiring leader, and no dogma, no prayer-book, not even a tract or a hymn is associated with his name. He was a disciplinarian, a scholar, a modest and moderate man of genuine piety and irreproachable morals. The Anglican Church owes much to Matthew Parker for guiding it through a time of great difficulty with the papacy on one side and the Puritans on the other. His was studious and bequeathed a magnificent collection of books to his college. Under his authority the Bishops Bible was published. He was the author of a number of works, chiefly on the history and the government of the Anglican Church. He died in 1575. He succeeded Reginald Pole [see 1556] and was succeeded by Edmund Grindal [see 1575]. PIUS IV Pope [1559-1565]. He brought the Council of Trent to a successful conclusion. He studied law and medicine at Pavia, entered papal service in 1527 and was made a cardinal in 1549. On his being elected pope he quickly ended nepotism in papal circles. He reassembled the Council of Trent in 1561 and negotiating privately with the kings of France, Spain, and the emperor, he was able to maintain the power of the curia. The Council of Trent was dissolved in 1563 thus completing the legal enactment of the Counter-Reformation. He also published a new Index and an edition of the Roman Catechism. In 1564 Jeanne dAlbret, the Queen of Navarre was summoned before the Inquisition on a charge of Calvinism but was withdrawn by him in deference to the indignant protest of Charles IX of France. In the same year he published a bull granting the use of the cup to the laity of Austria and Bohemia. He succeeded Paul IV [see 1555] and was succeeded by Pius V [see 1566]. PURITANS / PURITANISM The history of Puritanism may be divided into three periods [1] from accession of Queen Elizabeth to the crushing of the Presbyterian movement by her in 1593; [2] from 1593 to the calling of the Long Parliament in 1640; and [3] from 1640 to the restoration of Charles II in 1660. From 1559 to 1593 the governing classes became Protestant and the House of Commons created a Protestant National Church and the queen decided in favour of a traditional diocesan episcopate rather than the episcopate favoured by some of the subjects. Her people returning from Europe were disappointed with the Settlement of Religion in 1559 and what followed it, since they felt it had too many relics of Roman Catholicism preserved. Certain clerical Puritans also wanted to reform the leadership of the church along Presbyterian lines. After James I many clear at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604 that he did not intend to make any important changes in the church, the Puritans, especially ministers, had to face real problems. Many compromised to the extent that they gave a minimal conformity and then used the parish as the centre of evangelism by means of preaching. Others became lecturers and preached on market days or other agreed times, being financially supported by voluntary means and not tithes. Yet another group became Separatists and some went to Holland or New England such as the Pilgrim Fathers. After 1630 there was a large exodus of Puritans to Massachusetts where they sought to create a purified Church of England as an example for the homeland. In 1640 Puritans were united in their desire to purify the national church and remove prelacy. With the execution of Charles I and the advent of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, the Puritans became divided and opposed each other. Cromwell in his liberally conceived national church sought to unite them but it was not possible. Henceforth there would be Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists, Quakers, and other groups. The Clarendon Code of the Cavalier Parliament ensured that the former Puritans remained outside the church. Thus Nonconformity was born. RECUSANTS The name given to those in England, Wales, and Ireland who refused to obey the Act of Uniformity of 1559 which required all subjects to acknowledge Queen Elizabeth as the supreme governor of the church and to attend services conducted according to the Prayer Book. The term is derived from the Latin verb meaning to refuse, and at first a fine of one shilling was levied against those who disobeyed the law. Because of threats of Roman Catholic invasions and plots against the Queens life and some efforts to stir rebellion, the penalties were greatly increased, culminating in death due to treason. Not until the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 were most of the restrictions removed throughout Great Britain. Roman Catholics still cannot become king or queen by terms of the Coronation Oath. SCOTLAND [see also 1057 and 1843] Real reform began however only with the activities of the followers of Martin Luther and later John Calvin. Under the influence of Patrick Hamilton [see 1528] and George Wishart [see 1545] both martyrs to their faith, John Knox [se above], Andrew Melville [see 1582] and others supported primarily by the gentry and the burgesses of the towns, a radical Calvinistic reformation took place. The Reformed church was established and has since exercised a wide influence of both within and without Scotland. The Scots Confession [1560] and the First and Second Books of Discipline have formed the basis of most of the English language formulae of doctrine and church government in use even today. There has been conflict between these and the Scottish Episcopal Church which has attempted to have a similar position as the Anglican church in England. 1560BAIUS, MICHEL [15131589] Flemish Catholic theologian, forerunner of Jaisenism, caused controversy in the Catholic church attacking the ideas of merit in good works, papal infallibility, immaculate conception, and the limited view of the fall. BARO, PETER [15341599] French pastor and theologian who studied law at Bourges where he came under Reformed influence that led him to a study of theology. In Geneva he studied under Calvin by whom he was ordained in 1560. He returned to France but was expelled in 1572 and became professor of divinity at Cambridge. He became critical of the doctrine of predestination leading to controversy with its advocates. He died in London. BIBLE VERSIONS Elizabethan section listed in order [for Tyndale section see 1535, for King James see 1611] 1560. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/geneva.html" Geneva Bible with revised New Testament published by Whittingham in Geneva. 1563. Archbishop Parker and eight of his bishops begin work on the Bishops Bible. 1565. Bezas Greek-Latin New Testament 1566. Last edition of Tyndales New Testament 1568. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/bishops.html" Bishops Bible (dedicated to Elizabeth) authorised for church use. 1569. Last edition of Cranmers Great Bible. 1571. Every bishop and cathedral in England ordered to have Bishops Bible. 1572. Bishops Bible revised and published with the old Great Bible Psalter. Antwerp Polyglot published. 1575. Edmund Grindal archbishop of Canterbury actively promotes the Geneva Bible during the next eight years. 1578. Martin begins Rheims version of the New Testament (authorised Roman Catholic version, translated from the Vulgate). 1579. Geneva Bible reprinted and authorised in Scotland. Every Scottish household of sufficient means is required by law to buy a copy. 1582. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/rheims.html" Rheims New Testament (translated from the Latin) published by English Roman Catholics living in France. Bezas 2nd Greek New Testament. 1589. Bezas 3rd Greek New Testament. 1592. Sixtine-Clementine Latin Bible. 1598. Bezas 4th Greek New Testament. 1602. Last edition of Bishops Bible. 1604. English bishops and Puritan leaders meet with King James in the Hampton Court Conference. Revision of Bishops Bible proposed. King James nominates revision committee of 54 scholars. 1607. Work on King James Bible begun. 1609. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/rheims.html" Douay Old Testament (translated from the Latin) published by English Roman Catholics living in France. CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM [15001574] German reformer, philologist and Greek scholar, who was a biographer of Melanchthon [see 1521] with whom he travelled to the Palatinate. He also visited Erasmus [see 1514]. He translated the Augsburg Confession [see 1530] into Greek. He also discussed the possibility of Lutheran reunion with Roman Catholicism with both Francis II in 1535 and Maximilian II in 1568. DISCIPLINE, BOOKS OF The doctrine, worship, and government of the Reformed Church of Scotland. Produced in 1560 as the work of the committee of six members appointed by Parliament, and John Knox was their acknowledged leader. The first book of discipline aimed at a total reformation of religion in the whole realm. It provided for the government of the church by sessions, synods and assemblies. It recognised the office bearers of the church to be ministers, teachers, elders, deacons, superintendents, and readers. In 1581 the second book of discipline was published which defined the relationship between church and state, outlined more precisely the functions of the office bearers in the church, and strengthened the position of the ruling elder. This second book of discipline became the charter for Presbyterianism in the Church of Scotland. ERSKINE OF DUN, SIR JOHN [1590-1591] Scottish Reformer who had such an influence it has been said that while there might not have been a Protestant Reformation in Scotland without John Knox, it could not have happened without Sir John Erskine of Dun its distinguished lay leader. Destined to become after 1560 one of the churchs seven area superintendents, and five times elected moderator of its general assembly, this well-known Scotsman introduced the teaching of Greek into that country, befriended George Wishart [see 1545] and later gathered the lairds of Angus and Mearns to his home at Dun to sit at Knoxs feet. He won even the respect of Mary Queen of Scots. GENEVA BIBLE 1560 translation the Bible into English popularly known as the Breeches Bible for its rendering of Genesis 3:7 they made themselves breeches rather than the aprons of the Authorised Version. It was translated at Geneva by a committee of Protestant exiles which probably included William Whittingham and John Knox. The Calvinistic annotations greatly irritated James I of England but delighted his increasingly Puritan subjects. Used widely for two generations it became the official version for the Scottish Kirk and the household Bible of English-speaking Protestants everywhere, gradually being replaced by the Authorised Version of 1611. The last Geneva Bible was published in 1644. JEWEL, JOHN [1522-1571] Bishop of Salisbury who was educated at Oxford where he encountered Peter Martyr [see 1552] the continental Reformer. As a result Jewel became one of the leading thinkers in the Reforming party. He left for Frankfurt in 1555 on Marys succession. He had signed anti-Protestant articles before deciding to depart from England which made John Knox [see 1559] suspicious and he publicly expressed sorrow for his cowardice. After his return to England in 1559 he continued to correspond with Peter Martyr. In 1560 Elizabeth I made him bishop of Salisbury where he carried out his work diligently. In 1562 he published the first systematic defence of the Church of England against the Church of Rome. Lengthy and bitter controversy followed with the Roman Catholic Thomas Harding. A convinced Anglican, Jewel took his stand on the Elizabethan Settlement [see 1559] and also opposed the Puritans with their desire for further reforms such as the abolition of the surplice. At Salisbury, Jewel educated and supported a number of poor boys among them Richard Hooker [see 1595] the English theologian and apologist. PILKINGTON, JAMES [c.1520-1576] Bishop of Durham who was educated at Cambridge and was a warm supporter of the Reformation. During the persecution of Mary, Pilkington had to flee to the Continent and lived in Zurich, Basle, Geneva and Frankfurt. Returning to England in 1558 he was the first to sign the Peaceable Letter to the English Church of Geneva. He was appointed to the commission for the revision of the Book of Common Prayer. In 1560 he was appointed bishop of Durham, the first Protestant to hold that see. He had a hand in the drawing of the 39 Articles in 1562. In 1569 during the northern rebellion he had to flee. SCOTS CONFESSION This document was prepared in four days in August 1560 and submitted to the Scottish Parliament which are ratified it with very little opposition. Individuals who were responsible for its preparation were the six Johns, John Winram from St Andrews, John Spottiswoode of Lothian, John Willock from Glasgow, John Douglas of St Andrews, John Row minister of Perth and John Knox minister of St Giles Edinburgh, with John Knox being the dominant figure. The confessions theology is Calvinistic although the document itself is by no means merely a copy of the statement by Calvin or some other continental leader. It remained the confession of the Scottish Reformed Church until the adoption of the Westminster Confession of Faith in 1647. 1561-1570 AD 1561ANDREAE, JAMES [15281590] Lutheran scholar who in 1546 became a pastor in Stuttgart but was deposed because he would not subscribe to the Interim [1548]. He became professor in 1561 and was later chancellor at Tubingen University. A prolific writer he sided with Westphal against Calvin in the controversy over the Lords Supper. BELGIC CONFESSION A major Calvinistic creed, one of three used in the Dutch Reformed Church together with the Heidelberg Catechism and the Canons of Dort. The confession was written by Guido de Bres [see 1548] in French. Adopted by the national synod of the Netherlands in 1619 it drew heavily on the Gallic confession. CASSANDER, GEORG [1513-1566] Roman Catholic theologian who tried to mediate between the Catholics and Protestants, especially the Anabaptists. He joined in the programmes of Ferdinand I and Maximilian II to promote unity in the church [1561-66]. It was in 1561 he produced his most famous book promoting this. He was criticised on both sides and his work was placed on the Index of Prohibited Books in 1617. COLIGNY, ODET DE [1517-1571] French cardinal and Protestant leader who in 1561 created a sensation when he embraced the reformed faith. Endeavouring with his brother Gaspard de Coligny [see 1562] to alleviate the persecution of the Huguenots [see 1540] he was excommunicated and in 1568 fled to London where Queen Elizabeth welcomed him warmly. He was poisoned it is said at the instigation of Catherine de Medici and is buried in Canterbury Cathedral. DUTCH REFORMED CHURCH The major Protestant church in the Netherlands, Calvinistic in theology, Presbyterian in Church government, it was organised during the revolt of the Low Countries against Spanish rule in the 16th century. The Belgian Confession of 1561 and the Heidelberg Catechism were accepted generally as the standards of the Reformed Church. The first national synod was held in 1578. During the Dutch Golden age of the 1600s when the Netherlands was a major power, the Reformed Church, as the established church, played an important role in Dutch life. Its efforts in theology became increasingly defensive. The Reformed Church spread also wherever the Dutch moved or emigrated such as to the East Indies, the West Indies, Ceylon, South Africa, and New York. Mission efforts had some success in the Indies and in South Africa. In North America the Reformed Church grew out by the early Dutch settlement; immigration to the US in the 1800s increased in number and also produced the more conservative Christian Reformed Church. FEUARDENT, FRANCOIS [1539-1610] Franciscan preacher and scholar. He was ordained in 1561 and later lectured at the University of Paris. He took a leading part in Frances political and religious struggles, and was a prominent preacher for the cause of the Catholic League. He retired to the convent of Bayeux, where he provided a library. His works include biblical commentaries and writings against Calvinism. KETHE, WILLIAM [d 1594] Kethe was a Bible translator, especially of the Psalms. Kethe is thought to have been Scots-born, although this has never been confirmed. His name was first recorded as being among the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_exiles" \o "Marian exiles" Marian exiles in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_am_main" \o "Frankfurt am main" Frankfurt in 1555 and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva" \o "Geneva" Geneva in 1557, suggesting he left with those who took HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Knox" \o "John Knox" John Knoxs side in the troubles at Frankfurt. Kethe helped translate the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Bible" \o "Geneva Bible" Geneva Bible in 1560 and contributed twenty-five HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalm" \o "Psalm" psalms to the 1561 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrical_psalter" \o "Metrical psalter" Anglo-Genevan Psalter. Only ten of these were retained in the 1562 English Psalter, while the 1564 Scottish Psalter retained all 25. Most of his Psalms were translations from French sources. His version of Psalm 100, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_100th" \o "Old 100th" The Old Hundredth, is universally known by its first line HYPERLINK "http://www1.bartleby.com/45/2/105.html" All People That on Earth Do Dwell. During the reign of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" \o "Elizabeth I of England" Elizabeth I, Kethe served as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rector" \o "Rector" Rector to the parish of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Okeford" \o "Child Okeford" Child Okeford in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorset" \o "Dorset" Dorset, (1561-1593). After retiring he remained in the village but he died within a year. Whilst serving as vicar, he had also had two spells as a military HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaplain" \o "Chaplain" chaplain under HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_Dudley,_3rd_Earl_of_Warwick" \o "Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick" Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Havre" \o "Le Havre" Le Havre in 1563 and 1569. NAUMBURG CONVENTION [1561] A conference of twelve Protestant princes and other German Protestant representatives held at Naumburg in Saxony which sought to secure doctrinal unity, particularly on the subject of the Eucharistic. It agreed to recognise afresh the Augsburg Confession. However there were serious problems within the Lutheran camp and a violent theological war resulted ending in the triumph of strict Lutheranism in the Formula of Concord [see 1577]. The convention also received and rejected an invitation to send delegates to the third session of the Council of Trent [see 1545]. POISSY, COLLOQUY OF [1561] The assembly of French Roman Catholic priests and Reformed Protestant theologians, ministers, and layman, convened by the regent and queen mother, Catherine of Medici [see 1547]. Since the Council of Trent [see 1545] had been adjourned in 1552 and was moreover clearly not following a policy of compromise with Protestants, Catherine hoped to bring religious peace and unity to France by a national programme of reform, both doctrinal and disciplinary, by calling a national council of the French church. The papacy however prevented such a council by reconvening the Council of Trent. However Catherine went ahead giving her assembly the designation of colloquy. This attempt at a political solution failed. The Protestants gained an aura of royal acceptance and religious passions were intensified leading to open hostilities by 1562 because of the depth of doctrinal differences. RAMUS, PETER [1515-1572] French humanist who in 1561 was converted to Protestantism. After spending 1568 to 1571 in Germany to escape persecution he returned to France and was killed in the massacre of St Bartholomews Day in 1572. For a time Ramus engaged in an effort to establish congregational government in the French Calvinistic churches but it is as a reformer of the Aristotelian logic that he is best known. SANDERS, NICHOLAS [c.1530-1581] Roman Catholic scholar and controversialist who was educated at Oxford and became a lecturer in canon law there in 1551. He stayed at Oxford until the accession of Elizabeth in 1558 which caused him to leave England for the Continent. By 1561 he had been ordained priest at Rome and served as theologian at the Council of Trent. His ability was further recognised in 1565 with his appointment as professor of theology at Louvain. Over the next few years he produced a number of works upholding the claims of Rome against the Anglican Church. He was summoned to Rome to advise Gregory XIII on English affairs and schemed for a possible military invasion of England by Catholic armies. Sanders went to Ireland in 1579 to pursue his plans but he died there two years later. TREMELLIUS, JOHN IMMANUEL [1510-1580] Italian Reformer and Semitic scholar who was educated at Padua and won to Christianity through Cardinal Pole in 1540. The following year he adopted Protestantism. Tremellius fled the Inquisition in 1542 going to Strasbourg where he taught Hebrew in Johannes Sturms School. In 1547 during the Smalcald War he fled to England and became reader in Hebrew at Cambridge. However when Mary Tudor came to the throne he left England for the Continent, serving as a tutor to the children of the duke of Zweibrucken and professor of Old Testament studies at Heidelberg from 1561 to 1577. He is best known for his Latin translation of the Hebrew Scriptures which was for a long time used as the most accurate Latin Bible. 1562CALFHILL, JAMES [1530-1570] Anglican theologian who although he had obtained his MA by 1552 decided to wait until the accession of Elizabeth before completing his education and ordination. He was nominated as bishop of Worcester in 1570 but died prior to consecration. His most important work was An answer to the Treatise of the Cross published in 1562. COLIGNY, GASPARD DE [1519-1572] Huguenot leader and statesman who became the great hero of the first generation of French protestants and was eventually named Admiral of France. Sometime between 1555 and 1560 he was converted and joined the Reformed Church becoming a leading Calvinist in the wars of religion which commenced in 1562. Gaining the favour of Charles IX he arranged and accepted peace between the Calvinists and Catholics in 1570 but was murdered in Paris two years later with several thousand other Huguenots in the St Bartholomews Day massacre [see 1572]. COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF At the general assembly of the church in 1562 it was ordained for use in the sacraments and solemnisation of weddings and funerals. It quickly became the standard directory of worship for the Scottish Reformed Church and the attempt by Charles I [see 1625] to do away with it led to the signing of the National Covenant in 1638 and consequent Bishops Wars [see 1639]. COVENANT THEOLOGY which is sometimes called Federal Theology and explains the relationship between God and man in terms of a covenant. In its strict sense it began in Germany when a number of Calvinists such as Kaspar Olevianus [see 1562] and Zacharias Ursinus [see 1562] emphasised a covenant between God and man and the believers mystical union with Christ. William Ames [see 1622] became the leading British exponent of covenant theology which in a milder form appears both in the Westminster Confession [see 1643] and Savoy Declaration [see 1658]. It continued into more modern times in a much diminished form with one of the more modern proponents being Charles Hodge [see 1841] and Archibald Hodge [see 1877]. MALDONALDO JUAN [1534-1583] Spanish exegete who studied in Salamanca and became a Jesuit in 1562. He taught philosophy at Rome and Paris, and was theology professor at the College of Clermont from 1565 to 1574. At first his lectures were traditional but in 1570 he instituted his own theological course. The Sorbonne accused him of heresy but he was vindicated and withdrew to Bourges where he wrote commentaries on the Gospels which became famous. OLEVIANUS, KASPAR [1536-1587] Reformed theologian who was born at Trier and studied at the Paris, Orleans, and Bourges where he accepted Reformation ideas. The drowning of a friend impelled him to become a preacher. He studied theology in Geneva, Zurich, and Lausanne becoming acquainted with Farel, Calvin, Peter Martyr, Beza, and Bullinger. He returned to Trier to teach in the Latin School in 1562 but his fervent preaching lead to imprisonment. With Zacharias Ursinus [see 1562] he drafted the final revision of the Heidelberg Catechism. He also wrote New Testament commentaries. He was involved in an Arian controversy and voted for the death penalty for the blasphemers. TERESA OF AVILA [1515-1582] Carmelite reformer, mystic and writer. A Spaniard who was educated by Augustinian nuns and entered the Carmelite Covenant of the Incarnation at Avila in 1533. In the 1550s she sought the life of perfection praying before a statue of the scourged Christ at the pillar and soon was said to have divine heavenly visions. Teresa knew ecstasy and among her spiritual experiences was the mystical piercing of the heart by a spear of divine love. She founded the convent under the original barefoot Carmelite Rule at St Josephs at Avila in 1562. There she wrote her first work The Way of Perfection as instruction for her nuns. From 1567 she travelled in Spain founding houses for both nuns and friars and receiving assistance from John of the Cross [see 1567]. URSINUS, ZACHARIAS [1534-1583] German Reformer and theologian who studied at Wittenberg and is best known for his Heidelberg Catechism of 1562 which follows the teaching of Melanchthon [see 1521] and agrees with the teaching of his favourite theologian Peter Martyr [see 1552]. Ursinus taught at Breslau where his 1559 thesis on the sacrament led to his dismissal. He then lectured on dogmatics at Heidelberg from 1561 to 1568. He left Heidleberg for Neustadt in 1577. By his influence he made Melanchthons Loci Communes standard reading for generations of Reformed pastors at Heidelberg. 1563CANO, MELCHIOR [15091560] Spanish Roman Catholic theologian of the Dominican Order [see 1210]. He was famous for his book De Locis Theologicis which helped to lay the foundations of theological methodology. He was elected provincial of the Dominican Order but this was not confirmed by Pope Paul IV [see 1555] because of Canos support for the Spanish crown against the papacy. FOXE, JOHN [1516-1587] Protestant historian and martyrologist who was educated at Oxford and became a fellow of Magdalen [1539-1545]. He became tutor to the earl of Surreys children, where he met John Bale [see 1552] who stimulated his interest in history. He was ordained deacon by Nicholas Ridley in 1550 and on Marys accession fled to the continent taking a manuscript designed to be the first part of a history of the movement for the Reformation church. In 1555 he was in Frankfurt where he met other refugees, including Edmund Grindal [see 1575] who was recording stories of martyrs. Using his own and Grindals material he published his famous Foxes Book of Martyrs in 1563. Four editions appeared in his lifetime, profoundly influencing Elizabethan England. The more modern editions have often been abridged. VIRET, PIERRE [1511-1571] Viret was a Protestant Reformer and important figure in the Calvinistic Reformation movement. In Paris he joined the Reformers under the influence of G. Farel [see 1532] and became a preacher serving Reformed congregations at Payerne, Neuchatel, and Lausanne, where he also established a flourishing academy. His work there ended due to the opposition of Bern in 1559. Viret was associated with Calvin at the Lausanne disputation of 1536 as well as in Geneva in 1541 and 1559. Viret presided over a Reformed national synod at Lyons in 1563. WHITTINGHAM, WILLIAM [c.1524-1579] Dean of Durham who was educated at Oxford and spent time in Europe [1550-1553] returning to England a convinced Protestant. As Mary Tudor was now on the throne he left after four months for Frankfurt inviting other English exiles together there. He took a leading part in organising the English congregation. John Knox [see 1559] was expelled in March 1555 and was followed by Whittingham in September who followed him to Geneva where Whittington was elected a minister. He was largely responsible for the translation of the Geneva Bible [see 1560] and when the other translators returned to England on the death of Mary in 1558 he remained in Geneva until it was printed in 1560. In 1563 he was made dean of Durham despite Elizabeths dislike for his Puritanism. Proceedings were begun against him in 1566 because of his refusal to wear the surplice but Whittington gave way. He incurred the hostility of Edwin Sandys, archbishop of York [see 1575], for resisting his attempt to visit Durham Cathedral. 1564BEZA, THEODORE [15191605] Calvins successor in 1564 as the head of Reformed Protestantism. Born in France he became a lawyer and came under family pressure to become ordained as a Catholic priest. However after a severe illness he became a Protestant in 1548 and went to Geneva and secured a position of professor of Greek in the academy in Lausanne. Returning to Geneva on the death of Calvin in 1564 he became the defender and spokesman of the Reformed Protestant position. He published the Greek text of the N.T. in 1566 which had a significant effect on the King James edition. His strong defence of double predestination, biblical literalism, church discipline and other Calvinistic ideas did much to harden the movement and to begin the period of Reformed Scholasticism. LE JEUNE, CLAUDE [c.1530-1600] French composer whose life was generally spent close to court circles or in the service of noblemen friendly to the Huguenot cause. At some time before 1564 he seems to have become a Protestant. He had connections with the family of William of Orange and the Duc de Bouillon before finally becoming court composer to Henry of Navarre. Le Jeune composed over 300 settings of Genevan psalms as well as settings of moralistic Huguenot poems. He wrote in addition a lot of important secular music. MISSAL The Roman Catholic book of the Mass finally compiled. Before the Council of Trent it was made up of several books. ORATORIANS The name of two associations of secular priests. [1] The Italian Oratory was founded by Philip Neri [see 1551] in Rome out of an informal association of priests in 1564. He was the first religious leaders to add social and artistic aspects to devotional exercises. Palestrina [see 1594] was one of his penitents who composed music for his external brotherhood or little oratory giving the name of oratorio to music. J.H. Newman [see 1845] introduced them to England at Old Oscott in 1847. They live in community without vows and are supported by private means. [2] The second is the French Oratory founded by Pierre de Berulle [see 1611] at Paris in 1611 which though inspired by the Italian Oratory is a separate institution with training priests in seminaries as its main function. During 1672-1733 it was dominated by Jansenism [see 1638]. It was dissolved in 1790 but re-established in 1852. 1565BORGIA, FRANCIS [15101572] Jesuit, third general of the Society from 1565. Great grandson of Pope Alexander VI. He married and had eight children. A year after the death of his wife in 1546 he was received privately into the Jesuit movement being ordained a priest in 1551. He was sent by Loyola [see 1548] to Spain and Portugal in 1554. He was very interested in education and used his wealth to found colleges which are now the Gregorian University of Rome. METROPHANES III Patriarch of Constantinople [1565-1572, 1579-1580], succeeded Joasaph II [see 1555]. There is no additional information readily available. 1566ANTWERP, SYNOD OF The synod at which the Reformed Church accepted the Belgic Confession marking the final acceptance of Calvinistic principles in the Netherlands. COORNHEERT, DIRK VOLKERTSZOON [1522-1590] Dutch humanist and evangelical who early in his life read widely on religious matters and settled on the concept of using the Bible as a guide in ethics. In 1566 he helped William of Orange to draft his manifesto against Spanish misrule. He wrote extensively on religious matters leading him to controversies with the Catholics, Mennonites, Calvin, Beza and many others. He greatly influenced Arminius [see 1588] who had been appointed to write against him and ended up believing in what he stood for. GEAUX The nickname used during the revolt of the Low Countries against the Spanish rule. As revolt neared in 1566 a group of nobles including William of Orange and Henry of Brederode presented a list of grievances to the Spanish Regent, Mary of Palma. One of her advisers jeered at the petitioners as ces gueux or those beggars. Brederode adopted the name proudly and it soon became widely used to the rebels, more particularly to the Sea Beggars, hit-and-run sea raiders to whom Orange granted letters of Marque in 1569. As the revolt proceeded the Sea Beggars were gradually merged into the growing rebel fleet. Bitterly anti-Catholic, their motto Sooner the Turk than the Pope they gained a reputation for desperate courage and cold-blooded plundering. IRISH ARTICLES [1615] The Church of Ireland had drawn up 12 short articles of religion in 1566. The Irish Church held a convocation between 1613 and 1615, and moved by a spirit of independence, decided to prepare a set of articles that would reflect their particular beliefs. The new articles, 104 in number, were largely the work of James Ussher [see 1625] and reflected his Calvinism and the spirit of Puritanism which prevailed in Dublins college. They also had a Presbyterian flavour, but made no reference to such orders as bishop, priest and deacon. Though approved by the convocation and ratified by the lord deputy in 1615 they were replaced 20 years later by the English 39 Articles largely due to the efforts of Wentworth and John Bramhall bishop of Derry. MARNIX, PHILIP [1540-1598] Calvinist diplomat and religious writer who was active in the revolt of the Low Countries against Spanish rule. Born in Brussels he studied at Paris and then went to Geneva where he studied under Calvin and Beza. As a young Calvinist nobleman in the Low Countries he joined the rising opposition to Spain, defended the anti-Catholic rioting in 1566 and fled over the German border to escape reprisals, and rejoiced as the revolt broke out in 1568. At 29 Marnix wrote his anti-Catholic satire The Beehive which became very popular. He met the rebel leader William of Orange in Germany and helped influence his conversion to Calvinism and became a trusted assistant. As the revolt spread to the Southern Lowlands he had a major role in drafting the Pacification of Ghent in 1576. He received a new commission in 1583 as the defender of Antwerp but at this he failed. He retired to his estate and worked there writing, working on a rhyming version of the Psalms, a translation of the Bible, and the lengthy paper on religious differences. PIUS V Pope [1566-1572]. He entered the Dominican Order at the age of fourteen. He served the Inquisition in Milan and was appointed commissary general of the Inquisition in 1551. As a pope, Pius V was austere and fanatical. He had as his prime idea refashioning the whole church on the model of his own household. He stamped out the Reformed faith in Italy and encouraged Spain to do likewise in the Netherlands personally blessing the campaigns of the duke of Alba. In France he gained piscopal over Catherine de Medici and Charles IX, while in England his excommunication of Queen Elizabeth led to divisions and persecution of the Catholic community. He helped promote the alliance of the Papal States, Spain and Venice which triumphed in the great naval battle at Lepanto in 1571. He succeeded Pius IV [see 1559] and was succeeded by Gregory XIII [see 1572]. VESTIARIAN CONTROVERSY The dispute in the English Church over clerical dress which began about 1550 and reached its peak in 1566. The controversy was in two parts. The first, principally involving John Hooper [see 1550] who had returned from exile in Switzerland took place in 1550 where Hooper refused to be consecrated bishop of Gloucester if he had to wear a surplice as required by the Prayer Book of 1559. Eventually Hooper compromised but only after significant debate. The second came early in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I who restored vestments in her royal chapel in 1549. In 1560 the bishops required their clergy to wear a cope during Holy Communion and the surplice in other services. Many of the Protestants in Parliament protested about compulsory use, believing it to be a relic of popery, and as a result some Puritan ministers were deprived of their livings. Opposition to vestments never left Puritanism, and it was very evident among the Elizabethan Separatists and among certain groups of the Puritan Revolution. 1567BAIUS, MICHEL [1513-1589] Flemish Catholic theologian who was a forerunner of and influence on Jansen and Jansenism. His teaching which attacked the idea of merit in good works, the immaculate conception, papal infallibility, the limited effect of the fall, conditions on predestination and similar views created great controversy. A visit to the council of Trent to defend his position proved fruitless and in 1567 Pius V issued a condemnation of several of his proposals .These views continued to cause stress in the Catholic Church through Jansenism after his death. CHADERTON, LAURENCE [1538-1640] English Puritan who was born into a wealthy Roman Catholic family in Lancashire. Even though his father disowned him he completed his degree at Cambridge in 1567. For nearly 50 years he served as the afternoon lecturer at St Clements and through this ministry many young men studied the Bible and practiced godliness. He became the initial Master of Emmanuel College in 1584 which had been set up to train godly ministers. He was involved with the King James translation. He retired from Emmanuel in 1622 at the age of 84 but lived to 102 years of age. DAVIES, RICHARD [1501-1581] Bishop and translator, educated at Oxford, who was deprived on the accession of Queen Mary and withdrew to Frankfurt to join other Protestant exiles. He was consecrated bishop of St Asaph in 1560 and translated to St Davids the following year. He was profoundly concerned about the sorry condition of his diocese and the low spiritual condition of both clergy and people. He participated in the production of the Bishops Bible 1568 and was responsible for the section Joshua to second Samuel. He applied his scholarly gifts to the task of translating scriptures into Welsh. An act of 1563 put the responsibility for preparing a Welsh version of the Bible upon the four bishops of Wales together with the bishop of Hereford. Their joint efforts were completed in 1567 with a Welsh translation of both the Book of Common Prayer and the New Testament. JOHN OF THE CROSS [1542-1591] Spanish mystic born of a poor family and entered the Carmelite monastery at Medina Del Campo in 1563. He was ordained in 1567. Dissuaded by Teresa of Avila [see 1562] from becoming a Carthusian, he introduced her reforms among the friars, joining the first of the reformed houses [Discalced see 1500] and then became master of the Carmelite College at Alcala. Imprisoned in 1577 in the Carmelite monastery at Toledo for his reforms he wrote the beginning of The Spiritual Canticle but the entire work derives from this experience. He escaped after nine months. Writing out of personal experience and as a student of Scripture and Thomism he wrote three poems with commentaries. Distrusted by his superiors he was taken to the friary at Ubeda where he died from inhumane treatment. He was made a Doctor of the Church in 1926. SALESBURY, WILLIAM [1520-1584] Welsh New Testament translator who spent most of his life in Denbighshire. He was educated at Oxford and after a period at Inns of Court he became a lawyer in the service of the lord chancellor. He seems to have retired early to Wales to devote himself to scholarly pursuits. He dedicated himself to the task of providing the Welsh people with the Scriptures in their own language. With the accession of Elizabeth I it became imperative to complete the work of translation. The Act of 1563 commanded the Welsh bishops together with the bishop of Hereford to have a Welsh translation of the Bible and the Book of Common prayer available by 1 March 1567. Salesbury was invited by Bishop Richard Davis to co-operate in the work of translation. In May 1567 the Welsh book of Common prayer was published followed by the New Testament in October. Salesburys translation formed the basis of all subsequent translations into the Welsh. He was influenced by the Geneva Bible and also the work by Theodore Bezas work on the New Testament [1565]. STRIGEL, VICTORINUS [1524-1569] German theologian who was one of Melanchthons most distinguished associates. His biblical commentaries and historical works showed him to be a wide ranging scholar in addition to being a notable theologian. He taught in the era racked by bitter disputes among Lutherans and found his position in the University of Jena becoming more and more difficult because of his public disagreements with M. Flacius [see 1544] and the inability of the duke of Saxony to reconcile the opposing factions. He was appointed to a chair at Heidelberg in 1567 but died shortly after appointment. Strigel was widely respected among Reformation theologians including English scholars like W. Perkins [see 1595]. WALES [see also 1323 and 1735] The Protestant Reformation came to Wales by the same legal process as it did in England. It was the Welsh language that constituted the main difference. The Book of Common Prayer and the New Testament appeared in Welsh in 1567 translated by Bishop Richard Davies [see above] and William Salesbury [see above]. In 1588 came William Morgans [see above] translation of the whole Bible into Welsh, which was one of the most momentous events in Welsh history. The hold of Protestantism on the Welsh people was greatly strengthened by the Puritanism and Methodism under the leadership of men like Walter Cradock, Vavasor Powell [see 1646], Morgan Llwyd [see 1650], and John Miles [see 1663]. Puritanism found support on a modest scale; Baptist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Quaker congregations came into existence, and they held their ground in the persecutions between 1606 and 1689. WELSH BIBLE The New Testament first appeared in Welsh in 1567 translated from the Greek mainly by William Salesbury [see above], who also collaborated with Richard Davies [see above] bishop of St Davids, to produced the Welsh Prayer Book published the same year. Salesburys New Testament was accurate and served as the basis for the complete Bible published in 1588 by William Morgan [see1588] bishop of St Asaph, and in another revision of Morgans Bible by Morgans successor Richard Parry [1560-1623] which was published in 1620. This Bible which is still in general use, used the language of the bards and was also a formative influence on Welsh prose language. 1568BARONIUS, CAESAR [15381607] Cardinal and church historian who in reply to the centuries of Magdeburg [see below] he began his Annales Ecclesiatici, a history of the church with each chapter dealing with a year. This was an attempt to defend practices in the church. BISHOPS BIBLE Printed by church leaders in England who found the Geneva Bible unacceptable. It was a much better version of the Great Bible of 1539. CARDINAL One of the group of ecclesiastical princes who form the Sacred College of Cardinals in Rome and choose the pope, a feature that they have had since the Third Lateran Council in 1179. In 1568 the number of cardinals was fixed at 70, six bishops, fifty priests and fourteen deacons but modern appointments are generally made from the ranks of bishops. John XXIII [see 1958] increased the number of cardinals to over one hundred. 1569CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS [1535-1603] Puritan who was a scholar at St Johns but had to leave on the accession of Queen Mary in 1553. In 1569 he became professor of divinity at St Johns but after his criticism of the Anglican Church hierarchy was deposed. After some time with Beza in Geneva he returned to England in 1572 but had to leave again through controversy. He was tried by the Court of High Commission in 1590 and imprisoned in Fleet Prison. After his release he helped with the Millenary Petition [see 1603]. INFALLIBILITY The Roman Catholic doctrine that ecumenical councils of bishops and the pope speaking ex cathedra are immune from error when teaching concerning faith and morals. It is based from two standpoints firstly, since the Holy Spirit indwells the church it is to be expected that He will ensure that the shepherds of the flock will understand and teach without error the divine message of salvation. Secondly, since eternal punishment is threatened to those who disobey the Gospel it is to be expected that God would provide a correct understanding of the Gospel in the world. The infallibility of the pope was first defined by Vatican I in 1569 making much use of Reginald Poles treatise of 1569. Protestants will always oppose this doctrine arguing for the view that only God and His Word and infallible. SYLVESTER Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria (1569-1590) see 1567 and 1590. He came from Crete. During his tenure, the Church of Alexandria enjoyed prosperity. 1570CRAIG, JOHN [1512-1600] Scottish reformer who was a Franciscan friar who became one of the main personalities in the Reformation in Scotland doing much to shape the future policy of the national church including in 1570 becoming chaplain to James VI and drafting the first Scots Catechism and being largely responsible for the National Covenant of 1581. He led an adventurous life escaping in 1536 from prison where he had been placed for heresy, travelling to France. He was condemned to death by the Inquisition in Rome but reached Vienna by a series of dramatic escapes to become a favourite preacher of Emperor Maximilian II before returning to Scotland in 1560 to join John Knox [see 1559]. 1571-1580 AD 1571THIRTY NINE ARTICLES A doctrinal statement of the 16th century rising out of the controversies of the period and defining the position of the Church of England in relation to them. The Articles were not intended to be creedal or a complete theological system. Their origin can be traced back to the 10 Articles of 1536, a compromise statement designed to establish Christian quietness and unity at a time of revolution, when the separation between church and state was just beginning. In the year 1553, 42 Articles were published under Edward VI. The history of the Articles was interrupted by the reign of Mary Tudor and began again under Elizabeth I [see 1558]. Matthew Parker [see 1559] archbishop of Canterbury drew up as an interim measure his own profession of faith in the 11 Articles of 1561. In 1563 Convocation revised the 42 Articles into 39. The publication of 1571 firmed up the document and the 39 Articles have remained unchanged ever since. Clerical acceptance of the Articles has been required since 1865. WENTWORTH, PETER [1530-1597] Puritan political leader who had a lot of property and many Puritan connections. Wentworth was from 1571 to 1593 leader of the Puritan party in the House of Commons. He delivered an impertinent speech demanding a revision of the 39 Articles, reforms in the church, a reduction in the powers of the higher clergy, and a clear statement of the succession question as well as his championing of the privileges of the House of Commons. This led him three times to being committed to the Tower where he eventually died. This tone of address anticipates the next generation of Puritan leaders especially Pym and Hampden. 1572ADMONITION TO PARLIAMENT A tract which represented extreme reaction to the attempt of Archbishop Parker [see 1559] to suppress change by Parliament of the Prayer book. It asserted that the church had not yet been reformed as it had not dealt with the appointment of elders, maintenance of discipline and the papal association in the Prayer book and vestments. A second admonition appeared later in the year outlining a Presbyterian structure of the Church. BARTHOLOMEWS DAY MASSACRE On the night of the 23rd and 24th of August several thousand Huguenots, French Protestants, were murdered in Paris and other French cities at the instigation of Catherine of Medici, the Queen mother. Their deaths had long been sought by the popes but Catherine at first tried to get reconciliation between the Catholics and Protestants. The conflict came to a head when Protestant Admiral Gaspard de Coligny declared war on Spain and later aided William of Orange in his fight against the Spaniards. An attempt on Colignys life left him wounded and an official investigation by the king threatened to reveal Catherines involvement so she ordered the army to massacre the Huguenots in which over 50,000 died. GREGORY XIII Pope [1572-1585]. He became professor of law at Bologna 1531-1539, was made a judge under Paul III, then responsible to the Council of Trent, and finally bishop. Pius IV named him cardinal priest in 1565. He was acceptable to Philip II of Spain for in 1565 he had been sent to Spain for the Inquisitions trial of the archbishop of Toledo. Barely three months after his election Gregory celebrated the Bartholomews Day Massacre with a Te Deum in Rome. His election in 1572 and political events conspired to make him a restorer of Catholicism. Though he failed against England, the Turks, Sweden, and Russia, his pontificate is known as a high point in Catholic revival. By the end of his pontificate all five points announced in 1572 had been started. Consolidation of the League against the Turks, fight against heresy by use of the Inquisition, and internal reform by employing Tridentine legislation were realities. In addition friendly relations with Catholic countries had improved as had the supervision of the Papal States. Gregory XIII is best known for his reformation of the calendar, producing theGregorian calendarwith the aid of Christopher Clavius. The reason for the reform is that the average length of the year in theJulian Calendarwas too long, and the date of the actual Vernal Equinox had slowly slipped to 10 March, whereas the calculation of the date of Easter still followed the traditional date of 21 March. This was rectified by following the observations of Clavius, and the calendar was changed when Gregory decreed that the day after Thursday, 4 October, 1582 would be not Friday, 5 October, but Friday, 15 October, 1582. The switchover was bitterly opposed by much of the populace, who feared it was an attempt by landlords to cheat them out of a week and a halfs rent. However, the Catholic countries of Spain, Portugal, Poland, and Italy complied. France, some states of theDutch Republic and various Catholic states in Germany and Switzerland followed suit within a year or two, and Hungary complied in 1587. However, more than a century would pass before Protestant Europe would accept the new calendar and in the Eastern area Russia did not change until 1917 and Greece was the last Eastern Orthodox country to accept the calendar in 1923. Gregory XIII succeeded Pius V [see 1566] and was succeeded by Sixtus V [see 1585]. JEREMIAS II Tranos Patriarch of Constantinople [1572-1579, 1580-1584, 1587-1595] succeeded Metrophanes III [see 1565]. A Greek, Jeremias was elected in 1572 as patriarch for the first time. He was deposed in 1579, because the Ottoman rulers had set limits on the maximum duration of a patriarchs rule, but he was re-elected the next year, and again in 1585. From 1576 to 1581 he conducted the first important theological exchanges between Orthodoxy and Protestants. Lutherans Jakob Andreae and Martin Crusius from Tbingen presented the patriarch with a translated copy of the Augsburg Confession. Jeremias II wrote three rebuttals known as Answers, which established that the Orthodox Church had no desire for reformation. The Lutherans replied to the first two letters, but the third letter ended in a deadlocked disagreement between the parties. The significance of the exchanges was that they presented, for the first time in a precise and clear way, where the Orthodox and Reformation churches stood in relation to each other. Jeremias is also known for his role in establishing the Moscow patriarchate during his trip to Russia in 1589. He firstly suggested himself as a candidature for the first patriarch of Moscow, but Boris Godunov suggested that his residence should be Vladimir, a largely impoverished town at this time. Jeremias instead consecrated Boriss associate,Metropolitan Job, as patriarch. He obtained certain privileges for the Greek minorities within the Ottoman Empire of which one was the establishment of schools. There was only one existing Greek school during Turkish Rule (1453-1821). The school was established in 1456 in Constantinople and named the The Nations Great School. However by the end of the century seven other Greek schools were opened outside the empire. JOHN OF GOD [1495-1550] Founder of Brothers Hospitallers [see 1310]. Born in Portugal he was a soldier until aged forty and returned to Spain as a shepherd concerned about his sinful life. Hoping for martyrdom in Africa he returned to Granada in 1538 to sell books and religious pictures. He began ministering to the sick and poor in the hospital at Avilla that he founded. Many were attracted to the work and Bishop Tuy named him John of God prescribing a habit for him and his companions. The order of Brothers Hospitallers received papal approval in 1572. A number of hospitals now are called St John of God. SUAREZ, FRANCISCO DE [1548-1617] Spanish Jesuit philosopher and theologian who was perhaps the greatest Jesuit theologian. He studied canon law at Salamanca and after joining the Jesuits turned to theology and philosophy. He was ordained in 1572 after he had already begun a lifelong career of teaching in Spanish universities. He contributed to the bitter Jesuit-Dominican dispute over the role and the efficacy of grace on the side of the Jesuits. TULCHAN BISHOPS The name comes from an old Scots rural practice of stuffing a calfskin with straw and leaving it beside a cow to induce it to give milk more freely. In 1572 during the infancy of James VI through the influence of Regent Morton certain influential Protestant ministers were persuaded to agree to the retention of the kingdom of Episcopal titles. The persons appointed to the vacant sees entered into agreement with Morton and other powerful nobles to ensure that the incumbent should retain only a modest proportion of the funds and give the rest to their patrons, the nobles. The bishop it was said had the title, but my lord had the milk. The General Assembly denounced the practice which did not long survive the end of Mortons regency in 1578. WEIGEL, VALENTIN [1533-1588] Lutheran mystical writer who studied at Leipzig and Wittenberg. From 1567 he was a pastor and was suspected of heresy in 1572 but managed to clear himself but his study proceeded in an increasingly dual direction. He developed, under the supposed guidance of the inner light and from his readings in the Gnostics and mediaeval mystics, an increasingly pantheistic system which left little room for Scripture, the church, or the means of grace. It was however all clothed misleadingly in Christian terminology stripped from its historic sense. His teachings exerted influence on Boehme [see 1600] and on the development of the Rosicrucians. 1573TYE, CHRISTOPHER [c.1500-1573] English composer who was an organist at Ely Cathedral. Tye was ordained into the Church of England and became the minister at Doddington. He is seen as a superior composer including the short anthem O come ye servants of the Lord YOANNIS XIV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1573-1589] see 1526 and 1590. 1574 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinians" \o "Augustinians" Augustinian Guillermo de Santa Maria writes a treatise on the illegitimacy of the war the Spanish government was waging against the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichimeca" \o "Chichimeca" Chichimeca in the Mexican state of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoac%C3%A1n" \o "Michoacn" Michoacn. 1575GRINDAL, EDMUND Archbishop of Canterbury [1575-1583]. He was the son of a farmer from Cumberland. His education started with the monks at St Bees Priory, which probably influenced his later career in the church. He was educated at Cambridge and through his association with Nicholas Ridley, who had been master of Pembroke Hall became a chaplain to Ridley when he became bishop of London. He was soon promoted to be one of KingEdward VIs chaplains and in October 1552 was one of six to whom the Forty-two Articles were submitted for examination before being sanctioned by theprivy council. According to John Knox, Grindal distinguished himself from most of the court preachers in 1553 by denouncing the worldliness of courtiers and foretelling the evils that would follow the kings death. For this reason, Grindal was not made a bishop. On the accession of Queen Mary I, he made his way to Strasbourg and Frankfurt. He returned to England in January 1559, after Elizabeth I had come to the throne and was appointed to the committee to revise theliturgy, and was one of the Protestant representatives at the Westminster conference. In July he was also elected bishop of London in succession to Edmund Bonner. Grindal lacked that firm faith in the supreme importance of uniformity and autocracy which enabled his successor John Whitgiftto persecute nonconformists whose theology was not identical to his own. In 1570 Grindal became archbishop of York, where Puritans were few and coercion would be required mainly for Roman Catholics. In his first letter he told that he had not been well received, that the gentry were not well-affected to godly religion and among the common people many superstitious practices remained. He was appointed archbishop of Canterbury on 26th July 1575 but there is no actual evidence that Grindal ever visited Canterbury, not even for his consecration. He attempted a reform of the ecclesiastical courts, but his activity was cut short by a disagreement with the queen. Elizabeth wanted Grindal to suppress meetings for discussion which had come into vogue among the Puritan clergy, and she even wanted him to discourage preaching. He remonstrated, claiming some voice for the church, and in June 1577 was suspended from his jurisdictional, though not his spiritual, functions for disobedience. He stood firm, and in January 1578 the civil powers were informed that the queen wished to have the archbishop deprived. She was dissuaded from this extreme course, but Grindals suspension was continued in spite of a petition from Convocation in 1581 for his reinstatement. Elizabeth then suggested that he should resign; he declined to do so, and after apologising to the queen he was reinstated towards the end of 1582. But his health was deteriorating and he died while making preparations for his resignation. He succeeded Matthew Parker [see 1559] and was succeeded by John Whitgift [see 1583]. MAYNE, CUTHBERT [1544-1577] English Roman Catholic martyr who was born in Devon, educated Oxford and after being ordained as an Anglican was appointed chaplain at St Johns College where Edmund Campion was a colleague. He converted to Roman Catholicism under the influence of Campion and went to the English seminary at Douai. Ordained a priest in 1575 he returned to England the following year and settled as a steward on an estate in Cornwall. Here he secretly carried out his priestly functions until his arrest in 1577. He was condemned for refusing to take the oath of royal supremacy and for the celebrating Mass and was executed at Launceston. SANDYS, EDWIN [1516-1588] Archbishop of York who had a brilliant academic career at Cambridge and was chosen in 1547 as master of Catherine Hall and two years later became canon of Peterborough. When Mary became Queen he was arrested because of his support of Lady Jane Greys cause but escaped to Strasbourg and enjoyed the friendship of Peter Martyr [see 1552]. After Elizabeths accession Sandys became in succession bishop at Worcester [1559], London [1570], and archbishop of York [1575]. He helped translate the Bishops Bible and was firmly committed to maintaining the Protestant character of the Church of England. 1576ADAMSON, PATRICK [1537-1592] Archbishop of St Andrews who studied theology in Geneva under Theodore Beza [see 1564] and was evidently in hiding for several months after the St Bartholomews Day Massacre [see 1572]. The regent, his patron elevated him to archbishop in 1576 though he apparently was not consecrated. He served for a while as James VI ambassador to England. He was accused of heresy and other offences but two attempts to excommunicate him failed. AYLMER, JOHN [15211594] Bishop of London [15761594] who had to flee to the continent in 1553 due to his opposition to transubstantiation. He was strongly opposed as bishop of London to both Catholics and Puritans. He was also a noted scholar and promoted education. BORROMEO, CHARLES [15381584] Archbishop of Milan. Of noble birth he was educated in civil and canon law and when his uncle became Pius IV he was called to Rome and made archbishop of Milan as well as cardinal secretary of the state, protector of the Low Countries, Portugal, the Swiss Cantons, and several religious orders. He was one of the greatest Catholic reformers who showed himself as a selfless pastor during the plague of 1576 when all the civil officials had fled. He was involved in the Council of Trent and some of his reforms were reprinted for Vatican II. He refused corrupt priests. He also founded orphanages and refuges for deserted wives. SIRMOND, JACQUES [1559-1651] Jesuit scholar who studied in Billom and became a Jesuit in 1576. He taught literature in Paris and was secretary to the Jesuit general in Rome from 1590 to 1608. One of the greatest scholars of the age, from 1610 he published many works especially an edition of the Church Fathers. SPAIN [see also 1479 and 1808] Protestantism in Spain began with the various Reformation movements especially those connected with Raymond Lull [see 1263] the 13th century missionary to the Muslims. It made its appeal almost entirely to the privileged and educated classes and was confined to isolated families and individuals. Noteworthy was Francisco de Enzinas who translated the New Testament into Spanish and was for a time professor of Greek at Cambridge, Juan de Valdes [see 1527] who maintained his Protestant witness from Italy, Roderigo de Valder, the Spanish Wycliffe who preached openly in Seville until he was imprisoned for life, and Archbishop Carranza of Toledo who died in great suffering in 1576; these were the prominent Protestants. From 1530 the Jesuits actively suppressed Reformed teaching. TITIAN [1477-1576] Italian painter who was unique in his versatility. He painted vast altar pieces alive with ecstasy and Christian tenderness, and battle scenes with hundreds of people, and many portraits. His skills made him the most sought-after painter of his time. Always in robust health he lived to the age of 99. His father sent to Venice to learn painting as a young man and he went into the studio of Giovanni Bellini. His colouring became the model for later painters such as Rubens and Velasquez. After Raphaels death Titian was much in demand. TORGAU ARTICLES, THE [1576] There were twelve Articles adopted by the Lutheran theologians of Germany as guidelines for solving theological problems in an amicable manner. The Articles were submitted to some 25 Lutheran princes, and most of the theologians in their territories approved it. Because some of them objected to its length a meeting was held in March and another in May of 1577. The Articles deal with [1] Original Sin; [2] Free Will; [3] The Righteousness of Faith Before God; [4] Good Works; [5] the Law and the Gospel; [6] the Third Use of the Law; [7] the Lords Supper; [8] the Person of Christ; [9] Descent of Christ into Hell; [10] Church Rights; [11] Gods Eternal Foreknowledge [Predestination] and Election; [12] Other Factions [Heresies] and Sects. 1577CHEMNITZ, MARTIN [1522-1586] Lutheran theologian and author. He was a friend of Melanchton [see 1521] and was driven out of Wittenberg due to the Smalcaldic War [see 1525] and became librarian at the ducal castle at Konigsberg. One of his most important works was his four volume analysis of the Council of Trent. He worked with James Andrae [see 1561] to reduce controversies among German Lutherism 1550-1575 and was one of the co authors of the Formula of Concord [see 1577]. CONCORD, FORMULA OF A Lutheran confession which settled the doctrinal controversy within German Lutherism after Luthers death primarily those between Flacians and Philippists. The controversies dealt with the place of good works in salvation, free will and conversion, original sin, the distinction between the Law and the Gospel, the Lords Supper, Christs descent into hell, and predestination. GABRIEL, SEVERUS [1541-1616] Greek theologian. Educated at Padua, he lived in Greek Crete and Venice. In 1577 he was consecrated metropolitan of Philadelphia in Asia Minor. Much of his time was spent in Venice ministering to the Greek-speaking people there. His proximity to the Roman Catholic Church led him to feel the need to expound and defend the principles of his own church. Two of his major works were explanations and defences of the Orthodox custom of venerating the elements of the Eucharist before the actual consecration had taken place. He was known to scholars in England and helped in the edition of Chrysostoms works prepared by Henry Savile in 1610-1613. MAJORISITIC CONTROVERSY This was caused by George Major [15021574] professor at the University of Wittenberg. Major taught that good works are necessary for salvation and that it was impossible for a man to be saved without good works. He was attacked especially by Matthias Flacius [see 1544]. Article IV of the Formula of Concord [1577] repudiated both Amsdorf and Major, teaching that good work should be excluded from the question concerning salvation and the article about justification, but that regenerate man is bound to do good works. MICHAEL VI Patriarch of Antioch [1577-1581] see also 1543 and 1581. 1578SARPI, PAULO [1552-1623] He was a Servite [see 1240] theologian and attended the school for nobility in Venice. At 18 Sarpi was made a reader in canon law. After studying Greek, Hebrew, Philosophy, Natural science, and History, he was elected provincial of the Servite Order. In 1578 Sarpi took a doctorate in Padua and mingled in Venetian society. He was a close friend of French Protestants many of whom he met in Venice. While in his twenties he was accused by the Inquisition in Milan for denying that Genesis 1 taught the Trinity. He came into conflict with the pope who blamed him in 1606 for dissensions in Venice and this was used as one excuse for the famous papal interdict for which Sarpi prepared the Venetian reply. SOCINIANISM This movement grew from the thoughts of Lelio Sozzini [1525-1562] and his nephew Fausto [1539-1604]. They became one of the forerunners of modern Unitarianism [see 1558]. Lelio was a lawyer from Siena who was led to restore primitive Christianity and denounce the idolatry of Rome. The opposition he provoked caused him to wander through Switzerland, France, England, Holland, Germany, and Eastern Europe; he died at Zurich. Fausto was influenced not only by Italian humanism but by his liberal uncle, and also left his native land and settled in Basle. In 1578 he moved to Poland and spent the remainder of his life organising a church of his persuasion in a commune settlement at Racov near Krakw. Socinianism taught a rationalist interpretation of Scripture which included acceptance of Jesus as the revelation of God but nevertheless solely a man. Fausto revised the Catechism of Racov and it was published in 1605 as the Racovian Catechism [see 1605]. The group eventually founded an Academy which at one time had more than 1000 students enrolled. They also had a printing operation and published books and pamphlets in many languages. In addition to the centre there were about 300 churches in Poland. In 1658 as part of the Counter-Reformation, the Polish Parliament passed a law creating the death penalty for adherence to the group so a mass migration took place to Hungary, Germany, England, and the Netherlands. They had some effect in England which involved the Cambridge Platonists, the Arians in the Church of England, and attracted scientists such as Isaac Newton and John Locke. WHITAKER, WILLIAM [1548-1595] Cambridge Puritan theologian, educated at Cambridge where he became a fellow. He excelled at Greek and made a translation of the Book of Common Prayer as well as Dean Nowells Larger Catechism into that language. In 1578 he became canon of Norwich and two years later regius professor of divinity. He defended the Protestants against the Catholics and as a Puritan nearly prevented himself being appointed master of St Johns in 1596. Whitaker was one of a group of men responsible for the Lambeth Articles [1595]. Most of his 20 or so publications were written in Latin and thus enjoyed a wide readership in Europe. 1579BASSENDYNE BIBLE The first edition of the Bible in English published in Scotland. Thomas Bassendyne [d.1577] was the kings printer in Edinburgh and was granted a licence from the Privy Council to print the Geneva Bible version. The New Testament was published in 1576 and the whole bible in 1579. BUCHANAN, GEORGE [15061582] Scottish humanist who studied at St Andrews and Paris. He favoured Protestantism and wrote against the Franciscans leading to his arrest in 1539. He was investigated and finally acquitted by the Inquisition [see 1163] after much suffering. In 1579 he published his famous work De Jure Regni apud Scotos which taught against the divine right of kings [see 1688]. This concept did not receive approval of the Stuarts and as a result his works and those of John Milton [see 1667] were publicly burned by the common hangman a hundred years after his death in 1683. SOPHRONIOS IV Patriarch of Jerusalem [1579-1608] see 1537 and 1608. 1580BANEZ, DOMINGO [15281604] Spanish Dominican theologian who defended the doctrines of Thomas Aquinas against the Jesuits. Professor at the University of Salamanca from 1580 where he served until 1600. CONCORD, BOOK OF Also known as the Concordia which contains the confessions of the Lutheran Church. FULKE, WILLIAM [1538-1589] Puritan minister who was educated at Cambridge, and took a prominent part in the Vestiarian Controversy [see 1566] in the university. For his extremism he was deprived of his fellowship and expelled only to be readmitted later. He became head of Pembroke College, and vice-chancellor in 1580. The last decade of his life was taken up with literary activity in defence of Protestantism and against Roman Catholicism especially against Cardinal Allen and other leaders of the Counter-Reformation. His defence of the English translation of the Bible [Bishops Bible see 1560] against the attacks of Gregory Martin of Reims revealed Fulkes wide learning and ability. PHILIP II [1527-1598] King of Spain in 1556, the only son of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. He was educated by clergy in Spain and grew up grave, self possessed and distrustful, loved by his Spanish subjects but not elsewhere. He married four times; Maria of Portugal [1543] who died in childbirth in 1546, Mary Queen of England [1554], Elizabeth of Valois [1559] and Anne of Austria in 1570. On his fathers abdication in 1556 he became Europes most powerful monarch ruling Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, the Netherlands, Mexico, and Peru. He governed his own empire from his desk and was very hard-working and loved reading. In 1580 he obtained the crown of Portugal and Brazil. He reactivated the Inquisition in Spain using it to establish his absolute power. Revolt however continued in the Netherlands resulting in the independence of the Dutch Republic in 1579. His attempt to conquer England in 1588 ended in the disaster of the Spanish Armada. Under him, with the help of the Inquisition and Jesuits, Spain became the spearhead of the Counter-Reformation. SWEELINCK, JAN PIETERSZON [1562-1621] Dutch composer who from 1580 until his death was organist at the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam. He was greatly influenced by the English keyboard masters such as John Bull. Sweelinck was the chief figure behind the North German school of organists and wrote many fine motets with Latin texts. He was the last great composer to use extensively the Genevan Psalms. 1581-1590 AD 1581AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIUS [1543-1615] Fifth general of Jesuit order who became a novitiate in 1567 and was elected superior general in 1581. During his leadership the society developed its missionary work with a lot of it being in Japan and educational work in the Philippines. The order was also involved in theological controversy in particular with the Dominicans on the matter of grace. CAMPION, EDMUND [15401581] English Jesuit who, having been a deacon in the Church of England entered the Roman Church at Douai in 1571. Travelling to Rome and thence to Bohemia he was ordained in Prague in 1578. In 1580 he and a companion reached England as Jesuit missioners. He was arrested in 1581 and executed at Tyburn. JOACHIM V Patriarch of Antioch [1581-1592] see also 1577 and 1592. 1582BROWNE, ROBERT [1553-1633] English Separatist leader who went to Cambridge and came under the Presbyterian influence of Thomas Cartwright [see 1569] graduating in 1573. Six years later he began preaching in Cambridgeshire churches refusing to accept the bishops calling on the grounds that true authority lay in the gathered church. He was banned from preaching in 1580 so he organised Separatist churches locally and was imprisoned as it was at odds with the Elizabethan Settlement [see 1559] governing the relationship of Church and State. In 1582 the church he had organised with Robert Harrison emigrated to Zeeland but they quarrelled and he was excommunicated returning to England in 1583. He made peace with Archbishop Whitgift [see 1583] and by 1591 was orthodox enough to minister in Northamptonshire which he did for the next 43 years. He is often called the Father of English Congregationalism. CONGREGATIONALISM can be traced back to the reign of Elizabeth I where many Christians rejected the concept of a state church. These became known as Separatists and were the forerunners of Congregationalists. They contended that the church should consist only of those who had responded to the call of Christ and who had covenanted with Him and with others to live as disciples. A leading figure in this movement was Robert Browne who in 1582 published an article in Holland entitled Reformation without tarrying for any. It was from John Robinsons church at Leyden that the Pilgrim Fathers set off in 1620 in the Mayflower. Following the Civil Wars of 1642-48, Oliver Cromwell [see 1653] assumed power and the direction of religious life in the country was shared between the Baptists, Congregationalists and the Presbyterian. The Congregational Union of England and Wales was formed in 1832. Its missionary activity historically was expressed in the London Missionary Society founded in 1795 which in 1966 became the Congregational Council of World Missions. Missionaries from the LMS include James Chalmers [see 1815], David Livingstone [see1841], and John Williams [see 1817]. The greatest contribution Congregationalism has made to the church in general is its concept of a local church as a Christ ruled fellowship. Its decline in recent times has been caused in the main by the infiltration of humanistic liberalism. ESTIUS, WILLEM HESSELS VAN [1542-1613] Dutch biblical exegete who was influenced by Michael Baius [see 1567]. He was seminary professor at Douai from 1582 and chancellor of the university thereafter from 1595 until his death. He was respected by colleagues and students alike for his learning, discernment and saintliness. GREGORIAN CALENDAR Gregory XIII promulgated a new calendar resulting in ten days being omitted from 1582 to allow for accumulated error. The Gregorian calendar restored January 1 as the first day of the year instead of March 25th. Britain did not adopt the calendar until 1752 while Russia did not accept it until 1917. MELVILLE, ANDREW [1545-1622] Scottish Reformer educated in Scotland and France. He came under the influence of Beza [see 1564] in Geneva and was appointed there to the chair of humanity. Melville had great influence on the Scottish church as he returned to Scotland just two years after the death of John Knox when Regent Morton was forcing the so-called Tulchan [see 1572] bishops on an unwilling church. Melville had strongly Presbyterian convictions and rejected all attempts to buy him including the offer of the archbishopric of St Andrews. He was regarded by many years as the leader of the Scottish Presbyterians and in 1582 was moderator of the general assembly. He led the assembly in its ratification of the Second Book of Discipline which has been described as the Magna Charta of Presbyterianism. He was summoned before James VI of Scotland but fled to England then after James became James I of England he was summoned by the king to Hampton Court which led to 4 years of imprisonment in the Tower of London. On his release he became professor of divinity at the University of Sedan where he died. SARAVIA, HADRIAN [1531-1613] Anglican scholar who was born in France to a Spanish Protestant. Saravia helped draft the Belgic Confession. He was a refugee in Guernsey and England before returning to the chair of theology at Leyden in 1582. He failed to persuade Elizabeth of England to intervene more actively in the Netherlands and as his position became untenable he returned to England in 1587 to become a rector. Friendships with people like L. Andrewes [see 1605] and R. Hooker [see 1595] profoundly modified his Calvinism. While he upheld the supremacy of the Scriptures he insisted that no doctrinal changes could be introduced against the witness of the Fathers. He was one of the Old Testament translators of the Authorised Version as well as one of the first Protestant advocates of foreign missions. He was also in conflict with T. Beza on church government [see 1564] and attacked Calvins views on points of doctrine such as predestination. 1583NICOLAI, PHILIPP [1556-1608] Pastor and hymn writer who was the son of a Lutheran pastor and studied at Erfurt and Wittenberg and was appointed Lutheran preacher at Herdecke in 1583. When Spanish troops invaded in 1586 the Mass was reintroduced and he resigned. He took part in the Sacramentarian Controversy and was forbidden to preach from 1592-3. In 1596 he became pastor at Unna where he wrote his celebrated Sleepers Wake during a terrible plague. RICCI, MATTEO [1552-1610] Missionary to China. Ricci was an Italian Jesuit who reached Macao in 1582 in response to an appeal from Alexander Valignano. He at once set about mastering the spoken and written Mandarin dialect of China. In 1583 he entered China proper at the invitation of the magistrate of Chao-ching and then translated the ten commandments while suffering much opposition from the people. Gradually his famous map of the world, his clocks, his books, and mathematical instruments made an impression upon the learned. In 1599 he made his base in Nanking and the following year set out for Peking reaching the capital in 1601 after a time of imprisonment. Once he arrived he never left it and he soon won the esteem of the learned and the emperor for his scholarship and knowledge of Chinese culture. He witnessed many conversions including some of the highest court officials. Ricci died and was buried in Peking. WHITGIFT, JOHN Archbishop of Canterbury [1583-1604]. Son of Lincolnshire merchant his early education was through his uncle the abbot of Wellow monastery. At Cambridge he quickly rose to prominence as regius professor of divinity and master of Pembroke. Noted for his hospitality, he was somewhat ostentatious in his habits, sometimes visiting Canterbury and other towns attended by a retinue of 800 horsemen. Whitgifts theological views were often controversial. An aunt with whom he once lodged wrote later that though she thought at first she had received a saint into her house, she now perceived he was a devil. On 24 March 1577, Whitgift was appointedbishop of Worcester, and during the absence of SirHenry Sidney in Ireland in that year he acted as vice-president of Wales. In August 1583 he was appointed archbishop of Canterburyto replace Edmund Grindal, who had been placed under house arrest after his disagreement with the Queen and died in office. Whitgift placed his stamp on the church of the Reformation, and shared Elizabeths hatred of Puritans. Although he wrote to Queen Elizabeth arguing against the alienation of church property, Whitgift always retained her special confidence. In his policy against the Puritans, and in his vigorous enforcement of the subscription test, he thoroughly carried out the queens policy of religious uniformity. He drew up articles aimed at Nonconforming ministers, and obtained increased powers for the Court of High Commission. In 1586 he became a privy councillor. His action gave rise to theMartin MarprelateTracts, in which the bishops and clergy were strongly opposed. Through Whitgifts vigilance the printers of the Tracts were discovered and punished; and in order to prevent the publication of such opinions he got a law passed in 1593 making Puritanism an offence against the statute law. In 1595, in conjunction with the bishop of London and other prelates, he drew up theCalvinisticinstrument known as theLambeth Articles, which were not accepted by the church. Whitgift attended Elizabeth on her deathbed, and crownedJames I. He was present at theHampton Court Conferencein January 1604, in which he represented 8 bishops. He died atLambeththe following February. He succeeded Edmund Grindal [see 1575] and was succeeded by Richard Bancroft [see 1604]. 1584BACON, FRANCIS [1561-1626] English statesman and philosopher of science who was a versatile genius being distinguished in law, literature, science and philosophy. At the age of 23 he gained a seat in the House of Commons and after holding a number of political appointments became lord chancellor under James I. Bacon emphasised the empirical approach to science and because of this he has been called the Prophet of Modern Science. BELLARMINE, ROBERT [15421621] Roman Catholic cardinal and theologian who entered the Jesuit order in 1560 and was ordained ten years later. He wrote his Disputationes de Controversius Christanne Fidei a statement of Catholic theology as defined by the Council of Trent [see 1545]. He also took part in the Sistene revision of the Vulgate. In 1597 he became personal theologian to the pope and in 1608 was involved with King James I of England over the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. CAMILLUS OF LELLIS [15501614] Founded the Ministers of the Sick and was its superior [15841607]. This order who took a fourth vow to care for the sick was founded in 1584 and officially approved two years later following the Augustine Rule. After serving with the Venetian army he was reduced to poverty because of his gambling and worked with the Capuchins [see 1528] until he was dismissed with an incurable wound. He was deeply influenced by Philip Neri [see 1551]. MARONITES The only fully Roman Catholic Uniate Church of the East whose name is derived from Maron, a Syrian solitary who died around 423. Originally Monothelites [see 681] they formed a loose association with the Crusaders which led to a rather unstable union with the Roman see in the 13th century. This union was strengthened at the Council of Florence in 1445 and at later synods, particularly one in 1736. The Jesuit name John Eliano worked hard cementing the union and due to his effort Rome has had a Maronite College from 1584. PACHOMIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1584-1585] succeeded Jeremias II [see 1572]. There is no additional information readily available. STAPLETON, THOMAS [1535-1598] Roman Catholic apologist who graduated from Oxford but when Elizabeth became queen he left for Paris. In 1569 he joined the English College at Douai and in 1584 joined the Jesuit Order subsequently leaving it for health reasons. In a large number of publications Stapleton warned the English about the folly of abandoning Catholicism and like Thomas More was a persistent opponent of the Reformation. UDALL, JOHN [1560-1592] Elizabethan Puritan minister who was educated at Cambridge where one of his friends was John Penry [see 1587]. Udall served as a curate at Kingston-on-Thames from 1584 and continued his friendship with Penry who was implicated in the production of Marprelate Tracts [see 1588]. In 1588 he was deprived of his living and accepted an invitation to minister at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Udall himself was now accused of being involved in the production of the Tracts and was imprisoned in 1590 for six months. Later he was again tried and found guilty of felony and sentenced to death. Several people tried to get him released including Sir Walter Raleigh. Eventually the governors of the Turkey Company offered to send him to Syria as a chaplain but in June 1592 when all was set for his release he fell ill and died. Apart from his controversial writings he published a commentary on Lamentations which was highly prized by James I of England and revealed his skill in Hebrew. 1585FONTANA, DOMENICO [1543-1607] Italian architect who worked in Rome before his appointment as the chief architect of Sixtus V in 1585. During the latters five-year pontificate, Fontanas many works included the Laleian Palace and the Quirinal as well as a significant contribution to the completion of the dome of St Peters. He was dismissed for alleged misconduct by Clement VIII in 1592. LUBBERTUS, SIBRANDUS [c.1556-1625] Calvinist theologian best known as a Contra-Remonstrant [see 1611] leader in the controversy leading up to the Synod of Dort. He studied at Wittenberg, Marburg, and Geneva where he became an enthusiastic disciple of Beza [see 1564]. After stays in Basle and Heidelberg he returned in 1585 he became a professor at the new University of Franeker. He became alarmed at the teachings of Arminius and had controversies with Vorstius, Grotius and other leaders of the Arminian or Remonstrant party, ardently defending orthodox Calvinism. He died soon after appearing at the Synod in Dort. SIXTUS V Pope [1585-1590]. He was reared in poverty; born in a shanty so ill-thatched that the sun shone through the roof, he jested that he was born of an illustrious house. His father was a gardener and it is said that, when a boy, he was a swineherd. Educated by the Franciscans and took the habit at the age of twelve. Ordained as a priest in 1547 he soon became a noted preacher and friend of Loyola and Philip Neri. He was created a cardinal in 1570 by Pius V but during the pontificate of Gregory XIII was kept deliberately in the background. He was elected as pope in 1585 and this rather uncritical scholar and book collector showed himself to be an energetic reformer. He suppressed the brigands in the Papal States by frequent executions. He reformed the curia and cardinals over which he asserted papal authority. Administratively he placed the finances of Rome on a firmer footing by increased taxation and the elimination of graft. His buildings included the Lateran Palace, and Vatican Library and the restored aqueduct renamed after him. The revision of the text of the Vulgate known as the Sistene was also begun under his pontificate. He agreed to renew the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I of England (15581603), and to grant a large subsidy to theArmada of King Philip II, but, knowing the slowness of Spain, would give nothing till the expedition should actually land in England. As they did not he saved his treasury millions, and spared the reproach of having taken futile proceedings against what Roman Catholics viewed as the heretic Queen. He succeeded Gregory XIII [see 1572] and was succeeded by Urban VII [see 1590]. THEOLEPTUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1585-1586] succeeded Pachomius II [see 1584]. There is no additional information readily available. 1586DOS SANTOS, JOAO [d 1622] HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12354c.htm" Dominican missionary in HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07722a.htm" India and HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01181a.htm" Africa. His book Ethiopia Oriental is the best description of the HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12297a.htm" Portuguese occupation of HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01181a.htm" Africa at the end of the sixteenth century, when HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12297a.htm" Portugal was at the zenith of her power there. On 13 August, 1586, four months after leaving HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09281a.htm" Lisbon, dos Santos arrived in HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10610a.htm" Mozambique. He was at once sent to Sofala, where he remained four years with Father Joo Madeira. He ministered in the region until 1597, when he left Mozambique for HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07722a.htm" India where with the exception of eleven years spent in HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05607b.htm" Europe (1606-17) he lived the rest of his life in HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07722a.htm" India. He died in Goa in 1622. 1587 ALLEN, WILLIAM [1532-1594] Scholar and cardinal, born in Lancashire and was chosen as principal of St Marys Hall Oxford in 1566. When Elizabeth came to the throne, Allen was deprived and left England for France in 1561 for refusing the Oath of Supremacy. He gathered together a group of English refugees to study theology with a view of re establishing the Catholic faith in England. In 1575 he established the English College at Rome. Allen was made a cardinal in 1587 and was intended to be the first Roman Catholic archbishop of Canterbury if the English Protestants were overthrown. PENRY, JOHN [1559-1593] Elizabethan Puritan minister who graduated from Cambridge and became an itinerant preacher in Wales calling the attention of the government to the need for the propagation of the gospel there in A Treatise addressed to the Queen and Parliament in 1587. Archbishop Whitgift [see 1583] ordered his arrest and the seizure of copies of this book. Penry himself received a short prison sentence. Later he was directly associated with the production of the Marprelate Tracts [see1588] in which the prelates were severely attacked. He fled to Scotland where he was protected by sympathetic clergy. After the problem had subsided he returned to London and joined a society of separatists but he was soon recognised, arrested, and after a trial he was executed. 1588ARMINIUS, JAKOBUS [15601609] He arrived in Amsterdam to take up a position as a minister of the Reformed church. He became Professor of theology at Leyden University and gave lectures on predestination which led to violent controversy with the Calvinists. After his death his followers issued the Remonstrance of 1610 noting his main deviations from Calvinism which were : [a] the decree of salvation applies to all who believe on Christ and who persevere in obedience and faith [b] Christ died for all men [c] the Holy Spirit must help man to do all things that are truly good [d] Gods saving grace is not irresistible [e] it is possible for a Christian to fall from grace. His views were rejected by the synod of Dort [see 1618] while the Belgic confession and Heidelberg Catechism were confirmed as the standard of orthodoxy and the Arminians were condemned. Following the synod many of the disciples of Arminius were imprisoned and banished. John Wesley followed this belief system and so it has left its mark on the Methodist Church. HUBER, SAMUEL [1547-1624] Protestant scholar. Born near Bern he was active in religious controversy usually defending Lutheran doctrines against the Calvinism of the Swiss Reformed Church. He caused special offence by his assertion of Christs universal atonement and was banished from Switzerland in 1588. He joined the Lutheran Church, signed the Formula of Concord [see 1577] and became a pastor prior to being a professor at Wittenberg University. He was noteworthy as representing the protest against the doctrine of twofold predestination. MARPRELATE TRACTS The violent tone of these pamphlets which appeared in 1588-89 with their vigorous and often crude humour at the expense of the bishops, the mystery of who wrote them and the fascinating circumstance of their printing have made them seem to be more important than in fact they were within the Puritan reforming programme. Written by a fictitious Martin Marprelate and printed by John Hodgkins. Their main importance lies in the fact that they spread alarm in official circles concerning secret printing presses and lead to more repression of Puritans. MORGAN, WILLIAM [1541-1604] Welsh bishop and Bible translator. He was a graduate of Cambridge and began his career as a clergyman in 1572 and served in a number of livings. He was harassed by critics and personal enemies with the result that he was implicated in law suits in the Star Chamber and before the Council of the Marches [1589-1591]. In 1595 he was consecrated bishop of Llandaff and translated in 1601 to St Asaph where his zeal to defend the privileges of his diocese brought him into bitter conflict with local magnates. Although he had a troubled career the evidence seems to reveal him as a man of principle and a conscientious promoter of the good of his flock not least in his emphasis on the need for preaching. His greatest title to the gratitude of the Welsh people however was his work as translator of the Bible. John Whitgift [see 1583] warmly patronised the work and it was printed in London and published in 1588. Although subsequently revised it is substantially still the Bible used by Welsh readers. His Bible is a virtual basis of modern Welsh prose writing and the foundation of modern Welsh Protestantism. In that way William Morgans Bible has had a more profound influence on the creation of modern Wales than any other single book in the nations history. RITES, CONGREGATION OF SACRED A department of the Roman Curia responsible for the liturgy of the Latin rite and the canonisation of saints. It was created in 1588 when Sixtus V issued his famous bull reorganising the churchs central government into 15 commissions of cardinals. The congregation is presently composed of some 20 cardinals. 1589BYRD, WILLIAM [15431623] English composer of great note who composed in almost all the music forms of his day. Despite remaining a staunch Catholic he composed many works for the Anglican Church. His Christ rising again [1589] is a prototype of the verse anthem. In addition to anthems and services he wrote a very large quantity of Latin music for the Catholic Church including three complete masses. GALILEO GALILEI [1564-1642] Italian astronomer and physicist who studied at the University of Pisa and returned there as professor of mathematics in 1589. He moved to Padua two years later and conducted mechanical research, made mathematical instruments for sale, and wrote several articles that were circulated in manuscript form to his pupils and friends. In 1610, with the aid of his newly invented telescope, he discovered four moons that revolve around Jupiter. He came into conflict with the Inquisition [see 1163] and when the Copernican theory was condemned he was forbidden, in 1616, to teach it. 1624 he visited Rome and obtained permission to write on the Copernican and Ptolemaic systems provided the treatment was impartial. The book which resulted from his work (1632) caused him to be brought to trial by Inquisition. The work was condemned, Galileo recanted, and he was sentenced to life imprisonment. He was however, permitted to live under house arrest until his death. MORNAY, PHILIPPE DE [1549-1623] French Huguenot leader who was originally intended for the priesthood. He adopted Protestantism upon his fathers death in 1559 largely due to his mothers influence. He became a travelling scholar at the Universities of Geneva, Basle, Heidelberg, and Padua, [1567-1572]. Returning to France he was convinced that the nations foreign policy must be anti-Habsburg. He associated with Coligny [see 1562] and narrowly escaped the St Bartholomews Day massacre. He fled to England but returned in 1573 counselling moderation. In 1576 he married the remarkable Charlotte Arbaleste shortly thereafter entering the service of Henry IV [see 1593] as a soldier, diplomat, and adviser. He served Henry so brilliantly he became known as the Huguenot Pope. In 1589 he was appointed governor of the Huguenot stronghold of Saumur and founded the greatest of the Huguenot academies there in 1603. He was instrumental in drafting the Edict of Nantes in 1598. In 1600 he retired and continued to exert a powerful moderating voice in the turbulent Huguenot affairs till he died at his castle of La Forest-sur-Sevre. RUSSIA [see also 978 and 1917] At a council in 1503 a dispute between Nilus of Sora and Joseph abbot of Volokalamsk resulted in the formation of two groups. The Possessors were Josephs followers who emphasised social obligation of monasticism in caring for the sick and poor. The Non-Possessors, Nilus followers, insisted that almsgiving was the duty of the laity while the major work of the monks was prayer and detachment from the world. The Possessors supported the ideal of the third Rome and believed in a close alliance between church and state and their victory eventually lead to a great subservience of the church to the state especially during the reign of Ivan IV. In 1589 the head of the Russian Church was elevated from the rank of metropolitan to patriarch. The Romanov dynasty commenced in 1613 and ruled until World War I. Church reforms were started by Abbot Dionysius, Philaret [see 1619], and Avvakum [see 1653] then in 1652 during the reign of Tsar Alexis the new patriarch Nikon [see 1652] sought to reform the Russian Church by bringing it into line with the ideas of the four ancient patriarchates. There was great opposition to the reforms especially among those of the Josephite traditions who eventually formed a separate sect known as the Old Believers [see 1551]. Under Peter the Great the patriarchate was abolished 1721 and a Holy Synod composed of twelve members replaced it, its members being nominated by the tsar, and thus the church became a department of the state. This system of church government continued until 1917. In theology Russia broke with the West, and Aleksei Khomyakov [see 1830] leader of the Slavophile circle, became the first original theologian of the Russian Church. STUBBS, JOHN [1543-1591] Protestant controversialist who was educated at Cambridge and then returned to Norfolk to live on the family estate. He strongly apposed Catholicism and viewed any compromise with it as dangerous. This was shown in a book he wrote expressing concern about the proposed marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the Catholic Henry duke of Anjou. Due to this he and the publisher were arrested and both had their right hands cut off in 1579. Stubbs professed loyalty to the queen but he was still sent to prison and released a few months later. He translated a book by Theodore Beza [see 1564] on the Psalms. Stubbs was elected member of Parliament for Yarmouth in 1589 and died at Le Havre on a visit to France. 1590DU MOULIN, PIERRE [1568-1658] French Protestant pastor who was sent to England in 1588 and acted as a tutor to the duke of Rutland. He studied at Cambridge and in 1593 became professor at Leyden. Ordained in 1599, du Moulin became pastor in the French Reformed Church at Clarenton near Paris. His house was the resort of leading Protestants. In the latter part of his life he preached and lectured at Sedan. He wrote many books and treatises, mostly of a controversial nature. GABRIEL VIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1590-1601] see 1573 and 1610. The see was vacant from 1601 to 1610. He became a monk in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Saint_Pishoy" \o "Monastery of Saint Pishoy" Monastery of Saint Pishoy and was ordained in 1587. At the time of his ordination, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copts" \o "Copts" Copts were divided and they chose for themselves four different patriarchs. His papacy was later confirmed. He was contemporary of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" \o "Ottoman Empire" Ottoman HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan" \o "Sultan" Sultan HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_I" \o "Ahmed I" Ahmed I. He determined the timing of various fasts which were approved by all the Copts but reverted to the old tradition fasting dates after his death. GREGORY XIV Pope [1590-1591]. He was born in the highest stratum of Milanese society, but was known for his modest lifestyle. He was ordained as a priest, and swiftly appointed bishop of Cremona, in 1560, in time to participate in the sessions of the Council of Trent from 1561 1563. Pope Gregory XIII(157285) made him a cardinal-priest on 12th December, 1583 and was an intimate friend and a great admirer ofPhilip Neri. He abandoned the recent papal policy of trying to maintain a balance between Spain and France coming down solidly on the side of Spanish interests in part because he was elected due to the influence of the Spanish cardinals. In a decree dated 18th April 1591, Gregory XIV ordered reparations to be made by Catholics in the Philippines to the natives, who had been forced into slavery by Europeans, and commanded under pain of excommunication that all native slaves in the islands should be set free. The biographers mention as a curious personal trait of Pope Gregory XIV: a nervous tendency to laughter which occasionally became irresistible, and which manifested itself even at his coronation. Gregory, who was in poor health even before his election to the papacy, died due to a large gallstone. He succeeded Urban VII [see below] and was succeeded by Innocent IX [see 1591]. MELETIUS I - Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1590-1601] see 1569 and 1612 Simultaneously, he served in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1597" \o "1597" 1597 and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1598" \o "1598" 1598 as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locum_tenens" \o "Locum tenens" locum tenens of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate" \o "Ecumenical Patriarchate" Ecumenical Patriarchateof HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" \o "Constantinople" Constantinople. He was born in Crete and studied classical philology, philosophy and medicine in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padua" \o "Padua" Padua. URBAN VII Pope [1590]. He was pope for only thirteen days in September 1590. He was ofGenoeseorigin, although born in Rome and was created cardinal-priest in 1584. He was chosen successor of Pope Sixtus V(158590) on September 15, 1590, but died of malaria (27 September, 1590) before consecration, making his either the shortest or second shortest papal reign in history (depending on whether Pope-elect Stephen is considered a real pope). He had previously served as governor of Bologna and was for many years nuncio to Spain. His election to the papacy was largely backed by the Spanish faction. Urban VIIs short pontificate gave rise to the worlds first known public smoking ban, as he threatened to excommunicate anyone who took tobacco in the porchway of or inside a church, whether it be by chewing it, smoking it with a pipe or sniffing it in powdered form through the nose. He succeeded Sixtus V [see 1585] and was succeeded by Gregory XIV [see above]. 1591-1600 AD 1591INNOCENT IX Pope [1591]. Prior to his short papacy, he had been a canon lawyer, diplomat, and chief administrator during the reign ofPope Gregory XIV (1590-1591). He studied at Bologna and in 1560 was named bishop of Nicastro. He was present at theCouncil of Trent in 1562 and four years later Pope Pius V sent him as papal nuncio to Venice to further the papal alliance with Spain and Venice against the Turks which ultimately resulted in the victory of Lepanto in 1571. Relinquishing his see to pursue his career in Rome, he was named titular Latin patriarch of Jerusalem in 1572. During the reign of the sickly Gregory XIV, who suffered from bouts of malaria, the burden of the papal administration rested on his shoulders. Even before Gregory XIV died Spanish and anti-Spanish factions were electioneering for the next pope. Philip II of Spains interference at the previous conclave was not forgotten: he had barred all but seven cardinals. This time the Spanish party in the College of Cardinals did not go so far, but they still controlled a majority, and after a quick conclave they elected Innocent IX. Mindful of the origin of his success, Innocent IX supported, during his two months pontificate, the cause of Philip II and the Catholic League against Henry IV of France (1589-1610) in the civil Wars of Religion (1562-1598), where a papal army was in the field. Death, however, did not permit the realisation of Innocent IXs schemes. He succeeded Gregory XIV [see 1590] and was succeeded by Clement VIIl [see 1592]. VASQUEZ, GABRIEL [1549-1604] Spanish Jesuit philosopher and theologian. He was educated at Alcala and became a Jesuit in 1569. He lectured at the University, read theology there, and also spent years teaching at Ocana, and the Roman College. In 1591 he succeeded Francisco de Suarez [see 1572] as professor of theology at Alcala where he wrote a paraphrase and exposition of Pauls letters as well as other works. He laboured heavily under Suarezs shadow but opposed his teaching. 1592BRUNO, GIORDANO [1548-1600] Italian Renaissance philosopher who joined the Dominican order [see 1216] in 1562 but was accused of heresy and fled abandoning the Dominican habit in 1576 and wandering through Europe and England teaching. In 1592 he returned to Italy and was arrested by the Inquisition [see 1163]. After eight years of imprisonment in Rome he was burnt as a heretic. CLEMENT VIII Pope [1592-1605]. He was the first of restorer popes. His attempt to restore the Roman Empire failed especially with James I of England whom he attempted unsuccessfully to woo back to Roman Catholicism. In 1600 Clement refused the request of a series of orders to break the monopoly of the Jesuits to work in Japan. He ordered a revision of the Vulgate which contained 3000 corrections of the Sixtus III revision which had been undertaken hastily. Later research showed that this version however departed from Jeromes edition in many places. Clements popularity is indicated by the fact that in 1600 he is said to have been acclaimed by 3 million pilgrims in Rome. Clement VIII was also openly anti-Semitic, making the usual link of Jews and usury. He succeeded Innocent IX [see 1591] and was succeeded by Leo XI [see 1605]. JANE FRANCES DE CHANTAL [1572-1641] Founder of the Congregation of the Visitation of Our Lady. She was the daughter the president of the parliament of Burgundy and married Baron de Chantal in 1592. The Baron was killed in a hunting accident nine years later leaving her with four young children. She heard Francis de Sales [see 1610] preach and she placed herself under his direction in 1604. She founded the Visitation Order in 1610 and at her death 86 houses had been established. 1593BARROW, HENRY [d.1593] Church reformer and martyr who was a graduate from Cambridge. Converted at Grays Inn in 1576 he gave himself to Bible study. He became friends with John Greenwood [see below], a zealous Puritan in 1586 and was detained by Bishop Whitgift [see 1583] while visiting his imprisoned friend. He was convicted of circulating seditious books and hanged in 1593. CARMELITES They emerged as the reformed part of the Carmelite Order whose reform had been started by Teresa of Avila [see 1562]. The order was originally founded by Berthold on Mt Carmel in Palestine in 1154 claiming to have descended directly from Elijah and the community of prophets who lived there. The Carmelites when reformed under Teresa of Avila emphasised the contemplative life and had special devotion to Mary and the Child Jesus with their theologians being prominent in the Roman Catholic dogma of the Immaculate Conception. GOMAR, FRANCIS [1563-1641] Dutch Calvinistic theologian. He studied at Strasbourg and continued at Oxford and Cambridge receiving his doctorate at Heidelberg in 1593. In his 30s he became professor of theology at Leyden. An ardent and skilled defender of Calvinistic orthodoxy he protested against the teachings of Arminius, who from 1603 was his colleague at Leyden, seeing these as effectively denying the doctrine of election. The growing controversy spread through the Dutch Calvinistic churches, with Gomarist and Arminian factions in the increasingly bitter debate. Known for his Contra-Remonstrant [see 1611] views, he was chosen as a delegate to the Synod of Dort [see 1618] and played a prominent part there, rejoicing at the condemnation of the Remonstrants. Gomar stressed the importance of doctrine. GREENWOOD, JOHN [d.1593] English Separatist who was educated at Cambridge and became a zealous Puritan and a chaplain in the Essex home of Lord Robert Rich. He moved to London and became a Separatist and criticised the idea of the state church. He was arrested in 1586 for holding an illegal meeting and was examined by Archbishop Whitgift [see 1583]. Other men imprisoned with him were Henry Barrow [see above] and John Penry; with whom he composed tracts defending separation. He was released in 1592 but rearrested later that year charged again with Barrow with the writing and publishing seditious books. In April 1593 they were hanged at Tyburn. HENRY IV OF FRANCE [1553-1610] Reared as a Protestant, Henry inherited from his Calvinist mother the throne of Navarre. He was related to the ruling Valois dynasty through both his father and his mother. With the coming of the wars of religion in 1562, Henrys family became leaders of the Huguenot forces. In 1572 a peace marriage was arranged between Henry and Margaret of Valois. Four days later on 22 August the St Bartholomews Day massacre occurred, Henry was captured, forced to convert to Catholicism, and held prisoner for 3 years and six months. He finally escaped, returned to his Protestant faith and assumed leadership of the Huguenot cause. He became eligible for the French throne in 1589 but France would not accept him because of his Calvinistic views and he once more embraced the Roman faith. He inaugurated an era of toleration for his former Huguenot compatriots with the Edict of Nantes in 1598. Henry was eventually assassinated by the Catholic fanatic Francis Ravaillac. JOACHIM VI Patriarch of Antioch [1593-1604] see also 1581 and 1604. SCALIGER, JOSEPH JUSTUS [1540-1609] Huguenot scholar who was son of a renowned humanist J.C. Scaliger who taught Joseph Latin from the age of 14. On his fathers death in 1558 he went to Paris where he taught himself Greek. In 1563, Scaliger by then a Huguenot was introduced to a nobleman with whose family he travelled and lived with from time to time over the next 30 years while he pursued private research under their patronage. He escaped the St Bartholomews Day massacre and retreated to Geneva where he lectured until his return to France. In 1593 he went to Leyden as professor of Classics. Among the disciples he influenced were Daniel Heinsius [1580-1655] and especially Hugo Grotius [see 1625]. 1594FISHER, JOHN [1569-1641] He is known also as Fisher the Jesuit. He was converted early to Roman Catholicism and was educated at the English colleges at Reims and Rome. After admission into the Jesuit Order in 1594 he returned to England, was imprisoned on several occasions, and banished. LASSUS, ORLANDUS [c.1532-1594] Musical composer who as a boy was three times kidnapped for his beautiful voice. Active in Italy and France he spent most of his later life in Munich. No composer of the 16th century was more widely sought after, and his music was printed by almost every European publisher of the day. Over 1200 of his works are known, the greater part are sacred. PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI SANTIDA [1525-1594] Italian composer who went early in his life to Rome as a choirboy and returned to Palestrina as an organist. Most of his life was spent in Rome and the tragic death of his older sons and wife through an epidemic seems to have for a time stifled his genius. However after remarriage he went back to his music. The value of his music has been the subject of debate between critics. Palestrina left over 250 motets, some of the most beautiful being on texts in the Song of Solomon. He was a great composer of Masses of which over 100 survive. TINTORETTO, JACOPO [1518-1594] Italian painter who reached success at the age of 27 with his painting Miracle of Saint Mark. For the most part he was self-taught; Titian [see 1576] threw him out of his studio after only a few weeks. His compositions showed great vitality and their dramatic lighting, brilliant colour and lithe bodies were in unusual perspective. In his Last Supper Tintoretto represents the moment when Jesus offered the bread and wine as the sacrificial body and blood for mans redemption. To illuminate the scene he bathed his canvas in a supernatural light that emanates from the figure of Christ and partly from the flickering flames of oil lamp, the smoke of which is formed into an angelic choir hovering over the head of Christ. Tintoretto painted onto the canvas without sketch or underpainting, a remarkable feat for any artist. TRAVERS, WALTER [c.1548-1635] Puritan minister educated at Cambridge and became a fellow there in 1569. When new university statutes forced him out of Cambridge he travelled to Geneva where he became a close friend of Theodore Beza [see 1564] and converted to Presbyterianism. He became minister to the Merchant Adventurers in Antwerp but tensions led to his resignation. Travers refused to become ordained in the Anglican Church and he became the first provost of Trinity College Dublin [1594 -1598]. He lived the rest of life in comparative obscurity. Even so, his defence of Reformed theology and exposition of Presbyterian church government made him one of the most influential Elizabethan Puritans. 1595HOOKER, RICHARD [1554-1600] English theologian and apologist. Educated at Oxford he lectured there in Hebrew and logic and was rector of Bishopbourne from 1595 until his death. Though an able preacher and sensitive pastor, he is primarily remembered as one of the great apologists for a Church of England which was not obliged slavishly to copy sister churches. His famous encounter with Walter Travers [see 1594] at the Temple showed an independent Reformed position on matters like predestination, assurance, and the judgement of Rome, in addition to a shrewd insight into the doctrinal and psychological weakness of militant Puritanism. Though his account of the relationship between church and state was unduly optimistic it continued to be influential. He is one of the most important English theologians of the 16th century. LAMBETH ARTICLES Nine theological propositions drawn up in 1595 at Lambeth Palace, London, by Archbishop Whitgift and his advisers. The purpose was to clarify the doctrine of predestination which was mildly stated in article 17 of the Thirty Nine Articles [see 1536]. Queen Elizabeth I did not like them, so they were not officially authorised; they were, however, incorporated into the 1615 Irish Articles. PERKINS, WILLIAM [1558-1602] English puritan scholar who was educated at Cambridge and was a fellow there until 1595. Afterwards he was lecturer at Great St Andrews Cambridge until his death. Perkins was a noted preacher and pastor influencing many undergraduates who later became Puritan leaders of which William Ames [see 1622] was perhaps the best known. He wrote many popular spiritual guides like A Golden Chaine in 1590 which went through numerous editions in England and abroad and as far away as Hungary. He was a prolific commentator on the Scriptures and was one of the founders of the tradition of English practical divinity which considerably influenced continental Pietism during the 17th century. UNIAT[E] CHURCHES Eastern Christian churches in communion with Rome who have retained their own worship customs and rights. The name was used as a derogatory name by their Russian and Greek Orthodox opponents of the Union of Brest-Litovsk [1595-96] when the Byzantine Christians of the Kiev province adhered to Rome. The term is now a common expression of all Roman Catholics of any Eastern Rite but its hostile flavour has not been lost over the centuries and it is not used in any Roman Catholic documents or by the groups so designated. Uniat churches fall into several categories [1] Antiochene Rite, [2] Chaldean Rite, [3] Alexandrine Rite, [4] Byzantine Rite, and [5] The Italo-Greek-Albanian Community. 1596AMYRALD, MOSES [15961664] French Protestant who promoted the Amyraldism doctrine which stated God wills all to be saved on condition that they believe. The doctrine was intended to provide a conciliation between Reformed and Lutheran Theology as he affirmed that individual redemption and the establishment of the kingdom of God were wholly divine prerogatives. Nevertheless he found Scriptural warrants for the divine decree of salvation that God wills all men to be saved. Though it had wide following in the latter half of the 17th century it was much opposed particularly by the scholastic Calvinists of the French and Swiss schools, although the concepts put forward by Amyrald is more in keeping with Calvin that his scholastic supporters. BRUCE, ROBERT [15541631] Scottish minister whose family claimed descent from the royal family of Bruce. He was ordained in 1587 and took a position in Edinburgh. He was made Moderator a few months later but came into conflict with James VI of Scotland in 1596 over the enforcing the Episcopacy in Scotland and was banished from the capital. He spent the last thirty years of his life at no settled home and for two four-year periods was confined in Inverness by royal command but wherever he could preach he attracted great crowds. He wrote Way to True Peace and Rest in 1617. GABRIEL I Patriarch of Constantinople [1596] succeeded Matthew II [see below]. There is no additional information readily available. MATTHEW II Patriarch of Constantinople [1596, 1598-1602] succeeded Jeremias II [see 1572]. There is no additional information readily available. 1597DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS The Scots textbook on the Divine Right of Kings was written by James VI in 1597-8 before his accession to the English throne and was held by the Caroline Divines a group of Anglicans during the reigns of James I, Charles I & II and was discarded in England during the Glorious Revolution of 1688-9. In the Middle Ages it was widely held that royal authority was divinely ordained, but not the person of the king. The Puritans of both England and New England held that all government was of divine origin and received its just powers from God alone. On the other hand, the divine right theory, as practised by the Stuarts in 17th century England and by Louis XIV and his successors in France was founded on the belief that the king possessed an absolute grant of authority from God himself thus disobedience to the king was disobedience to God and therefore sin. The American and French Revolutions further weakened this theory and by the 20th century it had all but disappeared. MELETIUS I Pegas Patriarch of Constantinople [1597-1598] succeeded Theophanes I [see below]. There is no additional information readily available. THEOPHANES I Karykes Patriarch of Constantinople [1597] succeeded Gabriel I [see 1596]. There is no additional information readily available. 1598BLACKWELL, GEORGE [15451613] Roman Catholic leader in England [15981608] who was educated at Oxford and entered the English College at Douai in 1574. He was ordained the following year and sent back to England as a missionary priest. After the death of William Cardinal Allen in 1594 he was promoted to arch priest in 1598. He caused controversy when he took the oath of loyalty to James I against the wishes of the pope and he was deprived of his position in 1608 because of this. FRANCE [see also 910 and 1793] The history of French Christianity in the modern period begins with a Renaissance, the Reformation, and John Calvin [see 1536]. Protestantism never captured the allegiance of the majority of Frenchman. However at one time as many as 10% of the French population had embraced Calvinist doctrines, and perhaps twice as many had sympathy with their cause. They were popularly known as the Huguenots and because of political complications the country was involved in a long and bitter civil war. In the end the Calvinists lost, but managed to salvage a certain amount of toleration when their political leader, Henry of Navarre, converted to Roman Catholicism in order to receive the crown as Henry IV [see 1593]. His edict of Nantes in 1598 gave the Huguenots a measure of religious freedom for more than two generations. However the edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685 and many Huguenots were expelled. The Catholic Counter Reformation was successful in the 17th century France, producing an era of Catholic piety. Of importance were such as Francis of Sales [see 1610], Vincent de Paul [see 1617], Jansenism [see 1638] and Quietism [see 1687]. NANTES, EDICT OF [1598] An agreement signed between Henry IV of France and the Huguenots after Henry, formerly the Protestant ruler of Navarre, had become a Catholic in order to bring to an end the Wars of Religion. It codified and enlarged rights granted to French Protestants by previous measures such as the Edict of Poitier [1577], and Convention of Nerac [1578] permitting them free exercise of their religion in certain areas, civil equality, and fair administration of justice, and granting them a state subsidy for the support of their troops and pastors. Elsewhere in Europe rulers chose to maintain one religion for their subjects, so that this edict introduced a new principal of toleration, establishing freedom for two religions to exist side by side. It was revoked by Louis XIV in 1685. SMART, PETER [1569-1652] Puritan minister who was educated Oxford and ordained in 1595 and became master of Durham Grammar School in 1598. Under the rule of High Church bishop Neile [1617-1627], Smart absented himself from the services because of ritualism and published a sermon about it. He was suspended and fined and his sermon burned but he refused to pay the fine and was imprisoned in 1631 and remained in custody until released by the Long Parliament 10 years later. His further publications show he had not changed his views; they were similar to those of the sermon, which was entitled The Vanity and Downfall of Popish Ceremonies. 1599DIAMPER, SYNOD OF [1599] An unofficial synod held on the Malabar Coast in south-west India uniting the so-called Thomas Christians with the Church of Rome. Traditionally dating back to the missionary work of Thomas the Apostle these native Christians followed the Syriac liturgy. The Portuguese discovered them in 1498 and for a time they lived in harmony with the Portuguese sponsored churches. By the end of the 16th century however, their Nestorianism and refusal to conform to a Latin liturgy led the Portuguese archbishop of Goa to convoke this synod. It rooted out Nestorian heresy and began the westernisation of the church. 1600BOEHME, JAKOB [1575-1624] German Lutheran mystic and theosophist who worked most of his life as a shoemaker. He had his most important mystical experience in 1600 when he looked at a dish reflecting sunlight and in an ecstatic state saw the Being of Beings, the Byss and Abyss, the eternal generation of the Trinity and other features. In 1612 he published some of his insights in The Beginning of Dawn and later in 1623 The Way to Christ. He believed God Himself contains both good and evil. He had influence both in Germany and England with such groups as the Cambridge Platonists and Behmenists accepting his ideas. CARISSIMI, GIACOMO [1603-1674] Italian composer who was important in sacred music for the role he played in developing oratorio. They were in Latin and presented bible events in dramatic style. Handel in the next century developed this further with such great works as Messiah and was indebted to Carissimi. 1601-1610 AD 1601CHINA [see 1294 1866] Francis Xavier reached Japan in 1549 and wished to enter China but it was Matteo RICCI who reached Peking in 1601 and commended Christianity to the Chinese court. He sought to graft Christianity onto the Confucian system. This included allowing ancestor worship and worshipping Confucius as he believed the Chinese worshipped the true God in their own way. This was known as the Chinese Rites Controversy and was eventually condemned by decrees issued by Pope Clement XI in 1704 and 1715. After Riccis death there was severe persecution until the end of the Ming dynasty in 1644. PAKISTAN [see also 1794] The Acts of Thomas written about 230 may contain echoes of a tradition that Thomas followed the trading route to India. About 196 Bardaisan speaks of Christians among the Kushans whose empire included the Punjab. Attendance records at synods of the Nestorian Church of the East between 410 and 775 show an organised church in Afghanistan with a metropolitan at Herat, and seven bishops south and east as far as Kandahar but gives no such proof of bishops in Pakistan. Armenian traders, soldiers, and artisans settled in Lahore from 1601 and built a church and for a time had a bishop. Lahore had an Armenian Christian governor in the 1630s, and in 1735 Armenians were the elite of the Mughal army. This group dwindled after 1750 and there is no trace of the organised church today. In Bangladesh there were chaplains at Chittagong from 1534, the Jesuit missionary work there from 1598 to 1602 had to be abandoned because of political opposition by the Portuguese. 1602JOSEPH CALASANCTIUS [1556-1648] Founder of the Piarists. He was ordained in 1583 and went to Rome in 1592 where he was patronised by the Colonna family and became active in charitable works. Convinced of the need to provide religious and secular education for the children of the poor he opened in 1597 the first free public school in Europe and established in 1602 the Piarist Order for those teaching, giving full privileges of a religious order. Dissension arose and fears were expressed that the educated poor might unbalance society. By 1643 the crisis led to Josephs own trial, and in 1646 Innocent X reduced the order to a federation of independent religious houses and this was not restored until 1669. Pius XII declared Joseph the heavenly patron of all Christian schools. NEOPHYTUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1602-1603, 1607-1612] succeeded Matthew II [see 1596]. There is no additional information readily available. 1603BYE PLOT Led by William Watson a disaffected English Roman Catholic priest, against King James I [see below]. Watson had supported James accession believing that it would bring a withdrawal of fines against the Catholics but it failed to do so. Watson was joined by another priest William Clarke and two dissatisfied Protestants George Brooke and Lord Grey of Wilton. The Jesuits exposed the plot to James and all except Grey, who died in prison, were executed. FIELD, RICHARD [1561-1616] Anglican minister who graduated from Oxford where he continued to lecture and study until 1592. He was appointed royal chaplain and he took part in the Hampton Court Conference of 1603. Six years later he was made dean of Gloucester, where his occasional preaching attracted great crowds. JAMES I [1566-1625] King James VI of the Scots from 1567. Due to his descent from Henry VII he was the nearest heir when Queen Elizabeth in England died in 1603. Although he assumed the title James I of Great Britain, the kingdoms were not united until 1707. Son of Mary Queen of Scots [see 1542] and Lord Darnley he was proclaimed king by the nobles who forced his mothers abdication and placed him under the tutorship of George Buchanan [see1579]. In Scotland he was under threat with four rival groups making bids for power by seizing him. Having become wealthy through church acquisitions which had been annexed by the Crown in 1587 it allowed him to break the power of the Scottish nobility and to impose various forms of episcopacy over the Presbyterians structure of the Scottish church. When he went to England he boasted that he was able to rule Scotland by his pen which others had not been able to do by the sword. His attempts to improve the lot of Roman Catholics were somewhat unpopular and ineffectual enough to provoke the Catholic gunpowder plot [see 1605]. At the Hampton Court conference in 1604 James astonished the English ministers with his theological learning, but he failed to understand the Puritan viewpoint. Confusing them with Presbyterians he sternly ordered them to conform to ceremonial matters. As a result of the conference the Authorised King James version of the Bible was proposed and the finished Bible was published in 1611. MILLENARY PETITION It was called this because about 1000 ministers were said to support it. The petition was presented to James VI in 1603 as he was travelling from Scotland to London to begin his reign as James I of England. They requested not a full programme of Presbyterianism but moderate reforms within the diocesan structure of the church and some of the ritual. These reforms could be decided they suggested by a conference among the learned. James agreed to the conference which was held at Hampton Court in January 1604. RAPHAEL II Patriarch of Constantinople [1603-1607] succeeded Matthew II [see 1596]. There is no additional information readily available. 1604AINSWORTH, HENRY [1571-1622] A Puritan educated at Cambridge who became a Separatist and fled to Holland where he became a porter to a bookseller and then teacher to the London congregation under Pastor Francis Johnson with whom in 1604 he wrote a defence of the Brownists [see 1582]. He was a significant author who leaned towards a congregational form of church government. ALLEGIANCE, OATH OF The oath to the sovereign taken by the clergy of the Church of England at ordination. Such an oath existed before the Reformation but at that time a supplementary Oath of Supremacy was introduced recognising the Crown as supreme in spiritual as well as temporal matters and renouncing allegiance to any foreign jurisdiction such as the papacy. This was covered also in the 1604 canons alongside the Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty Nine Articles [see1571]. The requirements were altered in 1865 and all reference to royal supremacy removed, these changes being passed by Parliament in 1868. BANCROFT, RICHARD Archbishop of Canterbury [16041610]. Bancroft was born in Lancashire and educated at Cambridge graduating with a doctorate in divinity in 1580. He was named chaplain to Richard Cox bishop of Ely and by a number of steps became bishop of London in 1597 where due to the poor state of health of John Whitgift he almost acted as the primate. He had to deal with the Maprelate Tracts in 1588]. He attended the Hampton Court Conference and almost wrecked it by sternly attacking the Puritans and Presbyterians and spoke so strongly about the divine right of bishops that one of the queens councillors held it to amount to a threat against the supremacy of the crown. He also promoted the re-establishment of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Hyde,_1st_Earl_of_Clarendon" \o "Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon" Lord Clarendon, writing in his praise, expressed the opinion that If Bancroft had lived, he would quickly have extinguished all that fire in England which had been kindled at Geneva. He was responsible for overseeing the Authorised Version of the Bible although he died before its publication. He succeeded John Whitgift as archbishop of Canterbury [see 1583] and was succeeded by George Abbot [see 1611]. BOOK OF CANONS passed by James I and the Canterbury Convocation in 1604. The book contained 141 canons covering such things as conduct of services, duties of church officers and discipline of the clergy. In 1939 a canon law commission was set up to review the Book of Canons. CRAKANTHORPE, RICHARD [1567-1624] Anglican scholar who came under the influence of John Reynolds [see below] and became a zealous Puritan. He went as a chaplain to Lord Evers to the court of Rudolf II and was later chaplain to the bishop of London. He engaged in controversy with Marc Antonio de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato who claimed to be a convert to the Protestant Church of England but later retracted. DOROTHEUS V Patriarch of Antioch [1604-1611] see also 1593 and 1611. DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY [1556-1618] Archbishop of Sens who was a son of a reformed pastor who fled to Berne. He went to Paris in 1573 and was converted to Roman Catholicism by his study of Thomas Aquinas and Bellarmine. His considerable gifts soon won Henry III favour. In 1591 he became bishop of Evreux and he played an important role in the conversion of Henry IV and his reconciliation with Rome. Appointed cardinal in 1604 he used great diplomatic talents to reconcile Venice to the papacy. He also engaged in theological controversy with James I of England. HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE [1604] Following the presentation of the Millenary Petition [see 1603] by the Puritans, James I agreed to the suggestion of a conference between representatives of the bishops and the Puritans. He decided to be the chairman. The conference, lasting four days took place in January 1604 at Hampton Court Palace; the leading participants were Bishops Bancroft and Bilson on one side and J. Reynolds and L. Chaderton on the other. Though many of the Puritan demands were dismissed, the king did admit the justice of some of them and agree to allow minor changes in the Book of Common Prayer including a new translation of the Bible. In reality only this change in the famous Authorised Version [see 1611] ever came to fruition. RAINOLDS, JOHN [1549-1607] Moderate Puritan theologian who was born in Devon, educated at Oxford and afterwards became a tutor there and lecturer in Greek. One of his students was Richard Hooker [see 1595]. His lectures brought him fame in the university but after some controversy in his college he moved in 1586 to Queens College. When Queen Elizabeth visited the university in 1592 it said she advised him to proceed in religion with moderation. In 1593 he was made dean of Lincoln and was well-known as a moderate Puritan and convinced Calvinist. At the Hampton Court Conference in 1604 he represented the Puritan interest and afterward took a major part in the translation of the King James Version of the Bible. SIEUR DE MONTS [1560-1611] French coloniser in Canada. He fought for Henry IV of France and was said to carry his Calvinistic convictions with great pride. Nevertheless in the interests of trade he agreed to have Indians in New France instructed in the dogmas of the Church of Rome. To exploit his trading monopoly in furs he organised a trading company in 1604 and used the ablest and the worst elements of French society to colonise Arcadia. He is credited with having been the founder of the first permanent settlement in New France. 1605ANDREWS, LANCELOT [15551626] Bishop of Winchester [16191626] who having been educated at Cambridge under a Puritan regime eventually opposed Calvinism in the Church of England during the 1580s and was responsible for the Pentateuch and historical books of the O.T. in the Authorised Version. He became successively bishop of Chichester [1605], Ely [1609], and Winchester [1619]. He is famous for Preces Privatae his book of private devotions. BOCSKAY, STEPHEN [15571606] Hungarian Protestant leader who secured the religious and constitutional rights for the Hungarians from the Austrians whose liberties were being threatened by Rudolf II. Roused to action by the outrages inflicted by the Austrian general Basta in 1602-4 he, with the assistance of the Turks, drove the general out of Transylvania. In 1605 he was elected prince of Transylvania but was poisoned by his chancellor Katay the following year who himself was killed by Stephens supporters. CATESBY, ROBERT [1578-1605] Roman Catholic originator of the Gunpowder Plot which he devised in 1603-4. Educated in France and at Oxford he became very rich on the death of his father in 1598 but was heavily fined for supporting the Essex rebellion three years later. After the failure of the plot he fled to Staffordshire but was killed, allegedly resisting arrest. DE NOBILI, ROBERT [1577-1656] Jesuit missionary to India who became a Jesuit in 1596 despite family opposition. He arrived in India in 1605 and served on the Fisher Coast before going to Madura for 36 years. His senior companion aimed to turn the converts into Portuguese but de Nobili rejected this and met bitter criticism because he dressed as a native and lived in the Brahmin quarter, so that he could be met without defilement. He became the first European to have first-hand knowledge of Sanskrit, the Vedas, and Vedanta. His first convert was baptised in 1609 and permitted to retain Brahman insignia. Fellow priests of de Nobili regarded this as a betrayal of Christianity, and he was inhibited from ecclesiastical functions by the local authorities. Resuming missionary activity he travelled widely in the new area until 1654 when he retired to Myalpore. By the time of his death there were several thousand converts, including some from high castes. FAWKES, GUY [1570-1606] Prominent participant in the 1605 Gunpowder Plot. Born into an Anglican family, he was converted to Roman Catholicism after his fathers death in 1579 and his mothers remarriage to a Roman Catholic. He served in the Spanish army for some years, and on his return to England in 1604 was persuaded to join Robert Catesby [see above] and others who were conspiring to blow up the Parliament buildings while James I and many government leaders were inside. Fawkes placed an impressive amount of explosive, but the authorities learned of the plot, arrested Fawkes on the night before the gunpowder was due to go off, and forced him under torture to identify his accomplices. GUNPOWDER PLOT [1605] A conspiracy to blow up James I and the Parliament at the Palace of Westminster evidently with the aim of restoring Roman Catholic supremacy in England. The chief mover in the affair was Robert Catesby [see above], a zealous Catholic disappointed that the co-religionists had not received the greater tolerance promised by James before his accession in 1603. Ten days before the opening on 5 November the plot was revealed through an anonymous letter. Of the 13 conspirators four were killed resisting arrest, one died in prison, and the others were in due course executed. LEO XI Pope [1605]. He was a member of the Medici family, born in Florence in 1535. After a late start, he was ordained a priest, and the Grand Duke ofTuscany sent him as an ambassador to Pope Pius V, a position which he held for fifteen years. Gregory XIII made himbishop of Pistoia in 1573, archbishop of Florence the following year and he was raised to cardinal in 1583. In 1596 Clement VIII sent him as legate to France where Maria de Medici was queen. Leo was a friend and disciple of Philip Neri. On 14th March1605, eleven days after the death of Clement VIII, 62 cardinals entered the conclave. There were prominent candidates but the leader of the Italian party among the cardinals allied with the French cardinals and brought about the election of Leo against the express wish of King Philip III of Spain. King Henry IV of France is said to have spent a fortune in the promotion of his candidacy. On 1st April 1605, Alessandro ascended the papal throne with the Medici name Leo XI. He was almost seventy years of age and was taken ill immediately after his coronation and died within the month. He was nicknamedPapa Lampo or Lightning Pope for the brevity of his pontificate. He succeeded Clement VIII [see 1592] and was succeeded by Paul V [see below]. PAUL V Pope [1605-1621]. He was born in Rome and studied canon law at Padua and Perugia and maintained a lifelong reputation as an able and strict lawyer although prone to nepotism. He was made a cardinal in 1596 and became vicar of Rome in 1603. He was elected as pope two years later as a compromise candidate. He supported educational reform and improvements to Rome. His pontificate involved five areas of conflict. There was conflict between the Dominicans and Jesuits over grace where he tended to support the Jesuit argument. Secondly there was a problem with Galileo which was decided by the Congregation of the Index which decided to condemn him. Thirdly there was a political struggle with Venice over the 1605 violation of the benefit of the clergy. He eventually placed Venice under an interdict to which the Venetians replied by expelling from their city all groups supporting the papacy. Fourthly difficulties with James I of England over the Oath of Allegiance of 1606 and finally the outbreak of the Thirty Year War where Paul sided with the Hapsburgs but died shortly after the Battle of White Mountain of 1620. He succeeded Paul V [see above] and was succeeded by Gregory XV [see 1621]. RACOVIAN CATECHISM One of the earliest confessions of modern Unitarianism [see 1558]. It appeared in 1605 just after the death of Faustus Socinus. It was a very clear expression of Socinian theology [see 1578]. Beginning with the question of what is the Christian religion it gives the answer The Christian religion is the way revealed by God for securing eternal life. While the catechism clearly indicates that both Old and New Testaments are inspired documents, it holds that reason alone understands their spiritual truths. It also stated that Christ was more than a man, but not truly God, as, if he had been truly divine, he could not have died. 1606AIRAY, HENRY [15601616] Puritan evangelical Calvinist who was educated at the expense of the apostle of the north Bernard Gilpin [see 1556]. Henry became vice chancellor of Queens College Oxford in 1606. He was known for his powerful preaching especially for a series on Philippians and expounded evangelical Calvinism. ARNDT, JOHANN [15551621] German Lutheran who published Four Books Concerning True Christianity[16061609] in which he asserted that communion with God and moral purification by good works was necessary as well as orthodox belief to attain true Christianity. In 1611 he became superintendent of the church at Celle where he remained until his death. SALMASIUS, CLAUDIUS [1588-1653] French Protestant scholar who studied philosophy at Paris [1604-1606] under Isaac Casaubon [see 1611] through whom he was converted to Calvinism. While studying jurisprudence in Heidelberg he discovered the manuscript of the Palatine anthology. He edited two previously unprinted 14th century tracts against papal supremacy by Nilus of Salonika and the monk Barlaam [1608]. After publishing classical works he became professor at Leyden in 1632 where he remained. Salmasius authored a large number of books including one which was an accusation of regicide against the English people in 1649 and it provoked a counterblast from John Milton [see 1667] in 1951. 1607BOLLANDISTS An association of ecclesiastical scholars whose aim was to produce a critical edition of the lives of saints based on authentic sources. Named after the author of the first volume John van Bolland [1596-1665] the work had been started by Heribert Rosweyde [1569-1629], who was professor of philosophy at the Jesuit College in Douai who announced the work in 1607. The 1773 suppression of the Jesuits severely affected their work which was not fully resumed until 1837. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [see also 1776 and 1914] Christianity in the United States like the Christian faith in other ages and lands reveals the marks of time and space. Discovery of America and the birth of Protestantism were almost contemporary events. This fact helps explain the prevailing Protestant character of American Christianity transplanted from the Old World. The history of Christianity in the United States can be divided into a number of sections. Because of the scope of this subject only the sections are now given. [1] The formative years 1607 to 1776, [2] The frontier years 1776 to 1863, [3] The critical years 1860 to 1914, and [4] The post-protestant years from 1914 onwards. 1608BREWSTER, WILLIAM [15671644] English born founding member of the Plymouth Colony who was educated at Cambridge where he acquired Separatist [see 1660] ideas. He served as British ambassador to Holland for a number of years and fled to Holland due to the persecution of the Separatists by the Anglican church in 1608. He was the elder in John Robinsons [see 1620] church at Leyden. He supported himself by printing Puritan books. He favoured immigration to America and sailed on the Mayflower in 1620 being the only church officer in the colony until 1629 and though he led the congregation in prayer, praise, and teaching bible doctrine did not preach or administer the Lords Table as he was not an ordained minister. CAMERON, JOHN [15791625] Scottish theologian and exegete who was born and educated in Glasgow where he early taught Greek. Professor of divinity at Saumur, France. He spent much of his life in France where he was greatly esteemed and achieved a growing reputation as a linguist. His theological works and lectures were reprinted for almost 300 years. SMYTH, JOHN [c.1565-1612] Father of English General Baptists who studied at Cambridge and was ordained by the bishop of Lincoln. Smyth became lecturer at Lincoln Cathedral in 1600 but was dismissed for personal preaching two years later. He served as pastor of a Brownist congregation at Gainsborough but to escape persecution they went to Amsterdam in 1607. Among the members of his church was Thomas Helwys [see 1611] a friend from Lincoln days. Smyth had come to a new understanding of the church as a company of believers and the necessity of believers baptism. In 1608 he baptised himself, then Helwys and the others on confession of faith. Becoming distrustful of his self-baptism he made approaches to the Waterlander Mennonite congregation but died before he could be received into membership. THEOPHANES III Patriarch of Jerusalem [1608-1644] see 1579 and 1645. 1609BAPTISTS In 1609 John Smyths [see 1608] English Separatist congregation in exile in Amsterdam was led by a study of the New Testament to disband and reorganise itself with believers baptism being the basis of church fellowship. Three years later a small group under Thomas Helwys [see 1611]] returned to England forming the first Baptist church on English soil. These were General or Arminian Baptists. The first Calvinist or Particular Baptists came into being before 1638. Both groups made significant progress especially during the period of the Commonwealth by which time there had been established 200 to 300 churches. The General Baptists tended toward Unitarianism during the 18th century. A Baptist missionary society sent William Carey [see 1793] out to India in 1793. During the 19th century there was a gradual closing of the gap between the various strands of the Baptists. In America it was during the Great Awakening the Baptist cause made significant headway. During the 20th century progress has been made in Africa, Asia and Latin America as well as in North America. Famous Baptists in America include Billy Graham [see 1954], Walter Rauschenbusch [see 1917], and Martin Luther King [see 1964]. DIODATI, GIOVANNI [1576-1649] Calvinist theologian who was born in Geneva of an Italian Protestant family. He became professor of Hebrew in 1597 and pastor at Geneva in 1608 before succeeding Beza [see 1564] as professor of theology in 1609, a post he retained until his death. His Italian translation of the Bible appeared in 1607 followed by a revised edition with notes in 1641. This version which established his reputation is still commonly used by Italian Protestants. He produced also a French translation of the Bible in 1644. DOUAI-REIMS BIBLE Roman Catholic translation of the Bible into English so called because it was produced at the English College founded by the Roman Catholic refugees in Elizabethan period at Douai and later removed to Reims before returning to Douai in 1593. The work was begun in 1578 at the instigation of William Allen, not to promote Bible reading, but with the object of counteracting corruptions whereby the heretics have so long lamentably deluded almost the whole of our countrymen [i.e. in the Protestant versions of the Bible] The chief translator was Gregory Martin an Oxford scholar whose daily translation of two chapters was revised by Allen and Richard Bristow. It was a translation of the Latin Vulgate. The New Testament translation appeared in 1582 and was extensively used in the preparation of the King James Version. The Old Testament was ready at the same time but did not appear until 1609 because of lack of funds. LOW COUNTRIES [see also 650 and 1832] Reformation found fertile soil in the Low Countries. By the 1520s not only Lutherism but also Anabaptism found adherents. Dutch Anabaptist militant John of Leyden [see 1536] took part in the New Zion at Munster, and Menno Simons [see 1536] reorganised the peaceful wing of the movement. The Protestants were periodically persecuted under Charles V [see 1530]. In the next generation Calvinism spread rapidly and in 1555 the Spanish born Philip II an ardent Catholic became ruler of the Low Countries. The persecution of the Calvinist and others was escalated and by 1568 the Low Countries were in revolt under William of Orange. The 12 year truce of 1609 allowed the North to gain independence and to become Protestant while the South remained Catholic and under Spanish rule. During the 17th century the Netherlands (the northern provinces) became a major European power. The Calvinist secured, at the Synod of Dort in 1618, victory for scholastic orthodoxy against the followers of Arminius [see 1588]. As a result the Remonstrants who wished a Reformed church with a good deal of tolerance in matters of dogma were expelled from the church. In the southern province the Counter-Reformation made great strides and became a centre of the Catholic orthodoxy. It also had internal problems with Jansenism which eventually resulted in the split. The Enlightenment Era found religion generally on the defensive against new currents of thought which stressed reason rather than divine revelation. The common people turned to experiential Pietism [see 1674] while the educated classes lost interest in theology. 1610BIARD, PIERRE [15671622] French Jesuit missionary who entered the Jesuit order in 1583 and became a teacher in theology in Lyons. In 1610 he was commissioned to join the French mission to Arcadia. He became a missionary to the Indians of Nova Scotia. Captured by the English he made a dramatic escape back to France. His writings are of value to students of Indian ethnology. BALL, JOHN [15851640] Presbyterian who was educated at Oxford and was ordained in 1610. He was deposed and imprisoned on a number of occasions. A scholar who was supported by the Puritans. He was a noted authority and author on the controversy with the Roman Catholics. BOLTON, ROBERT [15721631] Puritan preacher who was educated at Oxford and after a conversion experience became rector of Broughton, Northamptonshire [16101631]. Like many Puritans he stayed in the Anglican Church preaching Puritan theology which they applied in their pastoral work and desired to reform some of the ceremonies. He was named with others as an excellent sort of conforming ministers. EPISCOPIUS, SIMON [1583-1643] Dutch Protestant theologian who was educated at Leyden under Arminius [see 1588]. He was prominent among his former teachers followers who issued the Remonstrance in 1610. After taking part in an abortive conference at the Hague with Contra-Remonstrant leaders he took leadership of the group at the age of 29 at Leiden. The Remonstrants were again condemned at the Synod of Dort [see 1618] who adopted the Canons of Dort as a statement of the orthodox view on the disputed issues. They ousted Remonstrant ministers and arranged for the exile of Remonstrant leaders. Returning to Rotterdam in 1625 he worked as a Remonstrant preacher and later as professor at the Remonstrant college in Amsterdam. He denied predestination and election, interpreted the Trinity in a symbolic sense, viewed Christ as basically an ethical model for man, and stressed right conduct rather than dogma. FLECHE, JESSE Missionary priest. He went to Acadia in 1610 landing at Port Royal in late May and under pressure from Jean Poutrincourt, the leader, baptised an Indian chief and 20 of the tribe on June 24. The Indians were not ready for baptism but Poutrincourt wanted a good report on the progress of the mission in order to keep the support of wealthy and pious people in France. Within a year Fleche baptised over 100 Indians, but when the Jesuits arrived in 1611 they were shocked that the new converts were so ignorant of the rudiments of faith. Fleche returned to France in 1611. FRANCIS OF SALES [1567-1622] Counter Reformation leader. He read law at Paris and Padua, and became a priest in 1593. He was a missionary among the Calvinists and is credited with 8000 conversions in two years. In 1602 he became bishop of Geneva, and with Jane Frances de Chantal he founded the Visitation Order in 1610. Francis achieved considerable success in his campaign to win the erring Swiss back to the Roman fold. He was declared a Doctor of the Roman Catholic Church in the 19th century. GERHARD, JOHANN [1582-1637] Lutheran theologian. He studied at the universities of Wittenburg, Jena, and Marburg entering the service of Duke Casimir of Coburg whose churches he was commissioned to reorder, but was released in 1616 to become a professor at Jena. Although employed by a number of German princes he devoted most of his time to scholarship. His treaties on theology from 1610-1622 are regarded as the climax of the Lutheran dogmatic theology. His 51 devotional meditations written in 1606 were very popular and translated into English in 1627. MARCOS VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1610-1621] see 1590 and 1621. REMONSTRANTS A revisionist group in Dutch Calvinism associated with the controversies leading to the Synod of Dort in 1618 and there condemned. They were the followers of Arminius whose teachings at the theological faculty at Leyden aroused extensive controversy. The Remonstrants five points all dealt with Arminius attempt to soften the orthodox Calvinist idea of predestination and save something of mans free will. It held that the decree of predestination is not absolute but conditioned on mans response; that the offer of salvation is directed to all men, and all men in principle can be saved; that man can exercise his free will properly only after receiving grace; but, that this grace can be accepted or denied and thus believers can fall from grace. Acceptance of these points would have meant revising the Belgic Confessions [see 1561] and the Heidelberg Catechism which had been accepted as doctrinal standards by the Dutch Calvinist churches. They were opposed by the Contra Remonstrants of 1611 who set forth the orthodox position, and the controversy became mixed with political issues. The Estates-General issued edicts forbidding further controversy. The chief political supporter of the Remonstrants was imprisoned and the synod speedily declared their teaching as erroneous. Some 200 ministers were ousted as a result from their pulpits and many exiled for disturbing the peace. During the 1700s they declined in numbers. Their membership in the middle of the 20th century was about 25,000. VORSTIUS, CONRADUS [1569-1622] Reformed theologian and a leader of the Remonstrant party in the Dutch Reformed Church. He was born in Cologne and studied at Heidelberg and Geneva under Beza. He taught at an academy near Heidelberg and had to defend his Socinian [see 1578] ideas. Meanwhile in the Netherlands the Remonstrant controversy was in full swing and after the death of Arminius in 1609 his followers issued the Remonstrance of 1610. Vorstius was asked to take Arminius place at Leyden and accepted the position in 1610 but his book on the nature of the attributes of God aroused an immediate storm, as many considered, including the theological faculty at Heidelberg and King James I of England, that he denied the divinity of Christ. At this point he was banned from teaching at Leyden and retired to Gouda where he worked on the translation of some of Socinius works. 1611-1620 AD 1611ABBOT, GEORGE [15621633] Archbishop of Canterbury [16111633]. Born in Guildford he was the recognised leader of the English Calvinists and showed pronounced Puritan sympathies. He was educated before entering Balliol College, Oxford. He gained a great reputation at Oxford as an advocate of the views held by the more moderate Puritans and was elected master of University College, dean of Winchester and vice-chancellor of the University. He played a leading part in the translation of the Authorised Version. In 1609 he was appointed bishop of Coventry and a few months later moved to the see of London before becoming archbishop of Canterbury in 1611. Abbot was temporarily under a cloud when in 1622 he accidentally shot a gamekeeper while hunting but the king was responsible for exonerating him from blame. Abbot was a man of strong principles, but narrow outlook. He could act with great firmness when he felt conscientiously obliged to follow a difficult course yet he was strangely unwilling to allow for others liberty of conscience and he sought to suppress opinions which he disliked by measures of excessive harshness. He addressed some Separatists, who were brought before him You do show yourselves the most ungrateful to God, to the king and to us, the fathers of the Church. Abbot found little favour in the eyes of King Charles I and his advisers. A feud had existed between Abbot and Laud, who was a high churchman and was to be his successor, from early days. In 1627, he was suspended from his duties for more than a year. Despite his rather severe personality he showed generosity in the relief of individual cases of distress especially to the hospital which he had built at Guildford. He died in 1633. He succeeded Richard Bancroft [see 1604] and was succeeded by William Laud [see 1633]. ATHANASIUS III Patriarch of Antioch [1611-1619] see also 1604 and 1619. BIBLE VERSIONS King James section listed in order [for Elizabethan section see 1560, for Revised see 1881] 1611. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/kingjames.html" King James Bible (dedicated to James) published and authorised in England. 1615. Archbishop Abbot forbids printing of the Bible without Apocrypha. 1624. Elzevirs first Greek New Testament. 1633. Elzevirs 2nd Greek New Testament. William Laud forbids importation of the Geneva Bible. 1705. Humphrey Hodys On the Original Text of the Bible thoroughly examines the text of the ancient versions and the ancient canon of Scripture. 1707. John Mills annotated Greek New Testament displays 30,000 various readings of the Greek manuscripts. 1720. Richard Bentley publishes his proposals for critical revision of the Greek New Testament. 1725. Johann Albrecht Bengel publishes his prospectus for a critical revision of the Greek New Testament. 1726. Jeremiah Jones publishes first English translation of several apocryphal New Testament books in his New and Full Method of Settling the Canonical Authority of the New Testament. 1730. Wettsteins treatise on textual criticism. 1734. Bengels revised Greek New Testament with notes. 1742. Bengels Greek textual commentary. 1743. First Bible printed in America at Germantown, Penn. (Luther Bible). 1745. William Whistons Primitive New Testament 1755. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/wesley-nt.html" John Wesleys New Testament revises the KJV with use of Bengels Greek New Testament. 1769. Oxford Standard Edition of King James version published. 1774. Griesbachs critically revised Greek Testament. 1775. J.S. Semler (the German father of rationalism) advocates re-examination of the Biblical canon in his major work of 4 volumes. 1784. Ethan Allens Reason the Only Oracle of Man rejects the authority of the Bible. 1786. Woide publishes facsimile of Codex Alexandrinus. 1788. Birchs collation of Codex Vaticanus in the Gospels published. 1795. Thomas Paines The Age of Reason bitterly attacks the Bible and Christianity. 1796. Griesbachs 2nd Greek New Testament. 1798. Birch publishes collation of Codex Vaticanus for entire New Testament. 1802. Marsh publishes English translation of Michaelis Introduction (basic source of text-critical information for English scholars). 1805. Griesbachs last Greek New Testament. 1814. Richard Laurence (English archbishop) publishes defence of the traditional Greek text against Griesbach. 1815. Nolan publishes defence of traditional Greek text against Griesbach. 1821. Richard Lawrence publishes English translation of The Book of Enoch. 1826. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/campbell.html" Alexander Campbell publishes his edition of the New Testament. British and Foreign Bible Society stops printing Apocrypha. 1830. Scholzs Greek New Testament published. 1831. Karl Lachmann publishes first thoroughly revised critical Greek New Testament. 1835. David Strauss, Leben Jesu (Atheistic critical treatment of the life of Jesus) published in Germany. 1841. Tischendorfs first Greek New Testament. 1842. Lachmanns 2nd Greek New Testament. 1843. Greek text of Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus published by Tischendorf. 1849. Tischendorfs 2nd Greek New Testament. Alfords annotated Greek New Testament. 1852. Greek text of Codex Claromontanus published by Tischendorf. 1856. Tregelles Introduction to Textual Criticism. Tischendorfs 3rd Greek New Testament. Wordsworths Greek New Testament. 1857. Tregelles Greek text of Gospels. 1859. Vercellones edition of Codex Vaticanus. John Nelson Darbys New Translation of New Testament with critical notes. 1861. Scriveners Plain Introduction to Textual Criticism. 1862. Greek text of Codex Sinaiticus published by Tischendorf. Youngs Literal Translation of the Bible. 1867. Tischendorfs edition of Codex Vaticanus. 1868. Vercellones facsimile edition of Codex Vaticanus. 1869. Tischendorfs 4th Greek New Testament. 1870. English parliament asks bishops of the Church of England to form a committee for the revision of the King James Version. Revision committee is formed, and work begins on the English Revised Version. 1871. J.N. Darbys 2nd edition of the New Testament 1872. Last portion of Tregelles Greek New Testament published. Alfords New Testament for English Readers. 1878. Rotherhams English translation of Tregelles text. 1879. Robert Ingersoll attacks the Bible in popular lecture tours, publishes his Some Mistakes of Moses. AUTHORISED VERSION published the work of 47 translators from the Universities of Cambridge, Oxford and Westminster. BERULLE, PIERRE DE [15751629] French spiritual director who was educated by the Jesuits and ordained in 1599. At Paris he founded the Oratorians in 1611 which was an association of secular priests in the Roman Catholic Church who lived together in communities supported by private means. He negotiated with Rome regarding the marriage of Henrietta Maria with the Anglican Charles I, hoping for the conversion of England to Catholicism. He was made a cardinal two years later. CASAUBON, ISAAC [1559-1614] The son of a Huguenot born in Geneva he became professor of Greek before becoming a royal librarian for Henry IV of France. On the kings death in 1610 he resisted pressure to become a Roman Catholic, crossed to England and was supported by James I. He became prebend of Canterbury in 1611 and published books on early Christians. CONTRA REMONSTRANTS A name given to the defenders of Calvinistic orthodoxy in the Dutch controversies of the early 1600s around the teaching of Arminuis and his followers who tried to soften the doctrine of predestination so as to preserve something of human free will. After the death of Arminius [see 1588] in 1609 his followers issued a Remonstrance [see 1610] stating his position and it was opposed by the Contra Remonstrants document issued in the following year. At the council of Dort [see 1618] the Counter Remonstrants were in control and Arminius position was rejected with his followers ousted from their pulpits and leaders exiled as disturbers of the peace. GABRIELI, GIOVANNI [1557-1611] Italian composer. He was the last great composer to cultivate the Renaissance polychoral style at St Marks Cathedral in Venice. He was also a key figure in developing some aspects of music that are thought of as distinctly Baroque. He almost completely abandoned the composition of Masses in favour of motets, these often for two or three choirs and in up to 19 voice parts. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS [1594-1632] King of Sweden [1611-1632] and one of the most influential leaders of the 17th century. Soon after his accession he was forced to lead his armies into battle, defeating the Danes [1611-13], Russia [1613-17] and Poland [1621-29]. His goal was the establishment of a Swedish empire in the Baltic area. When the Thirty Years War [see 1618] was going badly for the Protestants, Gustavus decided to intervene in 1630. He died on the battlefield of wounds having won the Battle of Lutzen in 1632 and is considered one of the greatest military leaders in history. Within Sweden itself he reformed the judiciary, established schools, encouraged industry, and built a stronger economy. Many have felt that the Lion of the North wished only to save Protestantism. HEERMANN, JOHANN [1585-1647] Silesian hymn writer who was a son of a furrier and became pastor of Koben an der Oder in 1611. He suffered during the Thirty Years War and in 1634 had to give up preaching, at which he excelled. His health was always poor. One of his hymns which is still in common use is Oh holy Jesus how hast thou offended HELWYS, THOMAS [1550-1616] Founder and pastor of what was probably the first General Baptist church in England. He joined the English Independent Church in Amsterdam, founded in 1606 by John Smyth [see 1608]. In 1609 he and Smyth, probably influenced by the Mennonites, were expelled because they advocated believers baptism and were Arminian in theology. Smyth became pastor of a Baptist church in Amsterdam and when he died in 1610, Helwys succeeded him in the pastorate. In 1611 he and his flock returned to England and establish their church in Newgate Street. Although practising believers baptism, they did not normally immerse candidates, but used a Mennonite style effusion. LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW [1575-1612]. He was the last heretic burnt in London. He was a cloth merchant and when business took him to Zealand he became a preacher among the Seekers [see 1531]. Expecting a new revelation, he held that meanwhile there was no true church or true baptism, nor any visible Christian. He rejected the Mennonite concept of the celestial origin of Christs body as a heresy. He concluded that Christ was only a man but born free from sin. In 1611 with his brother Thomas he was imprisoned on a charge of heresy. King James I took a personal interest and tried to convince him of his error but found Legate unrepentant. He refused to recant was publicly burnt. 1612ADAMS, THOMAS [d.1653] Adams appeared as a preacher in south east England from 1612 and wrote a commentary on 2 Peter and published a number of his sermons. While he was a Puritan, he appears to have supported the Royalists as he was deposed under the Commonwealth. CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE [1570-1635] French explorer and coloniser who made his first journey to Canada in 1603. He explored and mapped the Arcadian and New England coasts and in 1608 established a fur trading colony in Quebec. He strongly emphasised Christian missions. In 1612 he became commandant of New France and three years later encouraged the Recollect missionaries [see 1615] to come to Canada. He was made governor of New France in 1633. CYRIL I Patriarch of Constantinople [1612, 1620-23, 1623-33, 1633-34, 1634-35, 1637-38] who succeeded Neophtus II [see 1602]. Also CYRIL III Patriarch of Alexandria [1601-1620] succeeding Meletius I. Cyril was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete" \o "Crete" Crete in 1572, when Crete was part of the Venetian republics maritime empire. In his youth he travelled through HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" \o "Europe" Europe, studying at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice" \o "Venice" Venice and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padua" \o "Padua" Padua, and at Wittenberg and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva" \o "Geneva" Geneva where he came under the influence of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinism" \o "Calvinism" Calvinism and developed strong antipathy for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" \o "Roman Catholicism" Roman Catholicism. In 1596 he was sent to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" \o "Poland" Poland by Meletios Pegas,patriarch of Alexandria, to lead the Orthodox opposition to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Brest-Litovsk" \o "Union of Brest-Litovsk" Union of Brest-Litovsk, which proposed a union of Kiev with Rome. For six years he served as professor of the Orthodox academy in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius" \o "Vilnius" Vilnius in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania" \o "Lithuania" Lithuania. Turkish oppression and the Jesuit missionaries in Constantinople area caused Cyril to set up a theological seminary in Mount Athos. However his ultimate aim was to reform the Orthodox Church along Calvinistic lines. In 1629 he published his famous Confessio promoting this thrust. This caused controversy and Cyril to be deposed several times by the Jesuit and Orthodox factions as can be seen by the six periods of his reign. The controversy culminated in 1672 with the convocation by Dositheos,patriarch of Jerusalem, of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Jerusalem" \o "Synod of Jerusalem" Synod of Jerusalemby which the Calvinistic doctrines were condemned. Cyril was also particularly well disposed towards the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Church" \o "Anglican Church" Anglican Church, and his correspondence with thearchbishops of Canterburyis extremely interesting. He was a lover of books and manuscripts, as was Kritopoulos the patriarch of Alexandria [1635-1639], and many were the items in their collections of books; these two HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch" \o "Patriarch" Patriarchsacquired manuscripts that today adorn the Patriarchal Library. Finally, when the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" \o "Ottoman Empire" Ottoman sultan HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_IV" \o "Murad IV" Murad IV was about to set out for the Persian War, the patriarch was accused of a plan to stir up the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossack" \o "Cossack" Cossacks, and to avoid trouble during his absence the sultan had Cyril killed on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_27" \o "June 27" June 27, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1638" \o "1638" 1638 aboard a ship in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporus" \o "Bosporus" Bosporus. His body was thrown into the sea, but it was recovered and buried at a distance from the capital by his friends, and only brought back to Constantinople after many years. EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH The third stage of the fragmentation of Christendom came with the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. The Orthodox Church did not undergo either a Reformation or Counter Reformation but these movements did have some influence the East. Through the Poles there was contact with Roman Catholicism. The Uniat Church, formed in Poland, recognised the supremacy of the pope, but also kept many of the traditions of the Orthodox Church, including married clergy. Cyril I, patriarch of Constantinople, combated the Catholics and turned to Protestant embassies at Constantinople for help. He fell under the influence of Calvinism in matters of theology and tried to introduce some Reformation in Constantinople. He was eventually killed by the emperor and this stopped any suggestion of Reformation of the Eastern Orthodox Church. [See 431 and 1054] HASSLER, HANS LEO [1564-1612] Probably the ablest German composer of the Renaissance. He studied in Venice with Andrea Gabrieli and was much influenced by the latters nephew Giovanni Gabrielli [see 1611]. His music is notable for its melodic charm. He wrote music for both Lutherans and Catholics some of which might have been used in either form of worship. SCHUTZ, HEINRICH [1585-1672] German composer who unlike his contemporaries left no purely instrumental works. Schutz is considered to be the greatest Lutheran composer before J.S. Bach. He was sent by his patron to Venice in 1609 to study with Giovanni Gabrieli [see 1611] where he remained until his teachers death in 1612. It was in Venice that his first collection of works, a set of Italian madrigals, was published. Apart from a single opera now lost, all his subsequent output was exclusively sacred. As a mature composer he returned to Venice to study with Monteverdi [see 1643]. In his long life he composed a large number of sacred works. SELDEN, JOHN [1584-1654] Jurist and Orientalist who was educated in Oxford before being called to the bar in 1612 and practice in the Temple. He was also interested in history, oriental studies, and Judaism. The book for which he is most famous is The History of Tythes published in 1617 in which his contemporaries believed he argued that tithes were not by divine ordinance. He became a parliamentarian and gained fame as a defender of the common law and the ancient liberties of Englishmen. He sat in the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] where his extensive learning was an embarrassment to many religious ministers. TIMOTHY II Patriarch of Constantinople [1612-1620] succeeded Cyril I [see 1612]. There is no additional information readily available. 1613BAYLY, LEWIS [15651631] Bishop of Bangor, who was educated at Oxford and graduated with a DD in 1613. His series of sermons while vicar of Evesham formed the basis of his famous book The Practice of Piety which was widely translated and valued in Puritan households. He was appointed to the see of Bangor in 1616 and briefly imprisoned in 1621 for opposition of royal policy. He spoke Welsh which was unusual for Welsh bishops of his time. 1614CALIXTUS, GEORGE [15861656] German ecumenist appointed professor of theology at Helmstedt in 1614. His attempt to reunite the church was rejected by both the Catholics and orthodox Lutherans and was therefore unsuccessful. At the Council of Thorn he was accused of Calvinist tendencies by the Lutherans. He became the most influential representative of the school of Melanchthon [see 1521]. PORTUGAL [see also 1845] This country secured freedom from Spanish rule in the 12th century and though at first in bondage to the papacy, the nation and their king, Sanche I, vigorously asserted its autonomy even against Innocent III who was the most powerful of popes. Under Prince Henry the Navigator, Portugal began in the late 15th century to build up her overseas empire embarking on a policy of subjugation and conversion of the native peoples. During the first half of the 17th century she was again absorbed into Spain but recovered independence between 1640 and 1668 when the papacy was actively allied with Spain. Thereafter, as in Spain, the Catholic Church fell into a torpor from which it has never really recovered. 1615CANANDA The church in New France. New France was virtually founded by Samuel de Champlain [see 1612] who brought Franciscan Recollets [see below] from France hoping they would Christianise the Indians. In 1648-49 several Jesuits were martyred at the hands of the Iroquois the enemy of the Hurons. Organisation of the domestic church was largely accomplished by Francois de Laval [see 1674]. The Roman Catholic Church was active also in Nova Scotia [Arcadia] from the first expedition authorised in 1604 and led by Sieur de Monts [see 1604]. Expansion to the west began in the 1730s when Jesuits accompanied explorer Pierre de la Verendrye on his expeditions into the west. [See The Churches under British Rule 1763] CARON, JOSEPH LE [1586-1632] Roman Catholic missionary to Canada who responded in this year to an appeal from the Recollect order, a branch of the Franciscans, to take the gospel to the natives of New France. He established a mission among the Hurons and compiled a dictionary of their language DONNE, JOHN [1573-1631] English poet and dean of St Pauls. Born a Catholic and with Jesuit relatives he did not go abroad to Douai but went instead to Oxford and then to Cambridge. He eloped with Anne More in 1601, the niece of Egerton, the lord chancellor, and his marriage to her resulted in his dismissal from Egertons service and his imprisonment. After failure to secure advancement in other directions, he acceded to the kings desire, and took orders in 1615 and became dean of St Pauls six years later. Donne is the first and greatest of the group known as the Metaphysical poets. RECOLLETS A reformed branch of the Franciscan Order who were asked by Samuel de Champlain to give aid in the evangelisation of the Indians in Canada. In 1615 three fathers and a lay brother arrived in Quebec to begin their devoted and self-sacrificing labours among the Algonquin tribes whose nomadic way of life soon made the fathers despair of their conversion. They decided therefore to seek out more settled tribes and travelled west to labour with some success among the Hurons. Financial problems in 1623 forced them to ask the Jesuits for assistance but cooperation between the two orders was difficult. The English in 1629 and again in 1760 put an end to the Recollets labour but in each case they returned to continue their Canadian ministries. 1616CLAVER, PETER [1580-1654] Jesuit missionary who studied at Barcelona. In 1616 he went to Bogota where he was ordained and returned to Catagena in Colombia where he did much to alleviate the misery of those in the disease ridden slave ships befriending them as doctor and teacher. Pope Urban VIII [see 1623] condemned slavery in his bull of 1639. In 1896 he became the patron of all Catholic missionary activity among Negroes. CORNELIUS A LAPIDE [1567-1637] Flemish biblical exegete who entered the Jesuit order in 1592 and in 1616 was sent to Rome to lecture on exegesis. There he also completed his commentary on all canonical books except Job and Psalms. SURIN, JEAN JOSEPH [1600-1665] French mystic who became a Jesuit in 1616. At Cardinal Richelieus request he went to Loudun in 1636 to be exorcist in a community of Ursuline nuns diabolically possessed. As result he believed himself to be possessed which was a devastating experience that persisted for 20 years finally advancing his own spirituality as a mystic. The Italian translation of one of his books was put on the Index. Other works emphasised purification through suffering and self-denial. 1617BOOK OF SPORTS The name given to a declaration of James I in 1617/8 which authorised but did not command sports on Sunday afternoons such as Morris dancing, archery and vaulting after morning service and a lunchtime meal. This was in direct conflict with the Puritans Sabbath. It was an attempt to make Sunday less austere with a view of attracting the conversion of Catholics. It was reissued in 1633 by Charles I and enforced by Archbishop Laud [see 1633] but was finally burned by the Long Parliament in 1643. CONDREN, CHARLES DE [1588-1641] French preacher and theologian who in 1614 entered the priesthood rather than the expected military career and became an Oratorian [see 1564] in 1617. As second superior general from 1629 he gave the order clearer aims especially in relation to seminary education. His teaching on sacrificial living is of some considerable interest. DE DOMINIS, MARCANTONIO [1566-1624] He was a scholar and controversialist who was born in what is now Yugoslavia. He became a Jesuit but left in 1596 on appointment as bishop of Segni. He was also been a professor of mathematics at Padua. Involved in the quarrel between the papacy and Venice, de Dominis went to England in 1616 and was appointed dean of Windsor and master of the Savoy by King James I in 1617. In England having written a tract attacking Rome and defending national churches he attacked the English Church just as violently. He died in the Castle Sant Angelo as a relapsed heretic having been seized by the Inquisition. RINCKART, MARTIN [1586-1649] Poet and hymn writer who was a coopers son and educated at Leipzig where he graduated in theology. A good musician he became a Lutheran cantor and then deacon at Eisleben. In 1617 he became archdeacon of Eilenburg, a walled town of refuge during the Thirty Years War which suffered from famine and pestilence. For some time Rinckart was the only clergyman there and in 1637 it is said he buried nearly 5000 people including his wife. He also dissuaded a Swedish commander from imposing on the town excessive tribute. He was the author of the hymn Now thank with all our God. ROSE OF LIMA [1586-1617] Rose was a Peruvian ascetic who later took the name Rosa de Santa Maria for the special place of the Virgin Mary in her life. Catherine of Siena [see 1364] was her model. She joined the Third Order of St Dominic at 20 and lived in a hermitage in the garden. She had an infirmary in the house to care for the destitute children of Peru and was widely known for her mystical gifts. Rose was noticed but was not touched by the Inquisition. VINCENT DE PAUL [1581-1660] Founder of the Lazarists [see 1632]. Vincent was born in France to a peasant family and studied humanities at Dax and theology at Toulouse. He was for two years a slave in Tunisia after being captured by pirates [1605-1607]. Following his conversion he served Queen Marquerite of Valois [1610] before becoming pastor of a congregation at the Clichy. Seeking God rather than better appointments he decided on a life of serving the poor in 1617 founding the first Confraternity of Charity. He was appointed superior of the Visitation convents in Paris in 1622, he started retreats, organised clergy conferences, founded seminaries, established provincial relief during the Wars of Religion, ministered to Louis XIII, and lived to see his work increase and spread beyond France. 1618ALSTED, JOHANN HEINRICH [15881638] German Calvinist who was the arbiter between the Arminian and the Reformed at the Synod of Dort [see below]. He was a prolific author and one of the greatest encyclopaedists of his time. The Thirty Year War caused devastation in his home town so he moved the Transylvania where he remained until his death. CALVINISM The term that came out of the 17th century largely in opposition to the teachings of Arminius [see 1588] condemned at the Synod of Dort [see below]. The first problem involved in the terms interpretation is its relation to John Calvin [see 1536] himself. He would not have accepted it as a good description of his doctrine and on one or two occasions made comments to that effect. The formal principle of Calvinism is the Bible, the source of Calvins doctrine. He and most of the other 16th century reformers held a very high view of the Bible insisting it is the word of God bringing Gods revelation to man in documents written under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. Because of this belief, Calvinism insists the Bible is the only source of mans knowledge of God and His will and works. Usually Calvinism has been accused of originating modern exploitive capitalism because of its insistence of hard work and moderation in all things. Over the past 400 years it has known its highs and lows and although weakened by the Enlightenment rationalism it experienced a considerable revival during the evangelical revival in England and the Great Awakening in America in the 18th century. CHARDON, LOUIS [1595-1651] French Dominican mystic and theologian, entered the Dominican order in 1618 and became ordinary preacher in 1632, spending most of his life as spiritual director and novice master. His principle work The Cross of Jesus was written in 1647 and emphasises the Christians progress in suffering through grace. COMENIUS, JAN AMOS [1592-1670] Bohemian educational reformer became a pastor at Fulnek in 1618 but three years later the town was invaded in the Thirty Year War and he moved to eastern Bohemia. His wife and two children died in the plague. When Imperial law prohibited non Catholic clergy he moved to Leszno in Poland. He visited London, and Sweden where he reformed the education system as well as in Hungary and finally settled in Amsterdam where he published many of his 150 books. As well as an educator he was a theologian and was the last bishop of the Czech branch of the Unity of Brethren group as well as seeking the unity of Christendom. DORT, SYNOD OF [1618-1619] This synod produced the Canons of Dort, one of the doctrinal standards of the Dutch Reformed Church. It affirms the orthodox Calvinistic position on predestination and related issues and was directed against the Arminians who wanted a statement which allowed for the human will. Arminius died in 1609 and in 1610 his followers issued the Remonstrance against the Calvinistic orthodox insistence on unconditional predestination. In 1611 the Counter-Remonstrance reiterated their orthodox stand, and bitter controversy flared. The synod of Dort was therefore convened to judge whether the Remonstrant position was in accord with the Calvinist confessions. The canons were written to summarise the orthodox position against them confirming the total depravity of man, unconditional election (Gods choice of the elect is not conditional on any action by them), limited atonement (meaning that Christ died for the elect only, since those He died for are saved), irresistible grace (divine grace cannot be rejected by the elect), and the perseverance of the saints (once elect always elect). PERTH, FIVE ARTICLES OF [1618] A drastic innovation in Scottish Presbyterian ritual and worship passed by the General Assembly under the direct coercion of James VI who held that Episcopacy was more congenial to his policies. The Five Articles: to keep kneeling at Communion, private Communion in cases of necessity, private baptism in similar cases, observance of the great annual festivals of the church, and confirmation by bishops. The articles were abolished by the Covenanting Assembly of 1638. However after the Restoration of Charles II in 1616 an even more stringent format was forced upon Scotland. It was not until 1954 that the Church of Scotland General Assembly revoked the Act of 1690, which, after the deposition of the house of Stuart prohibited the private celebration of Communion. THIRTY YEAR WAR [1618-1648] This highly complex series of conflicts in Central Europe was in fact three struggles telescoped into one. Protestants versus Roman Catholics in Germany, the civil war in the Holy Roman Empire between the emperor and estates, and an international contest between France and the Habsburgs for control of Europe in which other powers were implicated. The war is commonly divided into four periods: [1] Bohemia [1618-1623], [2] The Danish [1625-1629], [3] the Swedish [1630-1635] and, [4] the French [1635-1648]. The war was concluded with the Peace of Westphalia on 24 October 1648 but the Franco-Spain and the Baltic struggles continued outside Germany for another decade. The independence of Holland and Switzerland was confirmed and autonomy granted to the 300 German entities. The Peace of Westphalia marked the end of both the mediaeval papacys political influence and the significance of the mediaeval empire. 1619CALDERWOOD, DAVID [15751650] Scottish minister and historian who was educated at Edinburgh and ordained in 1604. He was ordered to leave Scotland in 1619 after disagreeing with James VIs policy on the Church of Scotland. He spent several years in Holland and produced a superb book on the churchs doctrine which encouraged Presbyterians. Best known for his History of the Kirk of Scotland. COLLEGIANTS Dutch religious group originating in the controversies surrounding the Synod of Dort [see 1619] where many congregations found themselves without a pastor. At Warmond, Gijsbert VanderKodde and his brothers began leading such a congregation in informal services stressing baptism by immersion, separation from the world and a minimum creed. During the 1700s membership dwindled with the last meeting occurring in 1787. IGNATIUS III Patriarch of Antioch [1619-1631] see also 1611 and 1635. PHILARET, THEODORE NIKITICH ROMANOV [1553-1633] Russian patriarch and Reformer who was a respected soldier and diplomat under his cousin Theodore I the last tsar of the house of Ruvik. He was later confined under Boris Godunov to a monastery from 1598 to 1605. He became metropolitan of Rostov in 1605 after the overthrow of Godunov and was later made patriarch of all Russia. On his release from being imprisoned by the Poles [1610-1618] he was enthroned as patriarch of Moscow in 1619 remaining virtually Russias ruler until his death even though his son Michael was the tsar. Equalising taxation, halting peasant migration off the land, and reorganising the army, he also established theological projects such as a seminary in every diocese and the founding of the patriarchal library. SCHALL, JOHANN ADAM [1591-1666] Jesuit missionary to China who in 1619 arrived in Macao. In 1630 he succeeded Ricci [see 1583] in Peking and by accurately predicting an eclipse gained an immediate reputation and a place on the board of astronomy engaged in reforming the calendar. Schall also became chaplain within the Imperial Palace having won the esteem of the first Manchu emperor. Many palace eunuchs were converted. While he was successful in predicting another eclipse in 1645 and was appointed president of the board of astronomers, he suffered through his support of Ricci in the Chinese Rights Controversy [see 1582]. He was also falsely accused by jealous enemies of planning a Portuguese invasion and only an amnesty saved him from execution and allowed him eventually to die naturally in Peking. 1620DREXEL, JEREMIAS [1581-1638] German spiritual writer born to Lutheran parents but converted to Catholicism in his youth and was educated by the Jesuits which order he joined in 1598. He was later professor of humanities at both Munich and Augsburg, and taught at the Jesuit seminary in Dillinger. He was also court preacher to the elector of Bavaria. Drexel wrote a series of 20 works between 1620-1638, mainly of a devotional nature, which were enthusiastically read and translated into many languages. FORBES, JOHN [1593-1648] Most prominent of the Aberdeen Doctors [see 1638]. He was appointed professor of divinity at Kings College Aberdeen in 1620. He was a defender of episcopacy and a notable theologian. He was deposed in 1639 after disagreeing with the policies of the Covenanters [see 1638] and was evicted from the residence which, formerly his own, he had made over to the university. Being reluctant to sign the Solemn League and Covenant he felt compelled in 1644 to leave the country for Holland, where he spent two years. It was his wish to be buried beside his wife and father in the cathedral at Aberdeen but the Presbyterians had not forgiven his opposition and this request was refused. GERASIMUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1620-1636] see 1612 and 1636. JOHN OF ST THOMAS [1589-1644] Dominican scholar of Portuguese origin who was named of St Thomas for his devotion to Thomas Aquinas. In 1620 began lecturing in theology at Madrid simultaneously being a qualificator of the Supreme Council of the Spanish Inquisition. Confessor and adviser to Philip IV he refused on insufficient evidence to condemn Louvian professors brought before him. MAYFLOWER COMPACT [1620] With the Virginia Assembly of 1619 this stands as a foundation stone of American institutions. The Mayflower passengers before disembarking at Cape Cod signed the compact which provided a civil body politic for their full protection. Some of these original Massachusetts settlers had been exiled in Leyden for 10 years because of religious intolerance in England, and their English instinct for self-government demanded equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices. While remaining loyal subjects to the king their freedom was assured by this compact which remained Plymouth Colonys principal governmental charter until 1691 when the colony was absorbed by Massachusetts. ROBINSON, JOHN [c.1575-1625] English Separatist and pastor of the Pilgrim Fathers. Born in England and after study at Cambridge he was for a time curate in a Norwich church. He joined a Separatist group [see 1660] at Scrooby Manor where he became pastor and fled to Holland with this group to avoid persecution, settling in Leyden in 1609. He was ordained as the pastor of their newly formed church in May of that year. He held a Separatist view of Communion and sided with the Calvinists in the Arminian controversy. He advocated a congregational form of church government. He urged emigration and a small part of his church sailed from Holland, stopping first in England in 1620 then sailed in the Mayflower landing at Plymouth Massachusetts on 11 November 1620. Robinson never emigrated choosing rather to remain as pastor of the major portion of the church which stayed in Holland. However his influence on the Plymouth Separatists was profound due to his teaching before the voyage. VAN DYCK, ANTHONY [1599-1641] Flemish painter who by the age of 17 was already an independent artist and by 19 was admitted into the reputable Guild of St Luke as a master. He was drawn into the Rubens circle to an extent that he was referred to by Rubens as a disciple. In 1620 van Dyck made his first visit to England where he was briefly employed by James I. Two years later he went to Italy where he visited major cities from his base in Genoa. In 1632 van Dyck became court painter to Charles I by whom he was knighted. He painted a number of religious paintings including Christ Crowned with Thorns. WINSLOW, EDWARD [1595-1655] American Pilgrim leader who was born in England and received a private education becoming associated with John Robinsons Separatist movement [see 1660] in the Netherlands. Winslow sailed in the Mayflower in 1620 and was employed as an Indian agent and envoy to England. He was imprisoned by Archbishop Laud for four months in 1634 for teaching and performing marriages as he was a layman. He was governor of Plymouth and assisted in the founding of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Indians in New England in 1649 and was buried at sea as he died on board as he was returning to America on one of his many voyages from England. 1621-1630 AD 1621BRADFORD, WILLIAM [15891657] English born second governor of the Plymouth Colony in New England [16211656]. Cotton Mather [see 1690] called him the Moses that brought the Pilgrims out of England to the New Canaan. Bradford wrote the History of the Plymouth Plantations demonstrating how God had led their society from 16201646. He was highly thought of because of his exemplary life. DAVENANT, JOHN [1576-1641] Bishop of Salisbury from 1621. He graduated at Cambridge and by the age of 33 he had become divinity professor there. King James I sent him and three other churchmen to represent the Church of England at the Synod of Dort [see1618]. Despite his colleagues uneasiness Davenant on their behalf read to the synod a paper advocating the doctrine of universal redemption. His king evidently approved as Davenant was appointed bishop of Salisbury in 1621. However, in 1631 Davenant was summoned before the council after preaching at court a sermon on predestination and election which provoked King Charless displeasure. Thereafter Davenant in his West Country diocese meekly carried out Archbishop Lauds High Church commands. Among his works was a much praised commentary on Colossians. GREGORY XV Pope [1621-1623] He was educated by the Jesuits in Rome before going to Bologna for degrees in canon and Roman law. In September 1616 Paul V created him bishop at his see in Bologna until he went to Rome after the death of Pope Paul V to take part in the conclave in which he was chosen as pope. At the moment of his election at the age of 67 and with his weak state of health he saw at once that he would need an energetic man, in whom he could place implicit confidence, to assist him in the government of the church. His nephew, a young man of 25 years, seemed to him to be the right person and at the risk of being charged with nepotism, he created him cardinal on the third day of his pontificate. On the same day one of his brothers was put at the head of the pontifical army. The future revealed that Gregory XV was not disappointed in his nephew as while advancing the interests of his family in every possible way he also is said to have used his talents and great influence for the welfare of the church. Gregory assisted Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Catholic League against the Protestants, investing a million gold ducats into the project. He also helped Sigismund III Vasa against the Turks. Apart from these he interfered little in European politics. His constitution against magicians and witches in 1623 was the last papal ordinance against witchcraft. Former punishments were lessened, and the death penalty was limited to those who were proved to have entered into a compact with the devil and to have committed homicide with his assistance. He also made a policy that regulated papal elections which were to be secret and in writing; three methods of election were allowed: by scrutiny, compromise andquasi-inspiration. On 6th January1622, he established the missionary arm of the Roman Curia. His pontificate was marked by the canonisation of Teresa of Avila, Francis Xavier, Ignatius Loyola, Philip Neri, and Isidore the Farmer. He was influential in bringing the Bolognese artistGuercinoto Rome, a landmark in the development of theHigh Baroquestyle. Gregory XV died in the Quirinal Palace on 8 July 1623. He succeeded Paul V [see 1605] and was succeeded by Urban VIII [see 1623]. GROTIUS, HUGO [1583-1645] Dutch jurist and statesman who went to the University of Leyden at the age of 11 and was practising at the bar of The Hague at 16. In the second decade of the 17th century he struggled with Prince Maurice and the Calvinist party and in 1618 he was imprisoned for life by Maurice, but escaped to Paris in 1621. He served as Swedish ambassador in Paris and was disappointed that because of religious prejudices he was never recalled to service in Holland. Grotius was a man great intellect and is placed as a humanist between Scholasticism and the Enlightenment. He proposed to unite Christians in one church under a holy reformation. He was often suspected of tendencies towards Roman Catholicism. MAURISTS French Benedictine monks of the Congregation of St Maur founded in 1621 to represent in France the reform initiated in the abbey of St Vanne near Verdun. They eventually numbered nearly 200 houses. From 1672 the Maurists devoted themselves to historical and literary works, the 200 writers producing 700 works. They were suppressed by the Revolutionary government in 1790 and were finally dissolved by Pius VII in 1818. PETAVIUS, DIONYSIUS [1583-1652] French Jesuit who lectured in philosophy at Bourges, became a Jesuit, and read theology at Sorbonne. He took the chair of dogmatic theology in Paris in 1621 and continued as its librarian after his retirement. Petavius was also a significant author. PIARISTS A Roman Catholic order which provided the free education for the young especially boys. It was recognised as an order by Gregory XV in 1621. Its founder was Jose Calasanze, a Spanish nobleman who was ordained in Rome in 1593 after studying law and theology. In 1597 he opened the first free elementary school in Europe to educate the children from the streets of Rome. By 1612 his followers were looking after 1200 children. In 1622 it was given the privileges of mendicant status which allowed the right to beg for a living. Its success aroused the jealousy of the Jesuits. From 1645 to 1698 its status was unstable. The order is now governed by a general with four assistant generals. PRAETORIUS, MICHAEL [1572-1621] German composer. He was a prolific and influential Lutheran composer who published a monumental work of nine volumes containing 1200 simple works covering the church year. He published several other collections of music for the Lutheran service. He was one of the first Germans to write in the new Venetian concertato style and applied this style to works based on the Lutheran chorales with fine effect. The concertato style has up to 12 to 15 parts combining voices and instruments in a glittering array. THANKSGIVING DAY This is an annual holiday in the United States of America and Canada set aside to express thanks to God for the harvest and other blessings. The original Thanksgiving of the Pilgrims was ordered by Governor Bradford after the first harvest in the Plymouth Colony in 1621. George Washington proclaimed the first national Thanksgiving in 1789. With Lincolns proclamation in 1863 Thanksgiving became an annual observance. Although church services may be held, Thanksgiving is typically a family festival. YOANNIS XV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1621-1631] see 1610 and 1631. 1622AMES, WILLIAM [1576-1633] Puritan theologian who studied at Cambridge where he was tutored and greatly influenced by William Perkins [see 1595]. He became chaplain to Sir H Vere English governor of Brill in Holland. After attending the Synod of Dort [see 1618] he became professor of theology at Franeker in 1622 and rector four years later. His great reputation as a theologian and marked ability to teach drew students from all over Europe. He retired in 1632 due to ill health and he died the following year. PROPAGANDA [Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith] The group was responsible for the administration of Roman Catholic missionary activity. It was created in 1622 by Gregory XV to combat the lack of unity in missionary endeavours among the various religious orders and to weaken the firm control in Spain and Portugal exercised over missionary enterprises through the right of patronage. Propaganda gathered a wealth of data on missionary activity and from this formulated the basic principles to govern later work. This included the development of an indigenous clergy and church and the preservation of the cultural traits of non-Western peoples. The Chinese Rights Controversy [see 1582] however severely limited the extension of the principles of cultural adaptation in mission work. 1623ANTHIMUS II HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople (1623) succeeded Gregory IV [see below]. There is no additional information readily available. GREGORY IV of Amasea Patriarch of Constantinople [1623] succeeded Cyril I [see 1612]. There is no additional information readily available. URBAN VIII Pope [1623-1644]. He was a politically minded pope and classical scholar, who had been educated by the Jesuits in Florence. He took a doctorate in law at Pisa in 1589 and returned to Rome and held several positions in the church and curia. He was created a cardinal in 1606 and became a bishop two years later. Politically and militarily active he spent large sums of money to establish an arms factory in Tivoli and various fortifications even making the Vatican library an arsenal. He supported France and Sweden in the Thirty Year War thus contributing with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. Urban was also missions minded opening the Far East to missionaries other than the Jesuits and founding Urban College for training missionaries in 1627. His action against heretics included the condemnation of Galileo in 1632 for a second time and of Cornelius Jansens Augustinus in 1642. Though he led a very moral lifestyle he was the last pope to practice widespread nepotism. He succeeded Gregory XV [see 1621] and was succeeded by Innocent X [see 1644]. YOUNG, PATRICK [1584-1652] Biblical and patristic scholar who studied at St Andrews and became the librarian to the bishop of Chester. He was ordained and made Chaplain of All Souls College Oxford becoming one of the most proficient Greek scholars of his time. He then became librarian to Prince Henry, James I, and Charles I, assisting James in making a Latin translation of the kings works. From 1623 he was rector of Hayes Middlesex until deposed at the time of the Westminster Assembly in 1647. In 1633 Young published in English the recently found Codex Alexandrinus. 1624DEISM This defines a rationalistic mode of explaining Gods relationship to the world which evolved in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Following the classical illustration of God as a clockmaker, used by Nicolaus of Orsemes in the 14th century, the Deists stated that God gave the world its initial impetus and then let it run its course. John Locke began to unlock the secrets of the human mind in his pamphlet Reasonableness of Christianity in 1695. This was a spur to the rationalisation of the Christian faith. As early as 1624 Lord Herbert of Cherbury had taught that all religions had five basic ideas in common and denied the need for a revelation. One strand of Deism was not hostile to Christianity, but the tendency was towards a natural religion. Matthew Tindal [see 1678] produced the most competent exposition of this natural religion in Christianity as Old as the Creation in 1730. Anthony Collins disputed the authority of the Bible; Thomas Woolston [see 1727] questioned Christs miracles and resurrection. Several of the Deists ended in pantheism or atheism. While Deism never won a substantial following in England it was widely acclaimed in Germany and France where Voltaire [see 1726] and JJ Rousseau [see1728] became its chief advocates. FERDINAND II [1578-1637] Archduke of Austria who became king of Bohemia in 1617, king of Hungary in 1618 an emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1619. Zealous of the cause of Roman Catholicism he favoured the Jesuits in their attempt to regain territory lost to the Protestants. In Austria he banished non-Catholics and in 1624 required adherence to Roman Catholicism. He carried through the Counter Reformation in Tirol. In the Thirty Years War, Wallenstein brought him a succession of victories, so that in 1629 he consider himself strong enough to issue the Edict of Restitution, which required that all property confiscated from the Roman Catholic Church since 1555 be returned by the Protestants. The intervention of Gustavus Adolphus checked the emperors success although the treaty of Prague in 1635 resolved matters in his favour. HEYLYN, PETER [1600-1662] Anglican historian educated at Oxford and ordained in 1624. Heylyn early showed strong High Church sympathies. He was clearly anti-Puritan and in 1630 he was made a royal chaplain. He came into conflict with the dean of Westminster continually slandering him until the dean was suspended by the Star Chamber in 1637. Heylyns anti-Puritanism brought him to grief during the Puritan Revolution. W. Prynne [see 1645] brought him before the Long Parliament committee. He was heavily fined, his goods and library confiscated and his life jeopardised. Although Heylyn continued against the Puritans and Presbyterians he lived in relative peace until the restoration. RICHELIEU, ARMAND-JEAN DUPLESSIS, DUC DE [1585-1642] French cardinal and statesman, born in Paris of a noble family. He was trained initially for the army, however as the family needed money, he sought ordination to become the bishop of Lucon a see that was at the disposal of the family. In 1606 he was consecrated bishop and spent nearly 10 years building up the parish. In 1616 he was appointed secretary of state and until 1624 he served intermittently as Marie de Medecis principal adviser and with her assistance he was created cardinal in 1622. In 1624 he was made head of the royal council and for the next 18 years virtually ruled France. Richelieu was ambitious and ruthless but not so much for personal gain as for the state. Above all he laboured to make France great. He supported the French Church and pursued an anti-Habsburg foreign policy designed to centralise power in the king of France. Nobles who did not comply were mercilessly executed. Internationally he opposed the Hapsburgs by building a navy and by bringing France into the 30 Years War on the Protestant side. France emerged from the conflict the dominant power in Europe but Richelieu died before seeing his lifelong dream fulfilled. SCHEIDT, SAMUEL [1587-1654] German composer who for most of his creative life was organist in Halle. He ranks as one of the first great masters of the organ prelude. In 1624 he published the first great collection of music in Germany to use staff notation exclusively instead of the letter tablature. In 1650 he published a work containing 100 chorales in four-part harmony for the purpose of accompanying congregational singing. He is the first generation of great North German organists that led up to Buxtehude and J.S. Bach. 1625BREBEUF, JEAN DE [15931649] French Jesuit missionary who entered the Jesuit order at the age of 24, was ordained in 1622, and in 1625 commissioned to go to Canada to minister to the Indians. On his first visit he travelled some 1200 kilometres by canoe. He wrote Jesuit Relations describing his missionary endeavours. On his second mission he established a permanent mission under Paul le Jeune but his work was thwarted by epidemics, low morale, and a lack of response from the Indians. He and others were killed by the Iroquois in 1649. CHARLES I [1600-1649] King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1625. In this year he married Henrietta Maria daughter of King Henry IV of France. She was a fervent Roman Catholic and headstrong in seeking to obtain special concessions for the Catholic worship. For eleven years from 1629 Charles ruled without Parliament. His unpopularity increased by exemplifying the divine right of kings [see 1597]. Two civil wars occurred resulting in the defeat of Charles and his eventual execution in 1649. After the Restoration he was acclaimed as a martyr and officially celebrated as such by royal mandate until 1859. FERRAR, NICHOLAS [1592-1637] Founder of the Little Gidding community. After a brilliant academic career at Cambridge, a period of continental travel, work with the Virginia Company, and a year in Parliament, he established a small religious community in Little Gidding in 1625, which was based on biblical and Anglican principles. Everyone learned a trade, although the community specialised in bookbinding. There was a free school for local children, and many charitable works were done in the locality. In 1633 Charles I visited the community and was greatly impressed. Puritans however were hostile and in 1647 the community was sacked by the Parliamentary army. GIBBONS, ORLANDO [1583-1625] English composer who was descended from a distinguished musical family in England and served as organist both at the Chapel Royal and at Westminster Abbey. He was the first great composer to write church music only for the Protestant rite in England. He wrote services in the cathedral style, festival psalms, and both full and verse anthems. Hosanna to the Son of David and Almighty and everlasting God are among his best-known anthems today. GOODWIN, JOHN [1594-1665] Puritan minister educated at Cambridge he was rector of East Rainham Norfolk from 1625 to 1633 and then moved to London. Nominated as a member of the Westminster Assembly [see 1643], he did not attend. He was an ardent supporter of the Parliament against the king in the Civil War, and became known as the leading Republican thinker and defender of religious liberty. In the 1640s he attacked the Presbyterians as a persecuting party. Goodwin was one of the few Puritans who were also Arminian. This fact involved him in much controversy. He was one of those exempted from the Act of General Pardon of Charles II in 1660, but he was not executed. SI-GAN-FU STONE An inscription in Chinese and Syriac discovered in 1625 by Jesuit missionaries. The text is said to date between 779 and 781 and describes the fortunes of the Nestorian Christians since 635 when Emperor Tai-tsung received Alopen [see 635]. Under the emperors successor, permission was granted to create monasteries in several regions with some of the monks being supported by the emperor. A bishopric was established in 650. In the early decades of the eighth century Catholicos Selibhazekha became metropolitan of China. Many of the Christian seem from their names to have been of Syrian or Persian origin but there is evidence of some native names in the inscription as well. USSHER, JAMES [1581-1656] Irish archbishop and chronologist who was born in Dublin and educated there at Trinity College. He was appointed regius professor of divinity and chancellor of St Patricks Cathedral. An outstanding scholar, at the age of 19 he engaged successfully in controversy with a learned Jesuit, Henry Fitzsimons. In 1615 Usher showed his support of Calvinism when he shared in an attempt to introduce it into the Irish Church based on the Lambeth Articles of 1595. After a period as bishop of Meath he became archbishop of Armagh in 1625. He did much to preserve the independence of the Irish Church and particularly its Calvinistic character. In 1640 he went to England for what he anticipated to be a short visit but in 1641 rebellion broke out in Ireland and he was never able to return. Ussher is buried in Westminster. Abbey. Among his many writings are a history of the Western Church from the 6th to the 13th centuries and also his famous scheme of biblical chronology. Basing his dates on biblical genealogy he concluded that the world was created in 4004 BC. This scheme is generally not accepted nowadays but it ranks as the first serious attempt to formulate a biblical chronology. 1626DAILLE, JEAN [1594-1670] French Protestant theologian who was tutor to the two grandsons of Philippe de Mornay from 1612 to 1621. Ordained in 1623 he was appointed pastor at Saumur in 1625 and later at Claerton gained a reputation for oratory and theological controversy. He rejected the authority of the fathers, for which he was assailed by Roman Catholics and Anglican scholars. His sermons on Philippians and Colossians vindicate his claim to rank as a great preacher as well as an able controversialist. FEATLEY, DANIEL [1582-1645] Anglican controversialist. An Oxford graduate who became chaplain to Archbishop Abbot of Canterbury. His anti-Roman views and his preaching impressed James I, but during an outbreak of plague Featley forsook controversy to produce a book in 1626 which was a favourite of Charles I in his troubles. Imprisoned as a spy by Cromwell he continued his writings against Roman Catholics and his defence of the Church of England against Puritan ministers. After 18 months he was released for health reasons, but died soon after. PRICHARD, RHYS [1579-1644] Welsh clergyman and poet who graduated from Oxford and was ordained and given a living at Witham in Essex in 1602. After other appointments in Wales he was made chancellor of St Davids in 1626. He composed a substantial body of moral and religious poetry in a popular form. The simplicity and directness of these poems and their similarity to the folk poetry made them popular among the uneducated classes and thereby commended them to a large public and they soon became an integral part of the Welsh religious tradition. 1627CAROLINE DIVINES The name given to a group of Arminian Anglicans during the reigns of Charles I and II of England. The father of the group was Lancelot Andrews [see 1605] and the effective leader William Laud [see 1633]. They resisted the Calvinism which was also prevalent in the Anglican Church. RUTHERFORD, SAMUEL [1600-1661] Scottish pastor and theologian who was noted for his spiritual insight as a boy. He was educated at the Edinburgh University and appointed professor of Latin and literature two years after his graduation. Some unpleasantness in his relations with his colleagues that may have been connected with his marriage led him to resign his office and study theology. He was ordained in 1627 and ministered at Anwoth fruitfully until 1636 when he was deposed from office for Nonconformity and ordered to be confined to prison at Aberdeen during the kings pleasure. From there came his famous Letters to former parishioners and friends at Anwoth. These 365 letters are classics in the field of devotional literature. Released from prison in 1638 he returned to Anwoth for 18 months before being appointed professor of divinity at St Andrews. In 1643 he went to London as one of the Scottish commissioners to the Westminster Assembly of Ministers. His insight contributed significantly to the assembly. Two children died during his four years absence in London and his experience of this sorrow gave him great compassion for the sorrowing. He wrote extensively, his main work being one on political science rather than theology which is still regarded as a classic on constitutional government. He was rector of the University of St Andrews and declined appointments at Dutch universities. The Restoration of Charles II in 1660 put him in great peril but he died before the persecution broke out. 1628GARNIER, JEAN [1612-1681] Jesuit scholar who entered the Jesuit Order in 1628 and taught philosophy at Clermont-Ferrand for 10 years from 1643 and theology thereafter at Bourges until his death. As a church historian, patristic scholar, and moral theologian, he published an article arising from the Pelagian controversy, providing critical and historical notes. JOSEPH OF COPERTINO [1603-1663] Franciscan ascetic levitator. He was the son of a poor carpenter who entered the Franciscan Order in 1628 and thereafter lived the life of extreme austerity and self torture. In his devotions he frequently swooned in ecstasy and rose in the air. His superiors, doubtless moved by notoriety or envy, were determined to end this miracle. He was made to attend chapel alone, and was even charged before the Inquisition; but in paying homage to Urban VIII by kissing the papal feet, Joseph astonished Urban by levitating. The Lutheran duke of Brunswick was so impressed by this, which he observed twice, that he became a Roman Catholic. 1629HAMMOND, HENRY [1605-1660] Anglican minister, educated at Oxford, ordained in 1629 and in 1633 was appointed rector of Penhurst Kent. His ten-year parish ministry helped to prepare him to defend and explain the doctrine and practice of the Church of England in the revolutionary period 1640-1660. He supported the king during the Civil War and was appointed by the king to a canonry at Christ Church in 1645 then losing this position during the Commonwealth. HERBERT, GEORGE [1593-1633] English poet who was educated at Cambridge where he in due course became public orator. He became rector of Bemerton near Salisbury in 1629 and died of consumption four years later. An early Anglo-Catholic associated with the Little Gidding community of Nicholas Ferrar [see 1625], he expressed, in the poems contained in The Temple, a personal piety as deep as, but less demonstrative than, that of his self-confessed mentor John Donne [see 1615], and wider than that of his master. He is remembered for his hymn. Let all the world in every corner sing PARIS POLYGLOT [16291645] The first Arabic New Testament to be printed. VIMONT, BARTHELEMY [1594-1667] French Jesuit missionary to Canada who entered the Society of Jesus in 1613 and was ordained a priest in 1626. In 1629 Vimont came to North America as a missionary where he served as chaplain to the settlement on Cape Breton Island, Canada, before returning to France the following year. He arrived again in Canada in 1639 as third superior of the Jesuits in New France and served as vicar of Notre Dame in Montral. He returned to France some twenty years later and died there. 1630KEPLER, JOHN [1571-1630] One of the founders of modern astronomy. He became a theological student, teacher of astronomy and mathematics, assistant to Tycho Brahe, imperial mathematics aide to Rudolph II, and astrologer to Wallenstein. His principal scientific discoveries were the three laws of motion which bear his name, the principle of continuity in geometry, and the Keplerian telescope. He worked also on the theory of optics and calculus and coined a number of scientific terms such as satellite and camera obscura. Although he accepted the Bible and the Christian religion, his understanding of nature was pantheistic. He thought that the universe was an expression of the being of God Himself, and that the sun was the image of the Father. MARSHALL, STEPHEN [1594-1655] Puritan minister who was educated at Cambridge. During Archbishop Lauds supremacy Marshall was often in trouble. His Puritan and Presbyterian influence in Essex was far-reaching from 1630 to 1655. In the electioneering for the Short and Long Parliaments of 1640 he was active on behalf of the Puritans. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] and one of the commissioners sent by it to Scotland. Despite his earlier Presbyterianism he co-operated with the Independents when they came to power in 1649. He died of consumption and was buried in Westminster Abbey but his body was removed in 1661 at the Restoration. SCHEIN, JOHANN HERMANN [1586-1630] German composer who stands out as one of the great Lutheran musicians of the early Baroque era. He was one of a number of distinguished names selected as Cantor of the Thomasschule in Leipzig, the position held by J.S. Bach a century later. He contributed largely to the development of the Lutheran chorale concertato, one of the forerunners of the church cantata of Bachs time. WINTHROP, JOHN [1588-1649] English lawyer who became governor of Massachusetts. Winthrop was educated at Cambridge and studied law at Grays Inn. Elected governor of the migrating Puritans he led the exodus of 1630 to Massachusetts where he served as governor for many terms. The focus of life in the colony was on the covenant God made with his people patterned after Old Testament Israel in which corporate obedience to Gods law of love was the major tradition determining whether God would bless or curse the enterprise. The civil magistrates accordingly attempted to maintain both moral purity and theological conformity, the latter principle leading to the exiling of Anne Hutchison [see 1638] and Roger Williams [see 1636]. ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO DE [1598-1662] Spanish painter who was appointed in 1630 as painter to Philip IV who is said to have said he was Painter to the king, king of painters. His commissions were numerous and included a number of pictures portraying the founders of various religious orders from Elias to Loyola for the Capuchins at Castellon. 1631-1640 AD 1631ELIOT, JOHN [1604-1690] Apostle to the Indians who was born in England, graduated at Cambridge, and in 1622 was ordained in the Church of England. Eliot taught for a time at an Essex school run by Thomas Hooker [see 1636] whose views were decidedly non-conformist. Elliott came to share them, and this led him to his leaving for America in 1631. In 1632 he became a teacher to the church at Roxbury, a connection he retained until his death. Having perfected himself in the Indian dialects, he began his work among them in 1646 and by 1674 gathered his praying Indians numbering some 3600 into 14 self-governing communities. Eliot arranged for them to have jobs, housing, land, and clothes. Teetotaller and non-smoking himself, he did not forbid alcohol and tobacco to his converts. His fellow ministers, among whom he was held in high respect, approved his work, and money for the founding of schools and other purposes came in, even from England. The medicine men were hostile, and this caused difficulties in his ministry. With Richard Mayfair and Thomas Welch he prepared for the printing in 1640 of an English metrical version of the Psalms. His crowning achievement however was the printing of the Bible in the Algonkian language in 1661, the first time the Scriptures had been printed in North America. He wrote many books including a harmony of the gospels in 1678. Renowned for his piety, evangelistic zeal and practical wisdom Eliot lived to a great age. GUYARD, MARIE [1599-1672] Roman Catholic missionary to Quebec who was born in France and though she desired to become a nun, married to please the parents. After four years during which she had a son, her husband died. In 1631 she decides to enter the Ursuline Convent in Tours. Eight years later she agreed to the request of her archbishop to go with two other nuns to the Jesuits mission in Quebec and there found a community of nuns. Their work was primarily educational and social among both Indians and French. Throughout her life she received visions which she recorded. MATHEOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1631-1645] see 1621 and 1645 During his papacy Egypt was ruled by consecutive short term representatives of the Sultan and the church was under a lot of pressure from the rulers. WHITE, FRANCIS [c.1564-1638] Bishop of Ely who was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1588. He held livings in Leicestershire and Cornhill. A Roman Catholic treatise was published in 1617 entitled White dyed Black and he in turn published The Orthodox Faith and Way to the Church. In 1622 White was employed by James I in two disputes against the Jesuit John Fisher, a report being later published as The Fisher Catched in his owne Net. White was made dean of Carlisle in 1622 and translated through Norwich to the see of Ely in 1631. White opposed the Puritan view of the Sabbath. 1632BRABOURNE, THEOPHILUS [1590-1661] English controversialist who was frustrated in his plan to enter the ministry and worked for a time in his fathers hosiery business in London. After private study he was ordained and preached in Norwich. He issued pamphlets saying that Christians should worship on Saturday with his second one Defence of the Sabbath Day issued in 1632 bringing him an 18 month prison sentence which was the softer option as one of the judges at his trial wanted to burn him as a heretic. After this Brabourne gave up the ministry and did not attempt to found any sect. His last pamphlet in 1661 attacked the Quakers. CALVERT, CECILIUS [16051675] Son of the Roman Catholic George Calvert [15801632] who was secretary of state under James I. Cecilius established a colony in Maryland as a haven for persecuted English Catholics as well as a personal estate. However more Protestants than Catholics migrated to Maryland so in 1649 the first toleration act in the New World was passed by the Maryland legislature. Eventually a Protestant Calvert named Benedict became heir and normalised the government of the colony in 1715. LAZARISTS Popular name of the Congregation of the Priests of the Mission which originated in the successful mission to the ordinary people in the Gondi family estates conducted by Vincent De Paul [see 1617] and five others in 1625. Approved by papal bull in 1632 the society was constituted a congregation with Vincent as superior. The society was confirmed by Alexander VII in 1655 and rules framed on the Jesuits model were published in Paris 13 years later. The special concern was evangelisation of the poorer classes, the training of clergy, and missions. Suppressed during the French Revolution they were restored by Napoleon. VOSS, GERARD JAN [1577-1649] Dutch church historian associated with the Remonstrant or Arminian controversy. Educated at Leyden he served several years as rector of the Latin school in Dort. There he developed his textbook of Latin grammar which remained in use in the Netherlands for two centuries. He was professor at Leyden for a number of years and in 1632 at the age of 55 he was called to the new University of Amsterdam as professor of general and church history. Voss was a prolific author. 1633CYRIL II Patriarch of Constantinople [1633, 1635-36, 1638-39] who succeeded Cyril I [see 1612]. There is no additional information readily available. LAUD, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1633-1645]. He was the son of a cloth merchant from Reading. He was educated atReading School and, through a White Scholarship, St Johns College, Oxford. Laud was ordained on 5 April 1601 and his Arminian, high church tendencies and antipathy to Puritanism, combined with his intellectual and organisational brilliance, soon gained him a reputation. At that time theCalvinistparty was strong in the Church of England and Lauds affirmation of apostolic succession was unpopular in many quarters. Laud continued to rise through the ranks of the clergy, becoming bishop of St Davidsin 1621 and eventually archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 with his translation from the see of London. Laud was known to be sensitive about his diminutive stature and was subject to the famous pun give great praise to the Lord, and little laud to the devil which was a warning to King Charles attributed to the official court jester Archie Armstrong. Lauds high church policy was seen as a sinister development in relation to the Puritans and a year after Lauds appointment as archbishop of Canterbury, the ship Griffinleft for America, carrying religious dissidents such asAnne Hutchinson, the ReverendJohn Lothroppand the Reverend Zechariah Symmes. Lauds policy was influenced by his desire to impose total uniformity on the Church of England. This was also driven by a sincere belief that this was the duty of his office but, to those of even slightly differing views, it came as persecution. Perhaps this had theunintended consequenceof garnering support for the most implacable opponents of the Anglican compromise. In 1637,William Prynne,John BastwickandHenry Burtonwere convicted ofseditious libeland had their ears cropped and their cheeks branded. Prynne reinterpreted the SL (Seditious Libeller) branded on his forehead as Stigmata Laudis. The Long Parliamentof 1640 accused him oftreasonand he was imprisoned in theTower of London, where he remained throughout the early stages of theEnglish Civil War. In the spring of 1644 he was brought to trial which, however, ended without a verdict. The parliament took up the issue and eventually passed abill of attainderunder which he was beheaded on 10 January, 1645 onTower Hill even though he had been granted a royal pardon. He succeeded George Abbot [see 1611] and was succeeded by William Juxon [see 1660]. MOGILA, PETER [1596-1646] Metropolitan of Kiev who was from a noble Moldavian family and studied in Poland and perhaps Paris. He became a monk and abbot of a Kiev monastery in 1627. He was elected metropolitan in 1633, and introduced into the Russian Orthodox Church a more progressive attitude towards education of both clergy and laity. He came under criticism because his policies involved Western emphasis including the teaching of Thomist thought. On the other hand it was he who produced the Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church which was accepted by Orthodox patriarchs and endorsed by the 1672 Synod of Jerusalem. OBERAMMERGAU A village in upper Bavaria noted for its passion play. Such religious dramas were common in that area and legend holds that the Oberammergau villages were spared from the plague in 1633 and in gratitude vowed to re-enact the Passion of Christ every 10 years. Originally staged in the church then in the churchyard until in 1830 the present site of special theatre was occupied. Hitler admired the play for its alleged anti-Semitic qualities. As a result in 1934 the play was re written to make Jesus and the disciples appear as Aryan heroes. The text is current use was written in 1860. Performed by 700 villagers, the play lasts more than seven hours. In 1970 there were nearly 100 performances before a total audience of half a million. PARTICULAR BAPTISTS So called because of their belief in a particular atonement in which Christ died only for his elect people. Their origins in England can be traced to the adoption of believers baptism by a group of Calvinistic London Separatists in 1633. They retained the theological emphasis of the church from which they seceded and remained independent in practice. The first Particular Baptist Confession was published in 1644 and has been revised on a number of occasions up to the last century. The Baptist Missionary Society was formed in 1792 at the call of William Carey, so initiating the modern missionary movement. John Bunyan [see 1678] and Charles Spurgeon [see 1865] were also associated with the Particular Baptists. SAINT-CYRAN, ABBE DE [1581-1643] Jansenist theologian who was a pupil at the Jesuit College Louvain and a fellow student and close friend of Cornelius Jansen at Paris. He became the abbot of Saint-Cyran in 1620 and thereafter lived mainly in Paris. Attracted to the writings of Augustine he sought with Jansen to combat the Jesuits moral laxity and to reform Catholicism on Augustinian lines in the hope of defeating Protestantism with its own weapons. He was closely associated with the Arnauld family and the Cistercian convent at Port Royal where he was spiritual counsellor from 1633 and exerted immense influence making it the centre of Jansenism in France. Cardinal Richelieu considered him dangerous and had him incarcerated at Vincennes from 1638 until Richelieus death five years later. Later Jansenists regarded him as a martyr. 1634ANATHASIUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1634] who succeeded Cyril I [see 1612]. There is no additional information readily available. CANONISATION Bull published by Pope Urban VII reserving the right of canonising to Rome. Canonising is said to confer a seven fold honour: [a] the name is inscribed in the catalogue of saints [b] the name is invoked in public prayers in the church [c] churches may be dedicated to God in their honour [d] the Eucharist is celebrated in their honour [e] their festival day is observed [f] portraits of the person include a halo [g] their relics are preserved and publicly honoured CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM [1602-1644] Anglican Apologist who was converted to Catholicism under John Fisher the Jesuit [see 1594]. Asked at Douai to write against the Church of England he weighed up the arguments and in 1634 returned to England stating he was a Protestant. Attacked by the Catholics he wrote The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation in 1638, and maintained the Bible only is the religion of Protestants. In the Civil War he was captured at the Battle of Arundel in 1643 and died soon afterwards. DURIE, JOHN [1596-1680] Scottish ecumenist who devoted most of his life to ecclesiastical pacification. Both his father and grandfather were militant Presbyterians who incurred the displeasure of James VI. Durie accompanied his father into exile at the age of 10 and this early experience of controversy helped to form the peacemaker he became. In 1634 Durie accepted ordination in the Church of England hoping this would give support to his schemes to the union of all Protestant churches. His journeys all over Europe included a short visit to Scotland where the Aberdeen doctors warmly supported him. After the Restoration he settled at Cassel where he continued his efforts towards church union. ETHIOPIA [see also 1268 and 1935] An attempt of reunion with Rome in exchange for Portuguese aid occurred during the pontificate of Julius III [see 1550]. Portuguese Jesuits entered the country. They impressed the court but alienated the clergy. In 1614 belief in Christs two natures was imposed on pain of death. The Monophysites resisted but they were defeated, and Emperor Susenyos became a Roman Catholic and in 1626 this was proclaimed the official state religion, but in 1632 his son succeeded him and the old beliefs were restored and the Jesuits ousted. In 1634 Peter Heyling introduced Protestantism into the country but he too was finally expelled. The country then became fairly isolated from outside Christianity. HEYLING, PETER [1607-1652] First German Protestant missionary. When he began legal studies in Paris in 1628 he came under the influence of the Dutch legal scholar Hugo Grotius [see 1625] who resided there. As a member of a band of pious German students concerned about the church in the Near East, Heyling volunteered for missionary service without ecclesiastical support or connection. He studied Arabic in Malta and then went to Egypt where he encountered opposition from Orthodox and Catholic clerics. The Coptic bishop invited him to come to Ethiopia in 1634 where he tutored children of prominent families and even gained the kings favour. In 1652 Heyling was martyred by a Muslim fanatic. VOETIUS, GISBERTUS [1588-1676] Dutch Calvinist theologian who was born near Utrecht and studied at Leyden at the beginning of the Remonstrant Controversy. As a minister and young theologian he supported the Contra Remonstrant party which defended Orthodox Calvinism. He was a delegate to the Synod of Dort of 1618 which condemned the Remonstrants. He moved to Utrecht as a professor in 1634 and for thirty years was known internationally as a defender of scholastic Calvinism. He advocated the separation of religion and state and rejected state patronage holding that toleration of erroneous doctrines weakened both church and state. He realised that Old Testament regulations such as the Sabbath would not apply under the new covenant. WARD, NATHANIEL [c.1578-1652] English Puritan minister and author who graduated from Cambridge and after practising law for a short time turned to the ministry [1624-1633]. In 1634 he went to America because of persecution of his Puritan views and became minister of a congregation at Ipswich. Although ill-health forced him to retire from active ministry, his law degree from Cambridge made him extremely useful in New Englands Massachusetts Bay Colony. He had a prominent part in writing the first codification of Massachusetts law. He returned to England in 1647 to participate in the Civil War. 1635EUTHYMIUS III Patriarch of Antioch [1635-1636] see also 1619 and 1636. 1636BRIDGE, WILLIAM [16001670] Cambridge born Nonconformist preacher who was educated at Cambridge and served several churches as lecturer from 1631-6. Deprived of his living by the bishop of Norwich in 1636 he migrated to Holland. Renouncing his Anglican ordination he became a Congregational preacher and was one of the five dissenting brethren at the Westminster Assembly and attended the Savoy Conference in 1658. Though having a great reputation as a preacher he was again deprived in 1661 after which he lived in London before returning to Yarmouth. BURROUGHES, JEREMY [15991646] English Independent who was educated at Cambridge and commenced his ministry assisting Edmund Calamy [see 1649] at Bury St Edmunds. He became rector of Tivetshall in 1631 but was forced into exile in Holland after having been suspended after bishop Wrens visitation. He became a teacher in the English Congregationalist Church in Rotterdam which had William Bridge [see above] as its pastor. He was one of the five dissenting brethren at the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] and was known as a peacemaker between conflicting factions. EUTHYMIUS IV Patriarch of Antioch [1636-1648] see also 1635 and 1648. EVERARD, JOHN [1575-1650] English clergyman educated at Cambridge who was an excellent preacher. However his preaching on the unlawfulness of matching with idolaters was taken as criticism of the projected Spanish marriage, and he several times went to prison until he apologised. By 1636 he had a parish in Essex, but was later summoned before the Court of High Commission on a charge of heresy but was found not guilty, and yet he was later deprived of his benefice, and in 1639 was fined 1000. HARVARD, JOHN [1607-1638] Benefactor of Harvard University who was born in London and studied at Cambridge but because of the religious situation in England joined the Puritan emigration to America. He settled in Massachusetts and became a teaching elder of the Congregational Church of Charleston. In his will he left half his estate with a library of about 400 volumes to the new college, founded by the colony in 1636. The college was named after him in 1638 and with the aid of his legacy buildings were erected. HOOKER, THOMAS [1586-1647] Puritan clergyman and founder of Connecticut. Educated at Cambridge he converted to Puritanism. In 1630 he fled from England to Holland and was persuaded to migrate to Massachusetts where he became pastor at Newtown Cambridge in 1634. Restiveness led the congregation to move to Connecticut in 1636. Here he was the primary figure in the creation of a frame of government and virtual dictator of Connecticut thereafter and perhaps the most powerful pulpit orator of his day. JOGUES, ISAAC [1607-1646] Jesuit missionary and martyr who entered the Society Jesus in 1624 and in 1636 was ordained and began missionary work among the Huron Indians of Canada. He made numerous journeys into the interior of North America. Returning once from Quebec he was attacked by the Iroquois and Jogues was taken prisoner. After being tortured he was rescued by the Dutch and sent to France, only to return to Quebec in 1644. He immediately sought permission to go as a missionary to the Iroquois but his request was denied. In 1646 he was part of a peace mission and again taken prisoner by the Iroquois and died of a hatchet blow. His self-sacrifice provided inspiration and impetus to Canadian missions. METROPHANES Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1636-1639] see 1620 and 1639. Born in Greece he was originally a monk on Mount Athos and a close associate of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_Lucaris" \o "Cyril Lucaris" Cyril Lucaris. He studied at the University of Oxford in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England and in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" Germany. He travelled to Europe and mingled with the greatest scholars and theologians of his day. He made Orthodoxy known in the West and was particularly concerned with the problem of unifying the Orthodox Church with the churches of Western Europe. He taught Greek in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna" \o "Vienna" Vienna (1627 1630). He was elected patriarch of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" \o "Alexandria" Alexandria in 1636, where he put together an important library. He died in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia" \o "Wallachia" Wallachia. NEOPHYTUS III of Nicea Patriarch of Constantinople [1636-1637] succeeded Cyril II [see 1633]. There is no additional information readily available. TRAPP, JOHN [1601-1669] English Bible commentator who was educated at Oxford and became headmaster in 1624 at the Free School Stratford-upon-Avon and the preacher at Luddington. Trapp sided with Parliament in the Civil War. He wrote commentaries on the whole Bible demonstrating an example of Calvinistic scholarship at its best. WILLIAMS, ROGER [c.1603-1683] Founder of Rhode Island who was born in London, educated at Cambridge and was ordained in 1629. In 1631 because of his Separatist views he migrated to Boston where he refused the position of teacher because the church was not separated from the Church of England. He traded with the Indians and became a teacher in the Salem church in 1633 but he was banishment because of his views and he fled to Providence in 1636 where he bought land from the Indians and founded Rhode Island and also a Baptist church. He went to England in 1642 and secured a charter for the colony. His views that the church and state must be separate and the state must not coerce the conscience of the individual are a treasured part of the Baptist heritage in America. 1637DAVENPORT, JOHN [1597-1670] New England pastor born in Coventry and educated at Oxford. He had Puritan sympathies and helped to procure the charter of the Massachusetts Company in 1629. In 1632 he entertained John Cotton [see 1645] who was on his way to America. Becoming a Nonconformist, Davenport fled to Holland in 1633. After returning to England briefly he sailed with Theophilus Eaton to New England in 1637 where finally he became pastor to an independent colony in New Haven. Davenport opposed the Halfway-Covenant [1662] and the absorption of the New Haven Colony by Connecticut. ENDECOTT, JOHN [1589-1665] Puritan colonial governor of Massachusetts who was born in England and emigrated to Salem in 1628 before moving to Boston where he was chosen as a governor in 1629. His hot temper and impetuous acts led to his removal from public office, fines for assault and battery, and a generally controversial career made him a controversial character. His ineffective expeditions against the Indians may have led to the noted Pequot War in 1637. Following the death of John Winthrop [see 1630] he served as governor for the 13 years and was also active in the founding of Harvard College. A zealous Puritan he opposed the Quakers even to the extent of having some of them publicly executed. 1638ABERDEEN DOCTORS A Scottish group who had all taken the degree of doctor of divinity by thesis at Kings College Aberdeen. They came into prominence because of their opposition to the National Covenant [see below]. The most famous of them was John Forbes [see 1620]. The effectiveness of their opposition is shown in the comparative current strength of the Anglican Church in NE Scotland. BAILLIE, ROBERT [15991662] Scottish minister who was ordained in 1622 and protested against the service books which Laud [see 1633] was trying to impose on Scotland. He was a member of the famous Glasgow Assembly of 1638 which re established Presbyterianism in Scotland. He attended the Westminster Assembly in 1642. A learned and modest man, he wrote Letters and Journals, some of the most important materials of that century. COVENANTERS A name applied to Scottish Presbyterians who signed the National Covenant [see below] and the Solemn League and Covenant [see 1643]. Also applied to their successors during the reigns of Charles II [see 1660] and James II when they resisted the forced imposition of the episcopacy on Scotland by Archbishop Laud in 1637. The Covenanters were denounced under Charles II as illegal and with the execution of Charles Guthrie [see 1661] and Archibald Campbell [see 1651] a savage attack began on the Covenanters who reverted to field preaching. Many of them were killed, some without trial or were exiled to Holland or America. In 1680 the Covenanters made their Sanquar Declaration [see 1680] where they rejected the Stuart dynasty. This was very close to that used a decade later by the whole country during the accession of William III [see1689] who restored Presbyterianism to Scotland at the Glasgow Assembly in 1690. HUTCHINSON, ANNE [1591-1643] Early American colonist. Born in England, she married William Hutchinson and they migrated to Massachusetts in 1634. Her particular way of expressing her Calvinistic doctrines and criticisms of the monopoly of preaching, educating and administration by one social class brought her into conflict with the leaders the young colony. At first she was supported by John Cotton [see 1645] and Henry Vane [see 1640] but a synod of Congregational churches denounced her supposedly antinomian views. In 1638 she moved with her family to Rhode Island. After her husbands death in 1642 she moved first to Long Island and then to Pelham Bay, New York, where she was killed by Indians. JANSENISM A radical Augustinian movement in the Roman Catholic Church in the 17th and 18th centuries. The teaching was summed up by in five propositions [1] that it is impossible to fulfil the commands of God without special grace; [2] that grace is irresistible; [3] that only freedom from compulsion is needed for merit, not freedom from necessity; [4] that it is semi-Pelagian to teach that grace can be resisted or complied with by free will; and [5] that it is semi-Pelagian to teach that Christ died for all men. Such ideas have been found in the writings of strongly Augustinian fellow theologians throughout history of the Church. The Jansenites had already assumed a definable shape by 1638. After the death of Jansen [see 1640], Antoine Arnauld [see 1643] became the acknowledged leader of the movement in 1643 while the most illustrious member was Blaise Pascal. Jansenist ideas were repeatedly condemned, most vigorously in the decree issued by Clement XI in 1713 against the teachings of Pasquier Quesnel [see 1672]. The headquarters of the Jansenites at Port Royal were destroyed and the movement was subject to persecution in France. LALEMANT, JEROME [1593-1673] Jesuit missionary to Canada. Having trained in France he went to Canada in 1638 as a missionary to the Hurons and in the same year was named superior of the Huron mission. He began building Sainte Marie des Hurons in 1639 with much of the work being done by laymen who dedicated their lives for service without taking religious orders, there were know as donnes. In 1644 Lalemant became superior of the Jesuits in New France. Lamont was known for his spirituality and was held in esteem by both French and Indian Canadians. NATIONAL COVENANT [1638] A legal bond of association drawn up by Scottish Presbyterians against Charles I. It began by repeating the Negative or Kings Confession of 1581 which had condemned Roman Catholic errors and the usurped authority of that Roman antichrist upon the Scriptures of God, upon the Kirk, the civil magistrate, and the consciences of men; all his tyrannous laws made upon indifferent things against our Christian liberty. Charles I was incensed by this but law officers advised that the Covenant was not a contravention of statute law. Some 300,000 were estimated to have subscribed to this document which gave its name to the Covenanters [see above]. 1639BISHOPS WARS, THE 1639 to 1640 in which Charles I [see 1625] of England confronted the Scottish Covenanters [see 1638] in an attempt to force a full scale episcopacy on that country. The first stage had little fighting as Charles, playing for time, stalled the Scots by a promise to talk. After he failed to do this the Scots abolished the episcopacy and defeated the king at Newburn. This was the start of Charles decline which ended in his execution in 1649. HENDERSON, ALEXANDER [1583-1646] Scottish minister educated at St Andrews and after graduation was appointed teacher of philosophy there. He became Presbyterian, resisting James VI ritualism. When the royal policy was intensified under Charles I, Henderson was prominent among those who defied the king and became co-author of the National Covenant [see 1638]. He was appointed minister of the High Kirk of Edinburgh in 1639 and largely drafted the Solemn League and Covenant [see 1643]. He introduced Hebrew into the regular curriculum at Edinburgh University. LOVE, CHRISTOPHER [1618-1651] Presbyterian minister who was born in Wales and influenced in a Puritan direction by William Erbury the Independent and became a poor scholar at Oxford graduating in 1639. He was ordained but was imprisoned because of extreme criticism of the Book of Common Prayer. After his release he became chaplain in the regiment of Colonel Venn within the army of the Parliament in the Civil War. He was charged with having corresponded with the young Charles Stuart and his mother Henrietta Maria. He was condemned to death and executed on Tower Hill. He authored many books. NICEPHORUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1639-1645] see 1636 and 1645. PARTHENIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1639-1644] succeeded Cyril II [see 1633]. There is no additional information readily available. QUARLES, FRANCIS [1592-1644] English poet educated at Cambridge and studied law at Lincoln Inn and held official positions in royal and church service. In 1639 he became city chronologer of London. He supported the king in the Civil War and as a result suffered the loss by plunder of his manuscript collection. His work includes Divine Emblems of 1635. His emblems were drawn from two continental collections of Hugo and Mallery. They form a version of the Bible moralised, in which Quarles includes a good deal of paradoxical mode now often associated with the Metaphysical poets. 1640ABBOT, GEORGE [16031648] Puritan writer from Yorkshire who was a layman but published a book on Job and the Psalms. BARTHOLOMITES [see also 1306] A German congregation of secular priests founded in 1640 by Bartholomew Holzhauser for the purpose of preaching, teaching and reviving the morals and discipline of the clergy and laity. Also known as the United Brethren and Communists they lived in communities under a superior but without vows. Following papal approval in 1680 they spread to many European countries including England, Italy, and Poland but became extinct in 1803. BAY PSALM BOOK The earliest known English book to be printed in the British North American colonies. Compiled by John Eliot [see 1631], Richard Mather and Thomas Weld it was printed by Stephen Day at Cambridge Massachusetts in 1640. It was intended to give a more literal translation of the Psalms than that of the KJV and yet be suitable for congregational singing. BROOKS, THOMAS [16081680] Nonconformist preacher who became the rector of St Margarets, Fish Street with a Congregational form of church government. He served as a chaplain in the Civil War. On the Restoration in 1660 he was ejected but remained as a Nonconformist preacher working in London during the plague and great fire and in 1672 was granted a license to preach in Lime Street. CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS The name given to a group of theologians at Emmanuel College Cambridge, the chief members of which were Benjamin Whichcote [see 1668], Ralph Cudworth [see 1657], Henry More [see 1653], John Smith, and Nathan Culverwell, who sought a relationship of philosophy and theology to apply the idealism of Plato and particularly Neoplatonism to religion. Its not difficult to see how the degeneration of these views of reason and morality could so easily lead to the narrow complacent views of 18th century Deism [see 1624]. They were however saved from the arid rationalism of the Deists by their mystical concept of God. DUNSTER, HENRY [1609-1659] Congregational minister and educator who was educated at Cambridge. To escape High Church tyranny he fled to Massachusetts in 1640 and was immediately appointed first president of the newly established Harvard College. His reputation and administration gave Harvard a standing and character which persisted throughout the colonial period. Although poorly paid he was a benefactor to the college. He lost his position in 1654 because he did not allow his infant child to be baptised. INDEPENDENTS In Britain in the 17th and 18th centuries independency was a synonym for the Congregationalists [see 1582]. The word came into general usage in the revolutionary decade of the 1640s and was used at first in both a political and an ecclesiastical sense. Famous examples of conservative Independents are the five Dissenting Brethren of the Westminster Assembly: Thomas Goodwin [see 1650], Philip Nye [see 1643], Sidrach Simpson, William Bridge [see 1636], and Jeremy Burroughs [see 1636]. They taught a doctrine of the church which was halfway between the Separatists or Brownites and Presbyterians. An example of a separatist Independent is Vavasor Powell [see 1646], the Welsh evangelist. The name Independents was never popular in the United States. The growth of the Fellowship of Independent Evangelical Churches [FIEC] in Britain since 1945 has again brought the term into general use. JANSEN, CORNELIUS OTTO [1585-1638] Roman Catholic bishop of Ypres who studied at Paris and immersed himself in the writings of Augustine. Against the Jesuits and the theologians of the Counter-Reformation, Jansen wished to reshape Catholicism with the teachings of Augustine and defeat Protestantism with its own weapons. His main writing published in 1640 was condemned as heretical by the Sorbonne in 1649 and by Innocent X in 1653. VANE, HENRY [1613-1662] Statesman and Puritan who was educated at Oxford and was early converted to Puritanism. In search of religious liberty he went to New England in 1635 and the following year became governor of Massachusetts. He became involved in doctrinal controversies however and returned to England in 1637 where he became a member of Parliament in 1640 and was knighted. Although showing a religious tolerance not always evident in the Puritans he briefly lost the confidence Charles I for opposing the episcopacy and was a strong critic of William Laud [see 1633]. He was one of the English representatives in drawing up the Solemn League and Covenant with the Scots [see 1643]. He held office under Cromwell but in 1653 differed from him and was later imprisoned for criticising his regime. Imprisoned after the Restoration in 1660 he was tried for treason and executed on Tower Hill. 1641-1650 AD 1641BOYLE, ROBERT [16271691] Irish born cofounder of the Royal Society who was converted in 1641 during a violent storm in Geneva. Great friend of Sir Isaac Newton [see 1705] he is known as the Father of Chemistry and discovered Boyles Law. He saw science as Gods second book and his mission in life was to convince men that the Bible and science were in harmony. Author of Seraphic Love a gem of Christian literature in 1660. GILLESPIE, GEORGE [1613-1649] Scottish minister who was ordained in 1638 despite the disapproval of the archbishop of St Andrews. Gillespie became one of the ministers of Edinburgh in 1641, a chief apologist of the National Covenant [see 1638], a participant in the Westminster Assembly [see 1643], and the champion against English opposition of the place of the Elder in the Kirk and the Presbyterians system of church courts. Though a victim of chronic ill-health resulting in his early death, he was one of the most learned and prolific of the Covenanter writers, which so offended the Episcopalians that when they regained ascendancy in 1661 they had his tombstone solemnly broken by the public hangman at Kirkcaldy. LEIGHTON, ROBERT [1611-1684] Archbishop of Glasgow. Educated at Edinburgh he was ordained in 1641 and was a minister before accepting the position of principal at Edinburgh University in 1653. After the Restoration and imposition of the Episcopal system car he was re-ordained and consecrated bishop of Dunblane in 1661. Leighton was an ascetic and gave his entire income, apart from his own frugal expenses, to the poor. He was passive in the governments persecution of the Covenanters which earned him some criticism. His ruling passion was to achieve the unity of the Church in Scotland and to further that aim he reluctantly became Archbishop of Glasgow in 1670. MAZARIN, JULES [1602-1661] French statesman who was educated by the Jesuits in Rome before going to university in Spain. He was in the army of Colonna and through his diplomacy averted a war between France and Spain. He became a naturalised Frenchman in 1639 and was created a cardinal in 1641. He succeeded Richelieu as French prime minister the following year and rapidly became very powerful through the favour of Anne of Austria, who perhaps married him secretly. At the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 he increased Frances possessions but after national financial problems he was banished only to return to be as powerful as ever under the young Louis XIV. He concluded a trade treaty with Cromwell and eventually secured Louis marriage to Maria Theresa after the treaty the Pyrenees in 1659. Toward the Huguenots he pursued a policy of reconciliation. OLIER, JEAN-JACQUES [1608-1657] The founder of the Society of Priests of St Sulpice. Olier studied theology at Sorbonne and his spiritual renewal came in the early 1630s, due in part to the influence of Vincent de Paul [see 1617] and a pilgrimage to Loreto. In 1641 he founded the seminary for priests. This seminary grew in size and fame and in 1657 Olier sent priests to Montral. 1642ARNAULD, JACQUELINE [1591-1661] The abbess of Port Royal France at the age of 11 having entered the Cistercian abbey at 8 years of age. She was a leading figure in Jansenism [see 1638]. She began her reformation in her late teens. In 1625 she moved to Paris but ensured continuing suitable leadership by bringing Saint Cyrian [see 1630] to Port Royal. During her second period of abbess from 1642 to 1655 she helped spread Jansenist ideas widely. BROWNE, SIR THOMAS [16051682] Physician and author who was educated at Oxford and travelled widely before settling in Norwich in 1637. In 1642 he published Religio Medici which addressed a religious outlook in an increasingly scientific world. In it he asserted the right to examine nature which has much to reveal about God. He produced books on many subjects including burial customs in many countries in 1658. He was knighted by Charles II [see 1660] in 1671. GUTHRIE, WILLIAM [1620-1665] Scots Covenanting minister who graduated from St Andrews where he studied under his cousin James Guthrie [see 1661] and in divinity under Samuel Rutherford [see 1627]. Licensed to preach in 1642 he was called to the parish of Fenwick in 1644 where his preaching filled the church and in pastoral visitation he was most diligent. In 1651 with Scotland divided between Resolutioners [see 1651] and Protesters [see 1651] he supported the latter group. Under Cromwell he was one of the Triers. Such affiliations were inevitably suspect at the Restoration yet when Charles II forced the Episcopacy on Scotland, Guthrie was overlooked until 1664, perhaps because of influential friends. He left his parish in 1665 and died later that year of a long standing kidney disease. IRELAND [also see 1172 and 1859] A new element was introduced in the early 17th century when English and Scottish settlers were planted in Ulster to replace the native Irish, who had been hostile to the English rule, and to develop the land by their industry. For some years the religious life of Ireland was directed by godly Anglican bishops like Ussher of Armagh, Echlin of Down and Knox of Raphoe. The Scots in particular looked to their homeland for ministers and eminent preachers like Brice, Cunningham, Blair, and Livingstone served them well. The coming of a Scots army to Carrickfergus in 1642 to quell a bitter rebellion led to the organisation of a presbytery by the army chaplains and from this there has grown a stronger Presbyterian Church in Ireland. The church submitted to a period of stern testing after the Restoration in 1660. Following the Revolution Settlement in 1690 a small remnant adhered to the Scottish Covenants and still exists as the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland [see 1690]. SULPICIANS The Society of St Sulpice was organised in 1642 by J.J. Olier [see 1641] in the parish of St Sulpice in Paris. This group are secular priests whose principal task is theological education of parish clergy. As secular priests they take no special vows and are allowed to hold private property nevertheless are expected to use their property in the service of Christ and to own it is though they do not have it. To encourage spiritual growth of the students they live a common life with them and share their spiritual exercises. They were heavily affected by the French Revolution but now have numbered among its members many distinguished theologians of the 20th century such as the American biblical scholar Raymond Brown. 1643ACTA SANCTORUM A large collection of biographies and legends of the saints organised in the order of saint days formed by a group of Belgian Jesuits with the first volume being published in 1643. The work was interrupted when the Jesuits were dissolved in 1773 and was stopped altogether by the French Revolution in 1796. They resumed in 1837 and it is still continuing. ARNAULD, ANTOINE [16121694] French theologian born in Paris and trained at the Sorbonne where he studied law and theology. His first major work was De la Frequente Communion in 1643 establishing him as the head of Jansenism in opposition to the Jesuits and the Counter Reformation. After numerous struggles he left France and settled in Brussels. In all he wrote 320 works which were incorporated in 43 volumes. DE LUGO, JUAN [1583-1660] The founder of modern Scholasticism. Born in Madrid he entered the Jesuits in 1603. After teaching philosophy at Medina del Campo and theology at Valladolid he was called to Rome in 1621 where he further enhanced his reputation by important dogmatic and moral works. In addition to becoming a cardinal in 1643 he was an important influence on Alphonsus Liguori [see 1726]. DOWSING, WILLIAM [1596-1679] Often described as an iconoclast, he was appointed by the earl of Manchester in 1643 as an official visitor of East Anglia churches in order to remove papistical ornaments such as images and pictures. He did his work with great relish, keeping careful journals of what he and his colleagues accomplished. In 1786 apart of his journal was printed by Robert Loder describing the work he had done in Suffolk. EUDES, JEAN [1601-1680] French missionary and pastor who was educated by the Jesuits and became an Oratorian in 1623. Twenty years later in 1643 he left the Oratory and founded the Congregation of Jesus and Mary. Despite their work as missionaries and seminary teachers, the congregation he formed never gained papal approval. Eudes was also an influential pioneer in devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Sacred Heart of Mary. FERGUSON, JAMES [1621-1667] Scottish minister who was educated at Glasgow University and in 1643 became minister of Kilwinning in Ayrshire where he was to minister until his death. Living in troubled times, he maintained the moderate side against the more fervent Covenanters but admitted later that he had been wrong. He wrote various excellent commentaries on Pauls epistles starting in 1656. FISHER, EDWARD [1601-1655] Anglican theological writer who was educated at Oxford where he specialised in church history and the classics. He was a royalist and strongly anti-Puritan. Monetary difficulties set him travelling and for a time he taught at a school at Carmarthen in Wales. His creditors found him, however, and he fled to Ireland where he died. Fisher was the author of The Scriptures Harmony in 1643. LIGHTFOOT, JOHN [1602-1675] English biblical scholar who was educated at Cambridge after which he was engaged in pastoral work in Shropshire and Staffordshire from 1630 to 1642. He supported Parliament in the Civil War. In 1643 became rector of St Bartholomews London and a member of the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] in which he worked against the extreme Presbyterians. He authored a number of books and assisted Brian Walton with the Polyglot Bible of 1657. MEDE, JOSEPH [1586-1638] English biblical scholar who graduated from Cambridge and became professor of Greek at Cambridge. He was one of the greatest biblical scholars the English Church has ever produced and demonstrated universal interests by being a philosopher, botanist, astronomer, and a pioneer Orientalist. His fame rests upon his book Key of the Revelation published in 1643. In this interpretation he advocated pre-millennialism in such a scholarly way that it continued to influence the study of future things for centuries. MONTEVERDI, CLAUDIO [1567 1643]. Creator of modern music and perhaps the greatest musical genius of his generation as he excelled in all their musical forms of his day. He composed church music both in the older Renaissance style as well as the new Baroque. Much of his exciting church music had just recently been explored. In the secular field he was the last great madrigalist and the first writer of opera. NYE, PHILIP [1596-1672] Congregational minister and theologian who was educated at Oxford and entered into ministry but fled to Holland in 1633 to escape Archbishop Lauds rigid ecclesiastical policies. Back in England by 1640 he became Minister of a Congregational church in Huntingdonshire. In June 1643 Nye was appointed to the Westminster Assembly [see below] taking a leading part among the Dissenting brethren. Eventually he worked harmoniously with the Presbyterians and helped shape the Confession of Faith. With Stephen Marshall [see 1630] in 1643 he established a working agreement between the Scots and Parliamentary forces strongly promoting a Solemn League and Covenant [see1650]. He was very active in Cromwells Protectorate and was a leader of the Savoy Declaration of 1658. He was deprived at the Restoration but in his later years ministered privately among dissenting churches. SOLEMN LEAGUE AND CONVENANT [1643] This was drawn up by Alexander Henderson [see 1639] and was approved by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and transmitted to the English Parliament for ratification. It was jointly signed along with the members of the Westminster Assembly ministers. The document was for a religious alliance between England and Scotland rather than either military or civil agreement. It guaranteed the maintenance of the Reformed Church of Scotland [Presbyterian] and promised to reform the churches in England and Ireland according to the Scriptures and the examples of the best Reformed churches without defining the latter. As a consequence of its acceptance by the English Parliament, Scottish commissioners attended the Westminster Assembly, taking a prominent and influential part in it. Charles II later signed the League in 1650 but never kept it. WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY [1643] During the English Civil War between Charles I and Parliament the latter continued its programme of reforms and declared its intention of establishing a church government that would be more agreeable to Gods Word and bring the Church of England into nearer conformity with the Church of Scotland and other Reformed Churches abroad. To implement this design Parliament convened an assembly of learned godly and judicious ministers to consult and advise of such matters and things as should be proposed to them... The assembly consisted of 121 ministers with 10 lords and 20 commoners as assessors with equal debating and voting rights. Sessions were held from 1643 to 1649. The Westminster Assembly was early associated with the Solemn League and Covenant [see above], approved the document, and was joined by both Houses of Parliament for a formal swearing of the Covenant. Major works of the assembly were the preparation of the Westminster Confession of Faith, the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, the Form of Church Government, and the Directory for Public Worship of God [see 1645]. WESTMINSTER CONFESSION One of the most influential creeds of Calvinism and creedal standard for all Presbyterian churches. This was drawn up at Westminster 1643-1646. The immediate background to the confession lay in the tensions between Charles I and his subjects growing in large measure out of Charles insistence on imposing Anglicanism. The Puritans felt that the creeds of the Church of England must be revised so that a pure religion could be taught and preached. The Scots, convinced Calvinists, resisted any attempt to remodel their creeds. In 1638 the historical National Covenant affirmed this and the Scots invasion of northern England forced Charles to call Parliament into session. It demanded far reaching concessions from Charles which he refused to accept and by 1642 Civil War had broken out. Adopted in England and Scotland the confession stayed on as a creedal standard in the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In England Cromwell rose to power and with a strong backing of the Independents in the army they granted religious toleration to all Protestants. After the Restoration the Anglican Church became re established as the Church of England while Scotland retained the established Presbyterian Church. 1644GREENHILL, WILLIAM [1591-1671] English Nonconformist minister, matriculating at Oxford when only 13 and graduating four years later in 1608. From 1613 he held a living of New Shoreham in Sussex. He became afternoon preacher to the congregation ministered to in the morning by Jeremy Burroughes [see 1636]; they were known as the Morning Star and Evening Star of Stepney. As a member of the Westminster Assembly he opposed the Presbyterian party, and in 1644 became the first pastor of a Congregational church in Stepney. He found favour with Cromwell and was made one of the Triers. In 1660 he was ejected from his vicarage in St Dunstans-in-the-East, but retained the Congregational pastorate in Stepney until his death. INNOCENT X Pope [1644-1655]. He became a cardinal in 1629 and was elected pope as the nominee of the Spanish party. He waged a cruel war against Parma, promised considerable help for Venice against the Turks but sent little, encouraged Spain to revolt against Naples and at first opposed the independence of Portugal. He protested strongly against the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and issued a bull against it as a violation of the laws of the church. In 1653 he condemned five Propositions from Cornelius Jansens Augustinus. In his later years he fell under the influence of the arrogant Donna Olimpia Maidalchini his sister in law who used the papal treasury for her own ends and contributed to the spread of corruption. During the Civil War in England and Ireland (164249), Innocent X strongly supported the independent Ireland and sent as his representative the archbishop of Fermo who arrived at Kilkenny with a large quantity of arms and military supplies including twenty thousand pounds of gunpowder and a very large sum of money. The archbishop was received with great honours, asserting in his Latin declaration that the object of his mission was to sustain the king, but above all to rescue from pains and penalties the Catholic people of Ireland in securing the free and public exercise of the Catholic religion, and the restoration of the churches and church property. But in the end Oliver Cromwell restored Ireland to the Parliamentarian side, with great bloodshed, and the archbishop returned to Rome in 1649, after four fruitless years. He succeeded Urban VIII [see 1623] and was succeeded by Alexander VII [see 1655]. MURILLO, BARTOLOME ESTEBAN [1617-1688] Spanish painter who was orphaned at the age of 10 and earned a living by providing cheap paintings on canvas to be sold in country fairs. After a visit to Cadiz in 1647 he set out to study the great masters. He went to Madrid where he was befriended by Velazquez through whom he was able to study the masters and spent three years in Madrid returning to Seville in 1644. As a member of an austere brotherhood dedicated to serving the dying, pain and misery were for Murillo objects of pity and not curiosity like other painters of his race. His genius is tenderness and affection. He sought to portray the Gospel in human terms. His pre-eminence lies in the painting of the Immaculate Conception a theme he treated over 20 times without repetition. These are among the most markedly feminine paintings in Spain. PARTHENIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1644-1646, 1648-1651] succeeded Parthenius I [see 1639]. There is no additional information readily available. SUICER, JOHANN KASPER [1620-1684] Swiss Reformed theologian who was educated in France and taught Latin, Greek, and Hebrew at Zurich from 1644. His main work was very useful and still used for reviewing literature of the Church Fathers. 1645CANTERBURY SEE Vacant until 1660 COTTON, JOHN [1584-1652] Puritan minister and author who migrated to America. While not democratic himself, he helped create the pattern for church government for New England by his book in 1645 The Way of the Churches of Christ in New England. JOANNICIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1645-1657] see 1639 and 1657. LEVELLERS A democratic party in England during the Puritan Revolution and Commonwealth period. The name was given by enemies of the movement to suggest that it was aimed at levelling mens estates. The party developed in 1645-46 among radical supporters of Parliament in and around London. The levellers advocated a redistribution politically and equality before the law and freedom of religion. Discussions with the groups however ended in deadlock and in 1650 leading levellers such as John Lilburne were imprisoned and the movement crushed. MARCOS VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1645-1660] see 1631 and 1660 Mark evidently entertained the Syrian bishop HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahatallah" \o "Ahatallah" Ahatallah for some time during his papacy. Ahatallah was in Cairo when Marcos received a letter from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar_Thoma_I" \o "Mar Thoma I" Thomas, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archdeacon" \o "Archdeacon" Archdeacon of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christian" \o "Saint Thomas Christian" Saint Thomas Christian community of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India asking for a new bishop in the face of Portuguese dominance. Unable or unwilling to send someone from his own church, Marcos evidently suggested that Ahatallah go to India instead. MARROW CONTROVERSY One of the most significant controversies that the Church of Scotland has ever known began in England in 1645 with the publication of a work entitled The Marrow of Modern Divinity. Authorship was traditionally attributed to Edward Fisher [see 1643]. The published articles steered a middle course between antinomianism and legalism. About 1700 Thomas Boston [see 1707] purchased the first part from a Berwickshire parishioner and it greatly influenced his preaching. It proved anathema to the legalism of the Moderates [see 1733] and the general assembly of 1720 condemned the book as radical and antinomian, passing an act prohibiting ministers from commending it and enjoining them to warn their congregations against it. Despite a document signed by Ebenezer Erskine [see 1740] and ten other Marrowmen who saw this as an attack on evangelical truth the protestors were formally rebuked by the 1722 assembly. The Marrowmen were systematically persecuted, nevertheless their preaching attracted great numbers. The controversy gradually subsided. PAISIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1645-1660] see 1608 and 1660. PRYNNE, WILLIAM [1600-1669] Puritan pamphleteer who was educated at Oxford and called to the bar in 1628 and was influenced by the preaching of John Preston. He developed a strong opposition to Arminianism and sought to reform the morals of his age attacking the immorality of stage plays. For his outspoken criticisms which were resented at court he was imprisoned, fined and pilloried losing both his ears. Nothing however could stop the flow of pamphlets from his pen. When the Long Parliament met in 1640 Prynne was released from prison and restored to his membership of Lincolns Inn. He defended the Parliamentary course being especially active in preparing the case against Archbishop Laud [see 1633]. Remaining fairly quiet under the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell he returned to active political activity in 1659 and helped to restore Charles II to the throne. REYNOLDS, EDWARD [1599-1676] Bishop of Norwich who was educated at Oxford where he was a moderate Anglican with Puritan sympathies and a member of the Westminster Assembly [see 1643]. From 1645 to 1662 he was vicar of St Lawrence Jewry and in 1647 one of the Parliamentary visitors to Oxford University. At the Restoration he conformed and in June 1660 drew up proposals for the reconciling of Episcopalians and Presbyterians. In 1661 he was made bishop of Norwich where he treated Dissenters with moderation. The numerous sermons which were published remained popular until the 19th century. THORN, CONFERENCE OF A colloquy held in 1645 at Thorn in West Prussia called by Wladislaw IV of Poland who ruled over a religiously divided kingdom. The delegates included Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed representatives. Hampered by Jesuit opposition and Lutheran internal quarrelling, the conference resulted in little ecumenical progress. However, the Lutheran and Calvinist delegates were able to agree that a number of documents were compatible on scriptural essentials. The Calvinist Declaration of Thorn was composed at the conference and was adopted as a creedal standard by the Calvinist churches in Brandenburg. WORSHIP OF GOD, DIRECTORY FOR THE PUBLIC Prepared by the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] of ministers, this was adopted by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and the English Parliament in 1645 as a replacement for the Church of Englands Book of Common Prayer [see 1549]. Its purpose as the title indicates was to provide direction, rather than to lay down a liturgy that was to be followed exactly. It commenced with the observation that the obligatory use of the prayer book proved to be detrimental rather than of help to true worship as it had insisted upon read prayers, had curtailed preaching, and had generally made worship a mechanical act. The concept of the Directory was to give ministers guidance, as different circumstances might call for different orders and different actions. This work has formed the basis of most English language orders of Presbyterian service drawn up since its publication. 1646CRASHAW, RICHARD [1612-1649] English poet who after a period of High Church converted to Roman Catholicism and spent the last years of his life in Paris in the court of Charles Is queen, Henrietta Maria. His poetry, especially Steps to the Temple link him to the group known as the metaphysical poets such as Herbert and Donne. GEULINCX, ARNOLD [1624-1669] Philosopher who was born in Antwerp and studied philosophy at Louvain and taught there from 1646 to 1652 until dismissal due to his sympathy for Jansenist teachings. He moved to the Netherlands and after a decade of poverty during which he turned to Calvinism he became a lecturer at the University of Leyden and then professor. He died not long after from the plague. As a philosopher, starting with the sovereignty of God, he stressed submission to Gods will as the main virtue, and tried to reconcile sovereignty with mans apparent free will. He believed mans free will to be illusory and therefore can only resolve to conform to Gods causal will. JOANNICUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1646-1648, 1651-1652, 1655-1656] succeeded Parthenius II [see 1644]. There is no additional information readily available. POWELL, VAVASOR [1617-1670] Welsh Puritan minister and activist. He was educated at Oxford and served for some time as the schoolmaster at Clun where he was converted under the influence of Walter Craddocks preaching. By 1640 Powell was actively engaged in a vigorous preaching mission along the borders of Radnorshire and Brecknock as result of which he came into conflict with the authorities. With the outbreak of the Civil War he withdrew to London and in 1644 became puritan vicar at Dartford Kent. He participated in some of the military campaigns but in 1646 was authorised as a preacher by the Westminster Assembly and named their preacher in North Wales by the Committee for Plundered Ministers. He reached the zenith of his influence after his appointment as an approver under the Act for the Better Propagation of the Gospel in Wales and was very energetic in making this act successful. Like many other Puritans, Powell believed in the early return of Jesus Christ to begin his personal reign on the earth. He initiated a campaign in Wales against the Protectorate which culminated in his petition A Word for God in 1655. With the collapse of the Puritan ascendancy he became a marked man was imprisoned in April 1660 and except for a period of 11 months in 1667 he spent the remainder of his life in jail. He was the author of some 13 published works and his indomitable courage puts him in the front ranks of Welsh Puritans. SALTMARSH, JOHN [1612-1649] Anglican writer and controversialist who was a rector at Heslerton and a keen conformist but he changed and resigned in 1643 becoming rector of Brasted where he is said to have became a violent oppressor of bishops and ceremonies and also said to have a gentle, quaint, controversial style. In 1646 he became an army chaplain and prophesied to Fairfax at Windsor that the army had departed from God. He is chiefly remembered for the controversy with the Westminster minister Thomas Gataker over Saltmarshs sermon on Free Grace in 1645 which Gataker regarded as dangerously lacking in emphasis on Christian responsibility. Saltmarsh with others insisted that Christians had no responsibility to keep the law of God because they are Gods children and not under law which was an unwise exaggeration of the biblical teaching of justification through the grace of God. 1647BIDDLE, JOHN [16151662] Unitarian, the son of a Gloucestershire tailor, and was educated at Oxford. His views on the Trinity were betrayed by a friend and he was imprisoned in 1645. In 1647 he published his Twelve Articles refuting accepted teaching about the divinity of the Holy Spirit and he was in and out of prison for the rest of his life. FOX, GEORGE [1624-1691] Founder of the Society of Friends. He apparently had no formal schooling and was apprentice to a shoemaker but in 1643 he parted from his family and friends to travel in search of enlightenment. After long, painful struggles he came in 1646 to rely on the Inner Light of the Living Christ. In 1647 he began to preach that truth is to be found in Gods voice speaking to the soul, hence, Friends of Truth later abbreviated to Friends. In 1649 he was jailed for interrupting a Nottingham church service with an impassioned appeal from the Scriptures to the Holy Spirit as the authority and guide. In 1650 at Derby he was imprisoned as a blasphemer, and there a judge nicknamed the group Quakers, after Fox had exhorted the magistrate to tremble at the word of the Lord. He declined a captaincy in the parliamentary army. Fox spent six years in different prisons, sometimes under terrible conditions. He campaigned against the latter and against other social evils. His later years were spent in the London area, working to the end in helping others, promoting schools, and campaigning for greater toleration in spite of poor health. 1648CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM The statement of Congregational practice in New England. It stated that the catholic church was the whole company of the elect and redeemed. It provided for regular church offices of pastors, teachers, elders and deacons in autonomous congregations. American Puritans wanted to distinguish themselves from the Brownists [see Robert Browne 1582] and Presbyterians. COCCEIUS, JOHANNES [1603-1669] German theologian and author who studied under Maccovius and William Ames and tried to present theology on a purely biblical basis. His major work in 1648 presented an outline of the scriptural teaching of salvation with a covenant of works prior to the fall, and a covenant of grace after the fall which offered salvation as a gift of God, culminating in the kingdom of God, thus introducing the concept of a Millennium into Reformed theology. MARCIUS III Patriarch of Antioch [1648-1672] see also 1636 and 1674. WESTPHALIA, PEACE OF [1648] Collective term for the decisive treaties including the Thirty Years War. Discussions began in two Westphalian towns in 1643; at Munster with France and Osnabruch with Sweden. Little progress was made until January 1648 when Spain unexpectedly made peace with the Dutch granting them independence whereupon the emperor negotiated settlements with France and Sweden. This marked the practical end of the Holy Roman Empire and of the mediaeval age where religion had dominated. This represented major triumphs for France and Sweden opening the way for France to dominate completely European affairs for nearly two centuries. Germany was decentralised with some 343 separate sovereign states within her borders. Religion was determined among Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist. 1649CALAMY, EDMUND [16001666] Puritan who contributed to the Presbyterian reply to the divine right episcope controversy of 16401641 and was part of the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] but did not favour the execution of Charles I in 1649. He was quiet during the Commonwealth Protectorate and was a member of the Savoy Conference [see 1661]. He was ejected in 1662 and was imprisoned for a while the following year for disobeying the Act of Uniformity [see 1662]. DESCARTES, RENE [1596-1650] French philosopher who was educated at a Jesuit College. After studying and attempting a military career in Holland he became absorbed in the idea of extending the geometrical method to all branches of learning thus freeing them from doubt and disorder. After some years in France and Italy he lived in Holland until 1649. He visited Sweden at the invitation of Queen Christiana and he died there. The impact that his views had may be seen in the controversy in the University of Utrecht. DIGGERS An English communistic movement led by Gerard Winstanley and William Everard. This group of about 20 men began in 1649-50 to cultivate common land in Surrey. They planted vegetables to feed the needy. Local gentry and other conservatives incited mobs to harass them, and later the government dispersed the group. Winstanley held that the Civil War had destroyed the claims of landholders and caused the land to revert to a common treasury which was what had presumably existed before the Norman conquest. Holding land in common they believed would be accompanied by a complete social equality, abolition of trade, universal suffrage, education for all, and the arrival of the Millennium. GORTON, SAMUEL [1592-1677] Early American colonist who migrated from England to Massachusetts in 1637. His opposition to the union of church and state, an ordained ministry, and the sacraments, his denial of heaven and hell, and his advocacy of unorthodox views of the Trinity and inner illumination soon forced him to flee to Rhode Island. After some years wandering in Rhode Island and Massachusetts he founded Warwick. He served several times as a member of the Massachusetts Assembly between 1649-1666. SHARP, JAMES [1613-1679] Archbishop of St Andrews who graduated from Kings College Aberdeen and was appointed professor of philosophy at St Andrews in 1643 and in 1649 became minister of nearby Crail. His ambition and persistent reports of a scandalous private life made him an object of suspicion in Covenanting circles but before the restoration of Charles II he was sent to London as the representative of the Resolutioners. Cromwell had labelled Sharp an atheist and Charles II regarded him as one of the worst of men nevertheless the king was to use him for his own ends. Sharp betrayed the moderate Presbyterians for whom he was working and he became Charles choice as archbishop of St Andrews. As primate he ruthlessly persecuted the Covenanters involving deceit and treachery. He survived one attempt on his life in 1668 but his coach was ambushed in 1679 and Sharp was killed. STERRY, PETER [d.1672] Chaplain to Oliver Cromwell. He was educated at Cambridge and during the 1640s became chaplain to Lady Brooke. Sterry was a member of the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] of ministers, and occasional preacher before Parliament. In 1649 he became a regular preacher to the council of the state of the Commonwealth, while also acting as chaplain to the Lord Protector. Following the restoration of Charles II, Sterry was known as a Nonconformist preacher. 1650BLONDEL, DAVID [15901655] French Protestant church historian who was a country pastor for most of his life refusing a chair in theology at Saumur in 1631. He eventually accepted the position of professor in Amsterdam in 1650. He wrote a book which finally discredited the False Decretals [see 865]. All of his books are on the Roman Catholic Index of forbidden books. GOODWIN, THOMAS [1600-1680] Congregational minister educated at Cambridge and became a Congregationalist in 1634. In 1639 persecution drove him to Holland where he was a pastor of a church at Arnheim. Nominated as a member of the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] he became the leader of the Dissenting Brethren in it. In 1650 he was made president of Magdalen College, Oxford. He enjoyed the confidence of Oliver Cromwell and was a prominent member of the Savoy Assembly of Congregational elders in 1658, being greatly esteemed among the gathered churches in the nation. After the Restoration he moved from Oxford to London and was a pastor in the city. LA BADIE, JEAN DE [1610-1674] Founder of the Labadists. He possessed a strong bent to mysticism, becoming a Roman Catholic priest, then about 1650 embracing Protestantism. He held pastorates in Geneva and then in Holland. His congregation at Middleburg became a religious community dedicated to simple living, holding children and property in common. The Dutch authorities found the Labadists too independent of the religious community in Holland, and in 1670 they moved to Westphalia, then to Bremen in 1672, and later to Altona where they were dispersed on the death of the leaders. By 1730 the movement was dead although settlements had been made in Maryland and New York. LLWYD, MORGAN [1619-1659] Welsh Puritan author who was educated in Wrexham where he experienced conversion under the ministry of Walter Cradock whom he then followed south to join the Puritan group in Shropshire. He participated on the Parliamentary side in the Civil War. He was an approver under the Propagation Act of 1650 and joined the protest movement led by Vavasor Powell against Oliver Cromwell but soon made peace with him and continued to minister at Wrexham until his death. In theology he tended towards the Quaker position and was much impressed by the thought of Jacob Boehme [see 1600] and translated some of his work into Welsh. His Three Little Birds of 1653 is considered one of the prose classics of the Welsh. He left behind a considerable amount of poetry. His deep desire was for his countrymen to embrace the gospel. MUGGLETON, LUDOWICKE [1609-1698] He was the leader of the Muggletonians cult. He came under Puritan religious influence while working in London before the civil war. He was also influenced by the theology of mystic theosophist Jakob Boeme and the views of the Ranters [see below]. He formed an association with his cousin John Reeve [1608-1658]. They saw themselves as the two witnesses of Revelation 11 who received visions from heaven that they were to seal the elected in preparation of the forthcoming judgement of God on the world. Their views were set forth in a series of tracks. The unforgiveable sin was to disbelieve the two witnesses. RANTERS The name given to a movement during the time of the English Commonwealth who were part of an effort of the time to restore a primitive apostolic Christianity. This involved a repudiation of the Church of England. They tended to produce great variety of groups around prominent leaders so that England appeared to swarm with sects. Joseph Salmon and Jacob Bauthumley represent two characteristic examples of Ranters. Bauthumley wrote The Light and Dark Sides of God in 1650 which develops an extreme doctrine of the Inner Light. Salmon authored a strange tract recounting his experience with God and teaching extreme pantheism. 1651-1660 AD 1651CAMPBELL, ARCHIBALD [15981661] First marquis of Argyll and Covenanter [see 1638], helped crown Charles II at Scone in 1651. After the Restoration he was tried for treason as he had acquiesced in Cromwells Commonwealth and Charles was resentful of Argylls stricture on the kings immoral life. When sentenced he said I had the honour to set the crown upon the kings head, and now he hastens me away to a better crown than his own. The killing of the Covenanters commenced with his beheading in Edinburgh. GERHARDT, PAUL [1607-1676] German hymn writer who studied at Wittenberg and spent some years as a tutor in Berlin. In 1651, already middle-aged, he became a Lutheran pastor at Mittenwalde. He was an uncompromising Lutheran who refused to accept Friedrich Wilhelm Is edict restricting freedom of speech on disputed points between Lutherans and Calvinists. Among German hymn writers he ranks second only to Luther. He wrote 133 hymns a number of which were translated into English. One example is O Sacred Head now wounded which was translated by J.W. Alexander. HOBBES, THOMAS [1588-1679] British political philosopher who trained at Oxford in the classics and went into exile in France during the Civil War. In Paris he was tutor to the prince of Wales. In 1651 he returned to England and submitted to the Commonwealth. He proposed an absolute government based not on divine right but on an analysis of human psychology. He said that if there were no government and all men were equal, life would be unendurable, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. Driven by self-preservation men contracted with each other to transfer all the power to an absolute sovereign, who would use his unlimited power to enforce obedience in unity. The ideas of Hobbes did not satisfy either the divine right theorists or those who held to the historic rights of Englishmen. OWEN, JOHN [1616-1683] An advocate of the Congregational way and a Reformed theologian. Educated at Oxford and because of difficulties with Archbishop Laud, Owen left Oxford in 1637 and his first parish was Fordham in Essex. By 1643 he was a moderate Presbyterian but his reading of a book by John Carter convinced him of the Biblical basis of the Congregational way. This he applied to his next church in Coggeshall. In the civil war his sympathies were with the Parliament and he accompanied Cromwell in expeditions to Ireland and Scotland as a chaplain. In 1651 Parliament appointed him dean of Christ Church Oxford and a year later Cromwell made him vice chancellor, a post he held until 1657. From 1651 to 1660 he devoted his energies to the production of godly and learned men and to reform the statutes and ceremonies at the university. He helped compose the Savoy Declaration of Faith and Order [see 1658]. Owen was ejected from Christchurch in 1660 and he returned to his home village and gathered a church in his home. For the next twenty three years Owen was the acknowledged leader of Protestant Nonconformity. His books were treasured by Nonconformists and have constantly been reprinted. PROTESTERS The name given to that section of the Scottish Covenanters which regarded as criminal any dealings with Charles II, who had been crowned in 1651 in Scotland, and protested against the reinstatement of those formerly hostile to the Covenant. They opposed the majority of the clergy accusing the latter of putting loyalty to the king above the rights of Christ and His church. RESOLUTIONERS In December 1650 the Estates in Scotland ordered the commission of a general assembly to decide whether it was lawful to reinstate those formally purged from the army by the 1649 Act of Classes which had excluded from civil and military posts all who were hostile to the National Covenant [see 1638] and the Solemn League and Covenant [see 1650]. It was agreed that all but a small group could be accepted. This decision was known as the first Public Resolution. In May 1651 the commission was asked about the legality of admitting to the Committee of Estates those who had renounced their anti-Covenanting attitude and the recommendation was the same, and this was the second Public Resolution. Those who upheld these decisions were known as Resolutioners, and those who opposed were called Protestors [see above]. RETZ, CARDINAL DE [1614-1679] Archbishop of Paris who having taken part in abortive plots against Richelieu [see 1624] devoted himself to an ecclesiastical career which made him eventually the archbishop of Paris. In 1651 he was made cardinal which aggravated the enmity between him and the all powerful Mazarin who in 1652 had him imprisoned, however de Retz escaped to Rome. Upon the death of his uncle in 1654 he made legal claim to the see of Paris and was appointed but pressured to resign a few days later; he had instructed his clergy by letters from exile but they were publicly burnt and King Louis XIV made it known he would be unwelcome in Paris. He returned to France in 1662 and King Louis compensated de Retz with the abbey of St Denis, the revenues of which were greater than those of Paris. He exercised greater influence in Rome than the French ambassador and took part in the election of a number of popes. De Retz was a church politician rather than a churchman. 1652ALLEINE, RICHARD [16111681] Nonconformist who was the son of a Somerset rector and after studying at Oxford was ordained and became rector at Batcombe in 1641. He signed the Presbyterian manifesto Testimony of the Ministers of Somerset and served as a ministerial assistant to the commissioners during the Protectorate of Cromwell for ejecting scandalous ministers. In 1662 he refused to conform, was ejected and preached in private homes. CYRIL III Patriarch of Constantinople [1652-1654] who succeeded Joannicus II [see 1646]. There is no additional information readily available. DUTCH REFORMED CHURCH IN SOUTH AFRICA With the first Dutch settlement on the Cape in 1652 Jan van Riebeck and the Reformed Church appeared in South Africa. The Cape Colony grew slowly as it was primarily a way station on the Dutch East Indies Company route to the Indies. The company paid the pastors, who were under the jurisdiction of Amsterdam. During the French Revolution the cape came under British control. The South African Dutch (the Boers) moved northward forming their own independent states of Transvaal and Orange Free State and organised their own reformed churches. By 1859 these churches had their own seminary at Stellenbosch. The Boer War at the turn of the century brought the independent trekker states under the British control, and the churches united in 1909 in the Reformed Church in South Africa, with the conservative splinter churches remaining separate. Later in the 20th century apartheid proved a cloak for white supremacy and came under attack from within the church. HOWE, JOHN [1630-1705] English Nonconformist minister who studied at Cambridge and Oxford. In 1652 he was ordained and given a perpetual curacy of Great Torrington in Devon. Here he laboured to unite Presbyterians and Independents but this work was aborted when Oliver Cromwell called him to court in 1657 as a chaplain. Once again he tried to heal divisions among the various groups who frequented Whitehall. In 1662 Howe was ejected and for the next eight years he had his share of harassment under the Clarendon Code [see 1661] while he preached from time to time in the homes of the local gentry. He was also a chaplain in Ireland for 6 years before returning to London. After the Toleration Act of 1689 he laboured again to unite Presbyterians and Independents but that happy union he helped to forge was only a brief one. NIKON [1605-1681] Patriarch of Moscow who had become a monk after the early death of his three children, separating from his wife who became a nun. On a visit to Moscow in 1643 he became friendly with Tsar Alexis who subsequently promoted him to the patriarchate [1652-1660] and allowed him to exercise considerable power, acting as regent in the Tsars frequent absences from Moscow. Nikon quickly reformed the Russian liturgy bringing it into conformity with the Greek and Ukrainian practice thus aiding the tsar politically by the absorption of Ukraine [1654-1667]. Nikons reforms were made permanent but much opposition was aroused, the Old Believers [see 1551] continued to observe the traditional forms of worship. Feelings were so strong that both Nikon and the tsar were variously identified with the Antichrist and bloodshed more than once occurred. Nikon was deposed in 1660 and exiled to a remote monastery. He was pardoned shortly before his death by the next tsar, Fedor III. Nikon is considered as the greatest of the Russian patriarchs. 1653AVAAKUM [16201682] Russian leader and martyr of the Old Believers who were opposed to the liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon. He was deported to Siberia in 1653. He returned in 1664 but was again exiled a couple of years later. In 1670 he was punished with mutilations. He died at the stake in 1682. COONEN CROSS The cross outside the church in Mattancherry in Cochin, India, where a crowd of Syrian Christians took an oath not to be subject to the Jesuit archbishop Francis Garcia in 1653 which initiated a revolt and affected almost all the Syrians in the Roman Catholic Church in Kerala. This incident marked the renewed independence of a considerable section of the Syrians and modified Roman Catholic policy in Kerala. CROMWELL, OLIVER [1599-1658] Lord Protector who was educated at Sidney Sussex College Cambridge and elected to Parliament in 1628. During the time of the suspension of Parliament by Charles I, Oliver came to a strong Christian faith and championed the rights of commoners against enclosures and fen drainage. He supported Puritan lecturers, and may have contemplated emigration to America. On the outbreak of war he raised a cavalry troop of godly honest men and though 43 years of age became one of the great cavalry leaders in history. He helped remodel the New Model Army which won at Naseby in 1645 and supported the soldiers in their claims against Parliament over arrears in pay. He tried to make terms with Charles who endeavoured to play off army, Parliament and Scots against each other. Made commander in chief of the army he defeated the Scots at Dunbar [1650] and Worcester [1651]. He was made Lord Protector in 1653. He protected the Quakers and Jews and championed the persecuted Vaudois Protestants. He refused the title of king. Without personal ambition and motivated by Christian belief he ensured that England would be ruled by Parliament and not absolute kings although much of his work seemed overthrown at the Restoration. MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 1330 and 1816] Resentment of Jesuit rule however boiled over into a revolt at the Coonen Cross [see 1653]. For a time it seemed that most Syrians had seceded from Rome but within a decade Rome had won back much of the lost ground using Carmelites instead of Jesuits and appointed one of them as titular bishop of Malabar thus bypassing the Portuguese hierarchy. The Syrians who did not return to Rome were free to look abroad for a bishop, especially when Dutch power replaced Portuguese in Kerala and the foreign Roman clergy were banished. MORE, HENRY [1614-1687] English philosopher and poet who was educated at Cambridge and became one of the foremost members of a group called the Cambridge Platonists [see 1640]. At Cambridge he was elected to a fellowship at Christs College where he remained until his death. Heavily influenced by Joseph Mede [see 1643], More rejected a rigorous Calvinism and read widely in Aristotle and the Scholastics, then turned to mysticism and Neoplatonism. He came to believe that knowledge of the eternal was dependent on moral perfection achieved through subduing egoism. On this basis he tried to defend Christianity against its greatest enemies, atheism, Roman Catholicism, and enthusiasm. His writing included An Antidote Against Atheism in 1653, A Brief Discourse of the Nature, Causes, Kinds and Cure of Enthusiasm in 1656. SEGNERI, PAOLO [1624-1694] Jesuit preacher who studied at the Roman College and then entered the Jesuit Order in 1637. He was ordained in 1653. His preaching ministry, sometimes accompanied by self flagellation and penitential processions, began in cathedral pulpits, and from 1661 to 1692 he conducted many popular missions. He was called to Rome by Innocent XII as his preacher in 1692 making him theologian of the Sacred Penitentiary. 1654ANDREAE, JOHANN VALENTIN [1586-1654] Lutheran theologian who studied at Tubingen University but was dismissed in 1607. During his subsequent travels he gained some sympathy for the Calvinistic churches. He was appointed as a superintendent minister at Calw. Here he showed courage in the ravages of the Thirty Year War. In 1654 he was appointed abbot at Adelberg where he sought to reorganise the churches in Wurttemberg. PASCAL, BLAISE [1623-1662] Mathematical prodigy, physicist, religious thinker, inventor, and literary stylist. One of the great minds of Western intellectual history, born in France and went to live in Paris in his childhood. His father who was a widower chose to educate his children himself at home, and history and science were taught through games, religion through reading the Bible. Geometry was to be the crowning study, and he withheld it until Blaise was old enough to fully relish its beauty. Building later on his mathematical knowledge Blaise was later to create the Theory of Probability. His father moved to Rouen in 1640 and Blaise using his skills devised the first calculating machine based on a series rotating discs. In physics he made a notable discovery known as Pascals Law dealing with the pressure exerted on any part of an enclosed liquid. This principle makes possible all modern hydraulic operations. After his conversion in 1654 following a miraculous vision, Paschal set about preparing an Apology for the Christian Religion. The work was never finished as he died at the age of 39 leaving only a set of remarkable notes later published as his thoughts. It undertakes to put the case for Christianity as against the rationalism of Descartes and the scepticism of Montaigne. For Pascal, God is to be known through Jesus Christ by an act of faith, itself given by God. Faith is not of reason; it is of the heart. God is to be known by faith, but the evidences for validating Christianity are great; the prophecies, the miracles, the witness of history, the self-authentication of Scripture. PAISIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1654-1655] succeeded Cyril III [see 1652]. There is no additional information readily available. VINES, RICHARD [1600-1656] Puritan minister who was educated at Cambridge, ordained and taught at a grammar school at Hinkley before becoming rector of Caldecote. When the Civil War broke out he went first to Coventry and then to London for safety. Appointed by Parliament to the Westminster Assembly he served on the drafting committee for the Confession of Faith. In 1644 he was made master of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, and was active in increasing the student numbers. He refused the Engagement of Loyalty to the Commonwealth and was removed from the position of mastership at Pembroke but was called to St Lawrences Jewry church in London. When Cromwells first Parliament discussed in 1654 what were the fundamentals of the faith, Vines was one of the ministers whose advice was sought and he was named also as a ministerial assistant to the ejectors in the London area in Cromwells National Church. His publications are few but his reputation with his contemporaries was such that some of them called him the Luther of England. 1655ALEXANDER VII Pope [1655-1667]. Born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siena" \o "Siena" Siena, a member of an illustrious banking family and a great-nephew of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_V" \o "Pope Paul V" Pope Paul V(16051621). He was privately tutored and eventually received doctorates of philosophy, law, and theology from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Siena" \o "University of Siena" University of Siena. After being Inquisitor in Malta he became nuncio at Cologne [1639-51]. During negotiations leading to the Peace of Westphalia [see1648] he urged Catholic princes not to sacrifice the rights of the church. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_X" \o "Pope Innocent X" Pope Innocent X(16441655) recalled him to Rome and subsequently made him secretary of state and then cardinal. The conclave believed he was strongly opposed to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism" \o "Nepotism" nepotism then prevalent. Indeed, in the first year of his reign, Alexander VII lived simply and forbade his relations even to visit Rome; but on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_24" \o "April 24" 24th April HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1656" \o "1656" 1656, he announced that his brother and nephews would be HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal-nephew" \o "Cardinal-nephew" coming to assist him in Rome. The administration was given largely into the hands of his relatives, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism" \o "Nepotism" nepotism became as luxuriously entrenched as it ever had been in the Baroque papacy: He gave them the best-paid civil and ecclesiastical offices, and princely palaces and estates suitable to the family from Siena. The conversion of Queen HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_of_Sweden" \o "Christina of Sweden" Christina of Sweden (16321654) occurred during Alexander VIIs reign. After her abdication the queen came to reside in Rome, where she was confirmed in her HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism" \o "Baptism" baptism by the pope on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Day" \o "Christmas Day" Christmas Day, 1655. His pontificate was marked by disputes with Catholic princes notably with Louis XIV of France who seized Avignon and threatened invasions resulting in Alexander being humiliated by the Peace of Pisa in 1664. He befriended the Jesuits and enabled their return to the republic of Venice. He succeeded Innocent X [see 1644] and was succeeded by Clement IX [see 1667]. CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM [16121686] German Lutheran theologian and author whose twelve volume Systema locorum theologiconan [16551677] ranks with the work of Gerhard [see 1610] as the leading 17th century Lutheran scholastic work. He was a stringent supporter of strict Lutheran orthodoxy writing against a number of people including Calixtus [see 1614], the liberal critical views of Grotius [see 1625], and Boehme [see 1600]. CATON, WILLIAM [1636-1665] English Quaker who was convinced in 1652 when George Fox [see 1650] first visited Swarthmore Hall in the Lake District. He soon became a Publisher of Truth. In 1655 he made the first important visit by Quakers to Europe and spent much of the rest of his life in Holland. CHARNOCK, STEPHEN [1628-1680] Puritan preacher, who was appointed chaplain to Henry Cromwell governor of Ireland and became a prominent preacher in Dublin before returning to London. His sermons published after his death emphasised the existence and character of God. FULLER, THOMAS [1606-1661] Anglican minister and historian, he was educated at Cambridge and was a popular preacher in the 1630s and 1640s. During the Civil War he spent most of this time in Oxford although he was a moderate Royalist. His fame rests on his books which included a Church History of Britain in 1665. He is reputed to have been one of the first authors to make an income by his writing. NATALIS, ALEX [1639-1724] French historian and theologian who entered the Dominican Order in 1655 and gained a doctorate from the Sorbonne in 1675. He entered the Society of Savants lecturing on historical subjects of which 24 volumes were published between 1677 in 1688. These were offensive to Rome because of the authors Gallicanism [see 682] causing the works to be placed on the Index [see 1559]. His literary work ended through blindness. TAYLOR, JEREMY [1613-1667] Anglican bishop and writer. He was educated at Cambridge and attracted the attention of William Laud [see 1633] through his eloquence and was nominated as his chaplain. He chose to be loyal to the king in the Civil War but on the collapse of the royal cause he attached himself to Lord Carbery remaining at his house in Carmarthenshire until the return of Charles II in 1660. He wrote several books including a manual of devotion The Golden Grove in 1655. After the Restoration his loyalty was recognised and he was made bishop of Down and Connor. He was the last practitioner of the golden age of preaching that began with Donne [see 1615 and Andrews [see 1605]. TUCKNEY, ANTHONY [1599-1670] Puritan minister who was educated at Cambridge and tutored there for ten years. Three of his pupils were Benjamin Whichcote and Henry and William Pierrepont. Tuckner served as a member of the Westminster Assembly [see 1643] and was on the drafting committee of the Larger Catechism. In 1655 he became regius professor of divinity at St Johns College Cambridge but as he had supported Cromwell he lost his position at the Restoration. He retired to London and occasionally preached in private. 1656BURROUGH, EDWARD [16331662] English Quaker who heard George Fox [see 1650] preach in 1652 and after disputing with him became a follower. He engaged with John Bunyan in a pamphlet war [16561657]. After the Restoration he pleaded with Charles II for the persecuted Quakers in New England. He was imprisoned in 1662 for holding an illegal meeting and died there. LOPEZ, GREGORY [1615-1691] First Chinese bishop whose real name was A-lou. He studied in Manila and was admitted to the Dominican Order in 1656. He became the first Chinese to be ordained, and he assumed the name of Gregory Lopez. In 1690 shortly before his death he became bishop of Nanking. Thereafter no Chinese bishop was appointed until the 20th century. Lopez had been involved in the renewed Chinese Rites Controversy [see 1582] and favoured Matteo Riccis [see 1583] sympathetic attitude towards Confucian ritual. NAYLOR, JAMES [c.1617-1660] English Quaker who joined the Parliamentary army in1642 and served under both Fairfax and Cromwell. By 1650 Naylor was respected as an able preacher and returning home after the Battle of Dunbar joined the Congregational Church. When George Fox [see 1647] visited his area he was much impressed with the doctrine of the inner light and became a Quaker. After being imprisoned several times he became occupied in preaching, travelling, and writing tracts. He seems to have been particular attractive to women. In 1656 he allowed his followers to treat him as though he was the Messiah, making the Bristol authorities think he was re-enacting Christs entry into Jerusalem. After being pilloried he was eventually released and he returned to the Quakers. PARTHENIUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1656-1657] succeeded Joannicus II [see 1646]. There is no additional information readily available. SPINOZA, BENEDICT DE [1632-1677] One of the foremost rationalist philosophers he was a Jew who was expelled from the synagogue in 1656 for his unorthodox views. Most of his life was spent in Amsterdam where he earned a living as a lens grinder. Spinoza was an independent, original thinker whose work is difficult to interpret because of its self-contained character. His view that the Bible is written in a manner of unreflective irrational man was historically influential in the growth of rational criticism of Scripture. 1657CUDWORTH, RALPH [1617-1688] English professor of Hebrew at Cambridge who was the most distinguished exponent of the Cambridge Platonists [see 1640]. In 1657 he was consulted by a parliamentary committee exploring the need for a new translation of the Bible. GABRIEL II Patriarch of Constantinople [1657] succeeded Parthenius III [see 1656]. There is no additional information readily available. HENRY, PHILIP [1631-1696] Puritan minister born in London of Welsh parents, his father being one of the kings gardeners at Whitehall. He was educated at Westminster and Christ Church Oxford, and ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1657. He was ejected from Worthenbury Chapel in 1660. Under the 1672 Declaration of Indulgence [see 1660] his friends secured him a licence to hold services at his home at Broad Oak. He was the father of Matthew Henry [see 1704]. PAISIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1657-1678] see 1645 and 1678. PARTHENIUS IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1657-1659, 1665-1667, 1671, 1675-1676, 1684-1685] succeeded Gabriel II [see above]. There is no additional information readily available. WALTON, BRIAN [1600-1661] Bishop of Chester who was educated at Cambridge and in later years held numerous ecclesiastical posts. Around 1641 he aroused much opposition and controversy about city tithes in which, as a result of much legal research, he supported the rights of the clergy. As a result he was imprisoned for a short while. After the Restoration Waltons positions were returned to him and he was given the bishopric of Chester. During the intervening years he worked on the vast English Polyglot Bible in six volumes from 1657 onwards which was one of the first English works published by private subscription and consisted of the entire Bible in nine languages. 1658AMBROSE, ISAAC [16041664] Nonconformist minister from Lancashire who was educated at Oxford. In 1634 he was appointed as one of the four kings itinerant preachers in his county and became vicar of Preston where he developed Presbyterian leanings. In the Civil War he was twice captured by the Royalists. He was known for his prayer and meditation. Ambrose was ejected from his pastorate in 1662 on the return of the monarchy. He is the author of Looking unto Jesus. COVEL, JOHN [1638-1722] Anglican scholar who graduated from Cambridge in 1658 and for the next decade was chaplain to the British Embassy at Constantinople. He was asked to investigate the Greek Church to see if they held to the doctrine of transubstantiation. However his report on the Greek Church was not published until the year of his death by which time interest in the subject had waned. PENINGTON, ISAAC [1616-1679] Quaker apologist who was the oldest son of the lord mayor of London Sir Isaac Penington and a staunch Puritan. In 1654 he married Mary Springett a widow and Isaac subsequently became a Quaker in London in 1658. He was in prison six times beginning in 1661 for refusing to take the Oath of Allegiance [see 1604]. Several long imprisonments in the Reading and Aylesbury jails were borne with cheerful endurance. As a leading Friend he was a close acquaintance of George Fox [see 1647] and his stepdaughter married William Penn [see 1670] the founder of Pennsylvania. POOLE, MATTHEW [1624-1679] Biblical commentator and educator. He was educated at Cambridge and became a rector in London. In 1658 he devised and set in motion a scheme for the training of young men for the Christian ministry, but this came to an abrupt halt at the restoration as due to his strong Presbyterian sympathies he was ejected in 1662 and then did little Nonconformist preaching afterwards. His energy however was devoted to studying and the production of the Synopsis a Latin compendium of textural commentary and interpretation. He later wrote Annotations upon the Holy Bible in English, a work which was completed by his friends in Holland after his death. SAVOY DECLARATION [1658] The first basic English Congregational statement of doctrine and church government. Around 200 representatives attended the semi-official meeting with the majority being laymen. Most the leading Congregational ministers however were present including Philip Nye [see 1643], Thomas Goodwin [see 1650], John Owen [see 1651], William Bridge [see 1636], William Greenhill [see 1644] and Joseph Caryl. In a remarkably short time and with remarkable unanimity this group drafted three documents which made up the Declaration of Savoy: a preface, a confession of faith, and a church government. The preface, notable only for its tolerant spirit. The confession was essentially the same as the Westminster Confession [see 1643]. The church government section established complete autonomy of local churches under the headship of Christ. 1659HUGHES, STEPHEN [1622-1688] Welsh Puritan, the son of a silk merchant. He was appointed Puritan minister in 1654. He contributed largely to the work of publishing good books in Welsh. He began by issuing the first part of the work of Vicar Rhys Prichard in 1659. During the era of persecution his home was at Swansea and the work of publishing was in abeyance. He secured the co-operation of many for his publications and between them they published a series of books culminating in a translation of Pilgrims Progress in 1688. The significance of this work on Welsh Christianity was immense in that it ensured that Puritanism would make wide use of the Welsh language in literature and education. THEOPHANES II Patriarch of Constantinople [1659] succeeded Parthenius IV [see 1657]. There is no additional information readily available. Patriarch of Constantinople see vacant from 1659-1662. 1660BRAMHALL, JOHN [15941663] English born primate of Ireland [16601663]. He was educated at Cambridge and came under the influence of Samuel Ward who represented the Church of England at the Synod of Dort in 1621 from where he got his AngloCatholic leaning. He reorganised the Church of Ireland. He was a brilliant speaker and had controversies with the Puritans which led to his exile under the Cromwell regime [16481660]. BROTHER LAWRENCE [16051691] French Catholic who entered the Carmelite order in Paris serving in the kitchen. His work published after his death The Practice of the Presence of God stressed the need that even in menial work the love of God should be seen. CHARLES II [1630-1685] Second son of Charles I [see 1625] was in exile until 1660. As the High Church party had identified the Anglican and Royalist causes his religious flexibility for political purposes was of constant concern. In 1650 he became a Presbyterian to enlist Scottish support for the recovery of the throne but reverted back after his defeat by Cromwell at the battle of Worcester the following year. He was recalled by a mainly Presbyterian Parliament and promised liberty for all tender consciences but the Savoy Conference and Act of Uniformity in 1662 showed that there was to be no tolerance. There followed the Clarendon Code, the Act against Coventicles, and the Five Mile Act, treating Dissenters as a political danger. His court became corrupt with Charles producing many illegitimate children. In the secret Treaty of Dover he promised Louis XIV to promote Roman Catholicism in return for funds to fight the Protestant Dutch. He quashed the Whig attempt to exclude the Catholic duke of York as a successor and finally made a deathbed confirmation of his conversion to the Catholic faith which he had long promoted privately. COSIN, JOHN [1594-1672] Bishop of Durham who at the request of Charles I compiled his Collection of Private Devotions in 1627 which included a translation of Vent Creator Spiritus [Come Holy Ghost]. He became chaplain to the Anglican Royalists in Paris in 1642 and befriended Huguenots and disputed with Roman Catholics, writing against transubstantiation. He became bishop of Durham in 1660 and attended the Savoy Conference [see 1661]. DECLARATIONS OF INDULGENCE There were 5 English and 4 Scottish Royal declarations issued between 1660 and 1687 by Charles II and James II [James VII of Scotland. England [1] issued in 1660 by Charles II which was a Declaration of Ecclesiastical Affairs, wherein it was announced that differences of opinion in regard to ceremonies were to be left to the determination of a national synod. England [2] In 1662 Charles issued what is usually called the first Declaration of Indulgence, announcing that he intended to ask the Cavalier Parliament to pass a measure to enable him to exercise with a more universal satisfaction that power of dispensing which he conceived to be inherent in him. No such measure however was ever passed. England [3] In 1672 Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence for those with tender consciousnesses and suspended the penal laws in ecclesiastical matters against Nonconformists. England [4] In 1687 James II issued a Declaration of Indulgence more thoroughgoing than his brothers of the 1672 wherein it suspended the Test Act and all penal laws against Protestant and Catholic Nonconformists. England [5] In 1688 James issued his second Declaration of Indulgence, and an order in council required it to be read on two successive Sundays in all parish churches. Seven bishops were imprisoned because of their opposition to it. Scotland [1] In 1669 Charles II offered reinstatement to ejected ministers where their parish was still vacant, or alternatively institution to another duty, if they would undertake to be orderly and attend church courts. Scotland [2] In 1672 opportunity was given to Nonconformist ministers to be appointed to parishes in pairs, where each was to receive half the stipend, pastoral duty was to be confined to parishioners, preaching was to be in churches only, and ministers could not leave their parishes without the bishops sanction. Scotland [3] In 1679 there was A proclamation suspending laws against Conventicles, which authorised the remission of fines and other disabilities on condition of good behaviour. Hitherto dissident ministers were offered appointments to parishes and had the authority to dispense the sacraments providing they had had no part in the last rebellion. Scotland [4] In 1687 James VII announced toleration of: moderate Presbyterians, with permission to worship in private houses and to hear indulged ministers; Quakers with licensed meeting houses; and Roman Catholics, against whom penal laws were abrogated, and who were given political equality. DYER, MARY [d.1660] Quaker martyr who was the wife of William Dyer of Somerset with whom she came to Massachusetts in 1635. She sympathised with Ann Hutchinson [see 1638] and others in the Antinomian controversy. Alienated from their orthodox neighbours the Dyers left Boston and helped to found Portsmouth, Rhode Island. During a stay in England [1650 1657] Mrs Dyer became a Quaker. She was arrested in Boston on her return journey for preaching Quakerism. She was jailed on each of three trips to Boston in 1659-60 to visit imprisoned Quakers and bear witness to her faith. Twice reprieved, the last time she was hanged when she would not promise never to return. EVELYN, JOHN [1620-1706] Diarist and author. He was a loyal Anglican and a Royalist all his life. After the Restoration he enjoyed Charles IIs confidence, but was assigned difficult and voluntary appointments such as the care of prisoners. Evelyn consistently sought the good of the realm, suggesting remedies for air-pollution, dirt in the streets, traffic congestion, deforestation of the land and other things. He held it is mans duty to study Gods handiwork in nature. He was a co-founder of the Royal Society. Summarising his attitude to life he said Whatever you love besides God only, pray you may not love too much. JUXON, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1660-1663]. Born in Chichester, he was educated by scholarship at Oxford where he studied law and was ordained, and in 1609 became vicar of St Giles, Oxford, where he stayed until he became rector of Somerton, Oxfordshire, in 1615. Juxon soon obtained other important positions, including that of chaplain-in-ordinary to KingCharles I. In 1632 he was nominated as bishop of Hereford, however, he never took up duties at Hereford, as in October 1633 he was consecrated bishop of London in succession to Laud. Three years later Charles I entrusted Juxon with important secular duties by making him lord high treasurer of England as well as first lord of the Admiralty. For the next five years he had to deal with many financial and other difficulties. He resigned as treasurer in May 1641. During the Civil War, the bishop, against whom no charges were brought in parliament, lived undisturbed at Fulham Palace. His advice was often sought by the king, who had a very high opinion of him. Charles I selected Juxon to be with him on the scaffold and to offer him the last rites before his execution. Juxon was deprived of his bishopric in 1649 and retired to Little Compton inGloucestershire, where he had bought an estate. He became famous as the owner of a pack of hounds. At the restoration of KingCharles II he became archbishop of Canterbury and in his official capacity he took part in the new kings coronation, but his health soon began to fail and he died at Lambeth. He succeeded William Laud [see 1633] and was succeeded by Gilbert Sheldon [see 1663]. MATHEOS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1660-1676] see 1645 and 1676. NECTARIUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1660-1669] see 1645 and 1669. SOUTH, ROBERT [1634-1716] Anglican minister educated at Oxford where in 1660 he became public orator. He accepted a royal chaplaincy and it is said his sermons are among the classics of English divinity. He prescribed clarity, simplicity, and fervour as the necessary ingredients of a good sermon. 1661-1670 AD 1661BAXTER, RICHARD [16151691] Puritan Nonconformist leader who was born in Shropshire and was mainly self-educated. He came under the influence of Nonconformists and after being ordained by the bishop of Worcester in 1638 had a varied career due to his theological views. He was offered the bishopric of Bedford at the Restoration but rejected it. At the Savoy Conference in 1661 he represented the Nonconformists and the following year he was deprived of his living. He however continued to preach and was imprisoned in 1685. He was a prolific author. CLARENDON CODE The Cavalier Parliament met in 1661 and passed a number of severe laws known as the Clarendon Code named after the Earl of Clarendon who was the lord chancellor under Charles II. They included the Corporation Act [1661], the Act of Uniformity [1662], Coventicle Act [1664] [see 1670], and Five Mile Act [see 1665]. The aim was to remove from the pastorate and local government any that did not subscribe to the Anglican doctrine and liturgy. CLAUDE, JEAN [1619-1687] Huguenot preacher and author who presided over a synod in 1661 which refused the idea of reunion with Rome. Between 1666 and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes he was in Paris in conflict with prominent Roman Catholics such as Arnauld [see 1643] and J B Bosseut [see 1681]. He authored a number of books including An account of the Persecutions of the Protestants in France. GUTHRIE, JAMES [1612-1661] Scottish minister who at first favoured episcopacy but in St Andrews University he became a Presbyterian, and was ordained in 1642. In 1646 he was one of the Scots commissioners sent to press upon Charles I the claims of Presbyterianism and the Solemn League and Covenant [see 1650]. In 1649 he became a minister at Stirling where he confirmed his stance as a strong Covenanter [see 1638] by declining Charles IIs judgement in matters of doctrine. After the Restoration in 1660 Guthrie with others reminded Charles of his covenant obligation, but the petitioners were seized and imprisoned. Guthrie continued to deny the kings authority in ecclesiastical affairs and he was hanged in Edinburgh. LOUIS XIV [1638-1715] King of France. When he began his personal reign in 1661 France was the strongest nation in Europe. The French administrative structure was the most highly developed in Europe and was centralised in the king. Louis religious policy emphasised the autonomy of the French Church and he persecuted the Jansenists with papal approval. He also issued the revocation of the Edict of Nantes [see 1685] and rejected religious toleration in France and forced the Huguenots to convert to Roman Catholicism or else emigrate. NECTARIUS [1605-1680] Patriarch of Jerusalem [1661-1669]. Educated by the monks at Sinai Nectarius became a monk and later studied at Athens. He vigorously opposed all Western theology, attacking both the claims of Roman Catholicism and the Calvinism of Cyril Lucar [see 1621] patriarch of Constantinople [1621-1638]. In 1662 he approved the confession of Peter Mogila [see 1633] and repudiated Lucars doctrines at the Synod of Jerusalem in 1672. NECTARIUS [1605-1680] Patriarch of Jerusalem [1661-1669]. Educated by the monks at Sinai Nectarius became a monk and later studied at Athens. He vigorously opposed all Western theology, attacking both the claims of Roman Catholicism and the Calvinism of Cyril Lucar [see 1621] patriarch of Constantinople [1621-1638]. In 1662 he approved the confession of Peter Mogila [see 1633] and repudiated Lucars doctrines at the Synod of Jerusalem in 1672. RESCISSORY ACT [1661] This act was passed by the Scottish Parliament after the Restoration of Charles II. It rescinded any statutes passed since 1633 and thus erased much that was worthy in Presbyterian legislation and was the prelude of the re-establishment of the Episcopacy and the persecution of Covenanters. SAVOY CONFERENCE [1661] An official conference of 12 Anglican bishops and 12 Puritan ministers with nine assistants from each side which was called after the restoration of Charles II and the Episcopy in 1660 to settle differences concerning the Book of Common Prayer. Puritans were determined to revise sections which in the past had caused agitation such as wearing of surplices, kneeling at Communion, making the sign of the cross at baptism, bowing at the name of Jesus, and so on. They wanted to serve in good conscience in the established church. Richard Baxter [see above] and Edmund Calamy were leaders of the Puritans while Gilbert Sheldon [see 1663] and Accepted Frewen represented the Anglicans. The bishops were unyielding and the Royalists in Parliament supported them. No substantial changes resulted and in 1662 the Act of Uniformity deprived more than 2000 Puritans of their livings. WREN, CHRISTOPHER [1632-1723] Architect who was the son of a clergyman and educated at Oxford arriving there in 1650. At Oxford there was a scientific club, later developing into The Royal Society and this stimulated some of his scientific interest. In 1657 he became professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London and in 1661 professor of astronomy at Oxford, a post he held until 1673. However by this time his major interest was architecture. In the 1660s he designed the new chapel at Pembroke College Cambridge and the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford and after the Great Fire of London in 1666 showed Charles II plans for the future of the city. Soon afterwards he became surveyor general of the royal works and designed St Pauls as one of 52 churches and other important buildings in London that were designed by him. 1662DIONYSIUS III HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople (1662-1665) succeeded Theophanes II [see 1659]. There is no additional information readily available. HALF-WAY COVENANT [1662] The admission to New England church membership of more than the dedicated elite. The Massachusetts Synod of 1662 asserted that baptised adults who professed faith and lived uprightly but had no conversion experience, might be accepted as church members. Their children, baptised as half-way members, could not receive the Lords Supper or participate in church elections. This practice prompted attempts, notably by Jonathan Edwards, to restate Calvinistic orthodoxy. NONCONFORMITY The term is used generally to describe the position of those who do not conform to the doctrine and practices of an established church. The word nonconformist was first used in the penal acts following the Restoration of 1660 to describe those who left the Church of England rather than submit to the Act of Uniformity [1662]. The earlier term Dissenters was superseded by Nonconformists and this to a certain extent by Free churchmen. In England they are now represented by Methodist, Baptist, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians, but because the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian the Episcopal Church or the Church of England in Scotland is therefore non-conformist. ROYAL SOCIETY The society was incorporated by Royal Charter on 15 July 1662. The origin of the Royal Society was the meetings for scientific experiment and study held at Wadham College Oxford during the Commonwealth and Protectorate. At the Restoration the meetings were transferred to London. During the 17th century virtually all the members were orthodox Christians. Since the presidency of Isaac Newton 1703-1727 the relationship with Christianity declined. The Royal Society is the national academy for science and over the years has advised the government on many matters including the change of calendar in 1751. WHARTON, PHILIP [1613-1696] He was the Fourth Baron Wharton who was a philanthropist and a friend to Nonconformist ministers. He was a soldier in the Civil War and a friend of Oliver Cromwell [see 1653] but took little part in national affairs from 1649 to 1660. After the Restoration and during the period of the persecution of the Nonconformist up to 1689 he did what he could in Parliament to oppose repressive legislation. At his home at Woburn he entertained Nonconformist leaders and helped them financially. By a deed made in 1662 he settled some of his lands upon trustees for 1050 Bibles and Catechisms to be given to poor children. 1663ALLEINE, JOSEPH [16341668] Nonconformist minister born in Wiltshire and converted during a spiritual crisis provoked by the death of an older brother. After study at Oxford which was under Puritan influence he was ordained as a Presbyterian in 1655. In 1662 he was ejected under the Clarendon Code of 1662 and was imprisoned at Ilchester in 1663 for singing psalms in his own home and preaching to his family. He evangelised with John Wesley, grandfather of John and Charles. After his death, his work Sure guide to heaven sold 50,000 copies, this book having a great effect on George Whitefield and Charles Spurgeon. JOHN BROWN OF WAMPHRAY [1610-1679] Scottish minister of whom little is known until after he was fifty. Elected after the Restoration he was accused of resisting arbitrary power and in 1663 was banished to Holland never to return. In 1665 he published An Apologetical Relation dealing minutely on every aspect of the conflict between Crown and Covenanters justifying the latters right to resistance by armed rebellion and defensive war. CLARKE, JOHN [1609-1676] One of the founders of Rhode Island, trained as a physician and left England for Boston in 1637. Following ejection by the Puritans he and others bought an island from the Indians and called it Rhodes. He settled in Newport where he practiced as a doctor and pastured a Baptist church. Returning to England he received a royal charter from Charles II in 1663 that determined Rhode Island law until 1842. Resuming his pastorate he was three times deputy governor of the colony. [See 1638 Anne Hutchinson and 1636 Roger Williams] DE RANCE, ARMAND JEAN LE BOUTHILLIER [1626-1700] Founder of the Trappists [see 1664]. For over 30 years he lived the life of a noble, and ordination in 1651 made little difference but the death of his close friends the duchess of Montbazon and the duke of Orleans made him much more seriously religious. Renouncing his possessions he became a Cistercian in 1663 and the regular abbot at La Trappe. Here he became both admired and criticised for his austerity. He resigned in 1695 his health broken by his lifestyle. MILES, JOHN [1621-1683] Welsh Baptist pioneer who began his career as the main founder of the Particular Baptists [see 1633] in Wales. Through his diligence Baptist congregations were gathered over a wide area from Carmarthen in the west to the English border in the east. He linked the congregations together in a quasi Presbyterian system under his own firm Calvinistic control. His position among Welsh Puritans is revealed by his appointment as an approver under the Propagation Act of 1650. Miles migrated to New England around 1663 and founded a Baptist Church at Rehoboth Massachusetts but in 1667 he moved again and founded a new settlement, Swansea in Massachusetts where he died. SHELDON, GILBERT Archbishop of Canterbury [1663-1677]. He was born in Staffordshire. He was educated at Oxford and ordained in 1622 and subsequently held a number of educational and ecclesiastic positions. At Oxford he made the acquaintance of William Laud, and corresponded with him on college business, university politics, and on the conversion of William Chillingworth. During the years 1632-1639 he received numerous livings. He was also friendly with the Royalist leaders, and participated in the negotiations for theUxbridgetreaty of 1645. During this period he became withHenry Hammondone of the churchmen closest to the king, and attended him in Oxford, later inNewmarket, Suffolkand finally in theIsle of Wight. When the parliamentarians occupied Oxford in 1646 he resisted them but was finally and physically ejected from All Souls in early 1648. Taken into custody, he was to have been imprisoned in Wallingford Castle but the commander was unwilling to have him. He was therefore freed later that year, with restrictions on his movements. He lived quietly for a dozen years in the Midlands during the Commonwealth period and was active in fundraising for the poor clergy and for Charles II in exile. In 1660 he became bishop of London. Since William Juxon was aged and infirm, Sheldon in practical terms exercised many of the powers of the archbishopric in the period to 1663. TheSavoy Conferenceof 1661 was held at his lodgings. He hardly participated, but was understood to be pulling strings in terms of the outcome. He was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury in 1663. He was greatly interested in the welfare of the University of Oxford, of which he became chancellor in 1667. Sheldon accepted a lot of purely secular work, acting as arbiter on petitions presented through him, and taking up investigations passed on by the king, especially in connection with the navy. Sheldon in his later years lost political influence and did not endear himself to the king by making Charless philandering a matter of criticism. He succeeded William Juxon [see1660] and was succeeded by William Sancroft [see 1678]. 1664ABRAHAM OF ECCHEL [1600-1664] Maronite scholar from Syria who studied in Rome and assisted in the Le Jay Polygot Bible translation into Arabic. EDWARDS, JOHN [1637-1716] Calvinist minister who was educated at Cambridge and ministered at Trinity Church, Cambridge, from 1664 and stuck to his task even when plague struck the area. Later he held a fellowship at St Johns College, where his position became untenable because of his Calvinistic views. He published more than 40 works. MALEBRANCHE, NICHOLAS [1638-1715] French Catholic philosopher who entered the Oratorians [see 1564] in Paris in 1660 and remained there throughout his life. He was ordained a priest in 1664. His philosophical work concentrated on the relation between faith and reason and empirical observations, seeking to find accommodation between Catholicism and Cartesian philosophy. This course of action resulted in constant arguments with many others. TRAPPISTS Cistercian monks of the reform instituted in 1664 by Armand Jean Le Bouthillier de Rance [see 1663] at a Cistercian abbey at La Trappe in Normandy. One of the strictest orders, it emphasised liturgical worship and demanded absolute silence with no allowance for recreation. It imposed community life with a common dormitory. Meat, fish, and eggs were forbidden. The monks devoted themselves to liturgical prayer and contemplation, theological study, and manual labour. The expulsion of monks during the French Revolution led to Trappist foundations in other parts of Europe, China, Japan, and the USA. In 1817 they returned to La Trappe. 1665BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE [1616-1680] Born in the Spanish Netherlands, Antoinette was brought up a Roman Catholic. She became convinced that God spoke to her in visions and chose her to be a new Mary, the woman clothed with the sun of Revelation 12, with a mission of reforming Christianity. By her late forties she began attracting disciples and gained support in Scotland where the Presbyterian Assemblies denounced the movement in the early 18th century during which time her sect gradually faded away. FIVE MILE ACT One of the statues included in the Clarendon Code [see 1661] by which Parliament sought to penalise those who did not subscribe to the liturgy and doctrine of the Church of England. The Five Mile Act forbade Nonconformist ministers and teachers to come within 5 miles of any city, town, or parliamentary borough. Offenders were subject to a severe fine. WILLIAMS, DANIEL [1643-1716] Presbyterian minister and founder of Doctor Williams Library in London. Born in Wales he became an itinerant preacher by the age of 19. He was widely read but without formal education and accepted the post of the chaplain to the countess of Meath in Ireland in 1665. From 1667 he was a Nonconformist pastor in Dublin but due to the troubles in Ireland returned to England and in the 1690s was the acknowledged leader of the London Presbyterians. He was twice married and it was money received from his wives that enabled him to be a philanthropist, hence the library. 1666SPENER, PHILIPP JAKOB [1635-1705] German Lutheran Pietist leader. Spener was raised in a highly protective and deeply religious atmosphere and studied theology at Strasbourg. During academic wanderings from 1659 to 1662 to Basle, Geneva, Stuttgart, and Tubingen, he came into contact with Reformed theology. He served as pastor and senior of the ministry in Frankfurt on the Main from 1666 and became the leader of the Pietist movement. He was appointed court chaplain at Dresden in 1686 but eventually moved to a pastorate in Berlin. He proclaimed the necessity of conversion and holy living, and set up meetings within the church where pastors and laymen met to study the Bible and pray together for their mutual benefit. As Speners popularity spread he became an increasingly controversial figure and his disciples were even expelled from Leipzig in 1690. His emphasis upon the new birth and exemplary life effectively undermined the position of scholastic orthodoxy and revitalised German Lutheranism. 1667CLEMENT IX Pope [1667-1669]. He was a pupil of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuit" \o "Jesuit" Jesuits. After receiving his doctorate in philosophy at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pisa" \o "University of Pisa" University of Pisa, he taught theology there. Later Clement worked closely with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII" \o "Pope Urban VIII" Pope Urban VIII(16231644) as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuncio" \o "Nuncio" nuncio to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" \o "Spain" Spain, among other posts. He was an accomplished man of letters, who wrote poetry, dramas and libretti, as well as what may be the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_opera" \o "Comic opera" comic opera. After the accession of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VII" \o "Pope Alexander VII" Pope Alexander VII (165567), he once again enjoyed papal favour in 1657 being named cardinal and secretary of state. After Alexander VIIs death in 1667 an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_conclave,_1667" \o "Papal conclave, 1667" 18 day papal conclave concluded with his election as pope. Nothing remarkable occurred under Clement IXs short administration beyond the temporary adjustment of the disputes between the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See" \o "Holy See" Holy See and those prelates of the French Church who had refused to join in condemning the writings of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jansenism" \o "Jansenism" Jansen. He was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediation" \o "Mediation" mediator during the 1668 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1668)" \o "Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)" peace of Aachen, in the wars of succession between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" \o "Spain" Spain, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands" \o "Netherlands" Netherlands. Clement IX worked to strengthen HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" \o "Republic of Venice" Venetian defences against the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" \o "Ottoman Turks" Turks on the island of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete" \o "Crete" Crete. However, he was unable to get wider support for this cause. At the end of October 1669 Clement IX fell ill after receiving news that the Venetian fortress of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion" \o "Heraklion" Candia in Crete had HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Candia" \o "Siege of Candia" surrendered to the Turks. He died in Rome, allegedly of broken heart, in December of that year. He succeeded Alexander VII [see 1655] and was succeeded by Clement X [see 1670]. CLEMENT Patriarch of Constantinople [1667] who succeeded Parthenius IV [see 1657]. There is no additional information readily available. MILTON, JOHN [1608-1674] English poet who was educated at Cambridge who even in his youth felt that he was called to a high position in the service of God. After the outbreak of the Civil War Milton was occupied first with pamphleteering in the Parliamentary cause and then in the service of government as Latin secretary under the Commonwealth. His pamphlets covered controversy against episcopacy, about divorce and other political questions. With the Restoration Milton as a regicide stood in danger of his life but by this time he was blind and through the intercession of friends gained his inclusion in the general amnesty. Paradise Lost appeared in 1667 followed four years later by Paradise Regained. In the first of these he sought no less than to justify the ways of God to man in an extensive epic treatment of the Fall. His hymn Let us with a gladsome mind is still sung nowadays RYCAUT, SIR PAUL [1628-1700] English traveller, diplomat, and writer, educated at Cambridge. After travelling in Europe, Asia, and Africa, he spent eight years as secretary to the earl of Winchelsea ambassador to Turkey. In 1667 he began a 12 year consulate at Smyrna for the Levant Company and from this experience he wrote The Present State of the Greek and Armenian Churches in 1679. SEPARATISTS During the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth I of England a small number of people took the doctrines of Puritanism to their logical conclusion and separated themselves from the impure national church to form small gathered churches. Though never more than several hundred in numbers they were hunted down and severely punished by the agents of Elizabeth and James I as well as being strongly criticised by Puritan preachers. Famous names connected with the movement were Robert Browne [see 1582], John Smyth [see 1608], John Robinson [see 1620], some of these men becoming martyrs. Separatism was illegal until the Civil War and Protectorate of 1649 to 1659 when it became widespread and acceptable. Under the Clarendon Code after 1660 it became illegal again. 1668GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORGE [1638-1710] German mystic who studied at Strasbourg and in his 20s was attracted by the writing of Jacob Boehme [see 1600] and as a result he broke with traditional Lutheranism and attacked the established churches, causing trouble with the authorities. As a result he settled in Amsterdam in 1668. Developing his own blend of mysticism he stressed the heavenly marriage between the spiritual man and divine wisdom, and founded the Angelic Brethren who renounced earthly marriage. METHODIUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1668-1671] succeeded Clement [see 1667]. There is no additional information readily available. WHICHCOTE, BENJAMIN [1609-1683] Cambridge Platonist who lost his post at the Restoration and was incumbent of St Lawrence Jewry, London from 1668 until his death. He was one of the members of the group of liberal ministers known as the Cambridge Platonists. The Platonist believed in mans reason as the ultimate seat of authority. WILKINS, JOHN [1614-1672] Bishop of Chester who studied at Oxford and became vicar of Fawsley Northamptonshire in 1637. He became a private chaplain and set aside his leisure time for scientific studies. In his first work in 1638 he sought to prove that the moon was habitable and in 1640 that the Earth was a planet. From 1645 Wilkins promoted weekly meetings in London to have scientific discussion anticipating the Royal Society. He supported the Parliamentary side and married Cromwells sister in 1656 and became master of Trinity College Cambridge in 1659 but was deprived in 1660. He accepted the Restoration settlement and after various appointments he was made bishop of Chester in 1668. In 1662 he became the first secretary of the Royal Society of which he was the virtual founder. As bishop of Chester he tried to promote the toleration and comprehension of Dissenters. 1669BOURDALOUE, LOUIS [16321704] French Jesuit who was a brilliant orator called the king of orators and the orator of kings. He became a Jesuit in 1648 and after a period of teaching started preaching in 1666 in Amiens before arriving in Paris in 1669. He was a pastor who gave as much attention to the prisoners and sick as to the famous and wealthy. He was used successfully to convert Montpellier Protestants to Catholicism after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. DOSITHEOS [1641-1707] Patriarch of Jerusalem [`see 1669 and 1707] who was placed in a monastery at the age of eight and educated at Athens. He entered into service of the patriarch of Jerusalem in 1657. He was appointed archbishop of Caesarea in 1666 and was elected patriarch of Jerusalem in 1669. In his new position he showed himself to be a great defender of the traditional Greek theology and an opponent of Western theology, both Roman and Protestant. In 1680 he established a printing press at Jerusalem in order to aid this defence. He is particularly well known for his presidency of the synod of Jerusalem in 1672. Its decrees were intended to root out all Protestant influence from the Greek Church. FLEURY, CLAUDE [1640-1723] French church historian. He was educated in the Jesuit College at Clermont and practised law from 1658. Ordained in 1669 he became involved with the leadership in France, and was chosen as confessor to Louis XV. He wrote extensively. His greatest work was the History of the Church that he ended at 1414 and others continued which was produced in 20 volumes from 1690 1720. REMBRANDT VAN RIJN [1606-1669] Dutch painter who was brought up in the humanistic culture of Hollands Golden Age at Leyden University. He entered into the fashionable art patronage circle at an early age with his group portrait of The Anatomy Lesson of Doctor Tulip in 1632. Rembrandt married in 1634 and for the next eight years until his wife died he flourished by painting life size portraits, biblical story topics, and fantastic landscapes in the fashionable Baroque manner including the wall sized masterpiece Night Watch in 1642. After the death of his wife his paintings grew darker and he produced a number of famous paintings including the unforgettable Jewish Bridal Couple of 1665 which shows a dimension of insight not surpassed in the history of painting. 1670CLEMENT X Pope [1670 -1676]. After finishing his studies and a period in Poland he became bishop of Camerino, and then governor of all Umbria. Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644) gave him charge of the works designed to protect the territory of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna" \o "Ravenna" Ravenna from the unruly HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_River" \o "Po River" Po River. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_X" \o "Pope Innocent X" Pope Innocent X (164455) sent him as nuncio to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples" \o "Naples" Naples, where he remained for eight years. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VII" \o "Pope Alexander VII" Pope Alexander VII (165567) confided to him a mission to Poland while HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_IX" \o "Pope Clement IX" Pope Clement IX (166769) made him in charge of the churchs finances, and Clement IX just before his death, made him a cardinal. He was then about seventy-nine years of age and Clement IX, when making him a member of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Cardinals" \o "College of Cardinals" Sacred College, said to him: You will be our successor. Clement proved to be a compromise nominee for the position after divisions among the cardinals. At length they decided to vote in an elderly pope who at 80 years of age was reluctant to accept and despite his protests he was crowned Clement X on 11 May 1670. Because of missionary advances in Canada, Clement approved a bishopric in Quebec. He also stopped the custom of chasing Jews through the city of Rome during carnival and gave them protection on the request of Queen Christiana of Sweden who had become a Catholic. He died in 1676 of complications with gout which had plagued his reign. He succeeded Clement IX [see 1667] and was succeeded by Innocent XI [see 1676]. CONVENTICLES, ACT AGAINST This was legislation passed in the Scottish Parliament in 1670 against field preachers [see 1546] and illegal house services generally conducted by Presbyterian ministers who had been ejected for nonconformity on the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II. The punishment for infringing the act was death and confiscation of property and goods. It was required of everyone on oath to give information regarding conventicles and those who had children baptised by Nonconformist ministers were to be punished by exile. GERBILLON, JEAN-FRANCOIS [1654-1707] Jesuit missionary to China. Born in France he became a Jesuit in 1670 and taught for seven years before going to China as a missionary. Sent to found a French mission, with a colleague Bouvet, he found favour with the emperor, Kang-Hi, with whom they shared Western scientific achievements, and who advanced in turn the missions aims. Gerbillon was in charge of the French college in Peking and then became superior-general of the mission. In 1692 he received an edict granting freedom for Christianity, and the emperor presented a site for a chapel and residence in gratitude for the personal kindness shown towards him by Gerbillon and his colleague. He died in Peking. PENN, WILLIAM [1644-1718] English Quaker and founder of Pennsylvania. On becoming a Quaker he was expelled from Christchurch, Oxford for his Nonconformist views in 1661. He travelled for a time in Europe, served briefly in the British Navy and studied law in London. In 1666 Penn went to Ireland to manage his fathers property. He was imprisoned several times using the occasion in writing defences of Quakerism. Finally freed in 1670 Penn made a missionary trip to Europe and married two years later. Penn helped to send 800 Quakers to New Jersey from 1677. In 1681 he secured a charter for Pennsylvania from Charles II because of the debt owed his father by the king. He also later acquired the region of Delaware. Pennsylvania was a refuge for religious dissenters and his fair and just treatment of the Indians set the pattern of Pennsylvanias colonial history. His friendship with James II cost him control of the colony from 1692 to 1694. Due to financial difficulties he was for a while in the debtors prison. In 1712 he almost completed transfer of the colonys control to the Crown but became ill. He died in 1718. PHILADELPHIANS A 17th century English sect founded by John Pordage [1607-1681] a Berkshire rector impressed by mystical doctrines associated with Jacob Boehme [see 1600]. He gathered around him a group which in 1670 was formally named the Philadelphian Society for the Advancement of Piety and Divine Philosophy. A prominent member was Jane Lead [1623-1704]. The group was dependent on the personalities of both leaders and the group did not long survive Mrs Leads death in 1704. PLUNKET, OLIVER [1629-1681] Primate of Ireland who studied in Dublin and Rome and was professor of theology in Propaganda College from 1657 to 1669. After 25 years in Rome he was consecrated at Ghent and returned to Ireland in 1670 as archbishop of Armagh. He favoured the Jesuits and established in Dublin a school under their management. Plunket had good relationships with the Protestants. During the persecutions even though he was guiltless he was hanged for treason by Charles II. 1671-1680 AD 1671ALACOQUE, MARGUERITE [16471690] French visionary who was the founder of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. She entered the convent in 1671 and after severe austerity declared that Christ had revealed to her His heart burning with love for man. The scepticism with which the visions were first regarded were dispelled over time and devotion to the sacred heart quickly spread through the world. BARROW, ISAAC [16301677] Anglican mathematician who was successively professor of Greek at Cambridge, geometry at Gresham College, and as professor of Mathematics at Cambridge resigned in favour of his pupil Isaac Newton [see 1705] and gave himself over to a study of theology becoming royal chaplain to Charles II. He authored a number of works including a controversial book entitled A treatise of the Popes Supremacy and books on mathematics. HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Ecumenical_Patriarch_Dionysius_IV_of_Constantinople" DIONYSIUS IV Muselimes (The Muslim) HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople (1671-1673, 1676-1679, 1682-1684, 1686-1687, 1693-1694) succeeded Parthenius IV [see 1657]. There is no additional information readily available. SCHEFFLER, JOHANN [1624-1677] Polish hymn writer. He graduated in medicine and about 1649 became physician to the duke of Wurttemberg. His interest in mysticism was aroused by the Dutch followers of Boehme [see1600] which made him clash with the Lutheran leaders and he returned to Breslau where, in 1653, he became a zealous Roman Catholic. In 1671 he entered a monastery. His hymns which were mostly uncontroversial were written during his time as a Lutheran some of which were translated by Wesley and Winkworth. 1672FLAVELL, JOHN [d.1691] English Puritan Nonconformist minister. After being educated at Oxford he was ordained into the Anglican Church but was ejected in 1662 and became in Nonconformist. In 1672 he was licensed as a Congregationalist to preach in his own home at Dartmouth. Persecuted in Devon he moved to London in 1682 then returned to Devon where he was instrumental in promoting the Happy Union of Presbyterians and Congregationalists in 1690- 91. JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF [1672] A generation after the violent death of Cyril I Lukar patriarch of Constantinople [see 1612] who had brought Calvinism into the Eastern Church, the occasion of the consecration of the restored church of the Holy Nativity in Bethlehem provided an opportunity to exterminate the lingering effect of that influence. Dositheus [see 1669] patriarch of Jerusalem since 1669 with his retired predecessor Nectarius [see 1661] convened a synod in Jerusalem 1672. It was attended by six other metropolitans among 68 Eastern bishops from as far as Russia. Their signed decisions serve Eastern Orthodoxy as the equivalent of the Roman Catholic Council of Trent. The Acts of the synod were in two parts, the first six chapters attacked Cyril Lukar while the other eighteen chapters dealt with ecclesiastical matters. PUFENDORF, SAMUEL [1632-1694] German philosopher who became professor at Heidelberg in 1661 and at Lund in 1670. Pufendorf was the first German professor of natural international law. He elaborated in a notable essay written in 1672 on the ideas of Grotius [see 1625] basing natural law on the instinctual responses of society and stressing its independence of revelation. Theology he treated as a type of mathematics incurring the opposition of the orthodoxy theologians of Jena and Leipzig. In an essay on the relationship of Christian religion to civil society in 1687 he advocated the theory known as Collegialism. QUESNEL, PASQUIER [1634-1719] French Jansenist [see 1638] theologian who was educated by the Jesuits and studied at the Sorbonne and joined the Congregation of the Paris Oratory in 1657 subsequently becoming director. In 1672 he produced Moral Reflections a reprint of the New Testament with moral comments on every verse. This was generally well received but as new editions were published it appeared to be too Jansenist. It was attacked especially by the Jesuits and Quesnel moved to Brussels to escape harassment. Louis XIV convinced that Jansenism was a public danger had him arrested in Brussels engineered by Philip V of Spain but he escaped to Protestant Holland where he continued to defend his views. He died in and Amsterdam without retracting his beliefs. SCOUGAL, HENRY [1650-1678] Devotional writer who was son of Patrick Scougal bishop of Aberdeen. Henry was educated at Aberdeen and became a college tutor when he graduated in 1668. In 1672 he was ordained and after a year of parish work he returned to Kings College Aberdeen as professor of divinity. He died of tuberculosis five years later. He tried to ensure that his lectures recommended holiness of life as well as orthodoxy of theology. STODDARD, SOLOMON [1643-1729] American Congregational pastor who graduated from Harvard and in 1667 became its first librarian. His was ordained in 1672 and was the pastor of the church at Northampton from 1672 to 1729. Stoddard was partially responsible for the formulation and defence of the Halfway Covenant [see 1662]. He was the grandfather of Jonathan Edwards. 1673BUXTEHUDE, DIETRICH [16371707] German Lutheran composer and for many years organist of St Marys church Lubeck who in 1673 instituted his Abendmusiken, the performance of church music on the five Sundays before Christmas. He greatly influenced the young J S Bach who in his youth travelled to Lubeck to hear Buxtehude perform, though his music was less complicated than that of Bachs mature works. Buxtehude stands out among a number of talented Lutheran composers of merit who were active in his time. GERASIMUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1673-1674] succeeded Dionysius IV [see 1671]. There is no additional information readily available. MARQUETTE, JACQUES [1637-1675] French Roman Catholic missionary and explorer. He was born in France and entered the Jesuit Order in 1654. After 12 years of study and teaching Marquette went to Canada where he was assigned to mission outpost work. He served among the Ottawa and Huron Indian tribes in the Lake Superior and Lake Michigan area. In 1673 he and Louis Joliet explored toward the West discovering the Mississippi River. Marquette wanted to found a mission among the Illinois Indians and died after spending some time preaching among them. He is known mostly today because of his explorations. PEARSON, JOHN [1613-1686] Bishop of Chester who was educated at Cambridge and was ordained in 1639. He served as chaplain to the Royalist forces in 1645. He promoted the Polyglot Bible, and produced his exposition of the creed in 1659 with numerous notes and references to early Christian fathers. Pearson became bishop of Chester in 1673 and strongly supported the Restoration settlement at the Savoy Conference of 1661. Convocation appointed him to superintend the translation of the Prayer Book into Latin. In other works he defended the Church of England against Roman Catholic Catholics and Nonconformists. TRAHERNE, THOMAS [1634-1674] English poet who was educated at Oxford and subsequently became the rector of Credenhill in Herefordshire. In 1673 he published Roman Forgeries a criticism of the Roman Catholic Church based on extensive reading in early church history. His devotional work has been compared with that of Thomas a Kempis [see 1413]. 1674JURIEU, PIERRE [1637-1713] Prominent theologian and apologist of the French Reformed Church. He travelled widely before succeeding his father as minister at Mer in 1671 and remained there until he was appointed professor of Hebrew at the Sedan Academy in 1674. Here he vigorously defended the Reformed faith. After the Academy was dissolved by Louis XIV, Jurieu went to the Netherlands where he became a minister at Rotterdam. There he fostered French Calvinism through his writings and by caring for exiled French Reformed pastors. He was a prolific writer. LAVAL, FRANCOIS XAVIER [1623-1708] First bishop of Quebec who was born in France and educated by the Jesuits. He was ordained in 1647 and prepared himself for missionary service. In 1658 just before leaving for New France he was appointed apostolic vicar by the pope. Laval played a significant role in the affairs of New France where upon his arrival in 1659 he became a member of the Quebec Council and in 1663, of its replacement the Sovereign Council which governed the colony. As spiritual leader of the colony he sought to maintain high moral standards which, in his refusal to allow the sale of liquor to the Indians, earned him the enmity of the fur traders. Named the first bishop of Quebec in 1674 he held the post until 1688 when he retired to the Quebec Seminary which he had founded and which was named Laval University after him in 1852. NEANDER, JOACHIM [1650-1680] German hymn writer who was converted in Bremen through a Pietist preacher and in 1671 became tutor at Frankfurt. There he was influenced by P.J. Spencer [see 1666]. When appointed in 1674 to the headship of the Reformed grammar school he organised unofficial gatherings for instruction and preaching. This led to his suspension. He wrote some 60 hymns with tunes in a volume published in 1680 of which only two have become well known in Britain including Praise to the Lord the Almighty. NEOPHYTOS Patriarch of Antioch [1674-1684] see also 1648 and 1686. PIETISM A movement among Protestants in the 17th and 18th centuries which emphasised the necessity for good works and a holy life. It began in Germany shortly after the 30 Years War [1618-1648] when the churches had become entangled in confessional rigidity, a time that is often called the Age of Orthodoxy or period of Protestant Scholasticism. The leader of the Pietist revival was Phillipp Jakob Spener [see 1666]. In 1674 he was invited to write an introduction to a new edition of sermons by Arndt. His work took the form of an independent tract. Speners influence spread widely, some praised and imitated him while others attacked him and even accuse him of being a Jesuit. His prestige increased when he was called to be court preacher at Dresden in 1686. The history of the Pietist movement next revolves round A.H. Francke [see 1687] under whose leadership whole series of institutions were founded including a school for the poor, an orphanage, hospital, widows home, teachers training institute, Bible school, book store, and Bible house. Foreign missions were also emphasised and in 1705 two young men Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg [see 1706] and Heinrich Plutschau [see 1706] went to serve in India and from their activities a mission work was established which was directed by Francke until his death. Other important Pietists are Count von Zinzendorf [see 1727] who created the Moravian Church and J.A. Bengel and the community that fostered the Burleburg Bible. Pietism fostered the desire for holy living, biblical scholarship, and missions without which Protestantism would be much poorer. RUINART, THIERRY [1657-1709] French Benedictine scholar who studied at Reims before entering the Benedictine abbey of St Remi in 1674. Eventually he went to the monastery of St Germain des Pres the great centre of Maurist [see 1621] teaching. He became a pupil and friend of Jean Mabillon with whom he collaborated in producing a large work on the Benedictines. 1675FENELON, FRANCOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA MOTHE [1651-1715] Educated by the Jesuits in Paris he was ordained in 1675 and for 13 years conducted a mission to the Huguenots whom he endeavoured to convert with a mixture of oratory, threats, and open bribery. From 1689 to 1697 he was tutor to Louis XIVs grandson, the duke of Burgundy. In 1695 he was at the height of his influence and was made archbishop of Cambrai but his position soon declined because of his association with the Quietist followers and Madame Guyon [see 1680]. He was an usual mixture as a forerunner of both the Enlightenment as well as Deism of the following century. MOLINOS, MIGUEL DE [1640-1697] Spanish Quietist. He was educated at Coimbra and settled in Rome in 1663 where he became a noted priest and confessor and formed a friendship with the future pope, Innocent XI. In 1675 he produced his famous Spiritual Guide. This was attacked by the Jesuits but approved by the Inquisition. The work deeply influenced by Neoplatonism and mediaeval mysticism traces a path to perfection, the annihilation of the will, and oneness with God, to which all external observances, even the overcoming of temptation, are an obstacles. His fame spread over the Christian world and his teachings were applied with devastating results in some religious houses. At the instigation Louis XIV in 1685, Innocent XI who felt himself threatened because of his friendship with Molinos was urged to arrest the author who in 1687 was tried and condemned and although forced to recant was stigmatised for the rest of his life on a charge of immorality. Molinos lost fight aroused deep sympathy in the Protestant world and intense anti-Jesuit feeling among Catholics. 1676BASNAGE, JACQUES [16531723] Huguenot pastor who was ordained in 1676 but nine years later was forced to flee France after Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes. He worked unceasingly but unsuccessfully for the toleration of the Huguenots in France. He also wrote a number of books on church history. INNOCENT XI Pope [1676-1689]. He was educated by the Jesuits and then gained a doctorate in canon and civil law from the University of Naples in 1639. He became a powerful influence in the curia because of the high morality of his life. He was made cardinal in 1645. Five years later he took holy orders and was made a bishop distinguishing himself with charitable works. His pontificate was one of constant reform and continuous struggle against vested interests and a concerted effort against the forces of Islam. His most famous work was his defence of the traditional rights and freedoms against the Gallicanism of Louis XIV of France whom he eventually excommunicated following firmly policies which he believed were best for the church. He also decreed against laxity in moral theology seeming to favour the Jasenites over the Jesuits and decreed against Quietism. He succeeded Clement X [see 1670] and was succeeded by Alexander VIII [see 1689]. TILLEMONT, LOUIS SEBASTIEN LE NAIN DE [1637-1698] Roman Catholic historian who was educated at Port Royal and entered the seminary of Beauvais in 1661. He was ordained in 1676 and co-authored books on the lives of various church fathers. He returned to Port Royal in 1667 but was forced out by the persecution in 1679 and retired to Tillemont where he helped children, and the poor. He never accepted ecclesiastical advancement and even permitted his own work to be published under others names. YOANNIS XVI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1676-1718] see 1660 and 1718. 1677BARCLAY, ROBERT [16481690] Scottish Quaker who was the son of a soldier who had fought in the army of Gustavas Adolphus as well as in the Scottish army. He was educated in France. He became a Quaker in 1667 and married three years later. He was an associate of William Penn and George Fox. He went to Germany on behalf of imprisoned Quakers. As a favourite of James II he was made Governor of East New Jersey which was granted to the Quakers. 1678BUNYAN, JOHN [16281688] Bedfordshire born Puritan writer and preacher who probably acquired his grasp of the English language by reading the Bible. He became associated with Pastor Giffords Independent Church in Bedford and preached. He wrote Pilgrims Progress whilst he was in prison where he was intermittently from 16601672. He preached with success in the Bedford area. From 1672 he spent most of the time in evangelism and preaching in the Bedford area. His masterpiece, together with Foxes Book of Martyrs, were read in virtually every Victorian home. He was the author of the hymn He who would valiant be KETTLEWELL, JOHN [1653-1695] Writer and Nonjuror [see 1688] who was educated or Oxford and ordained in 1678. His first book The Measures of Christian Obedience brought him the chaplaincy to the countess of Bedford. He established several charities and preached as a Nonjuror against the rebellions of 1689, and was deprived of the living in 1690. He also founded a fund for deprived clergy, which was declared illegal after his death. LA SALLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE [1651-1719] French educational reformer who began as a priest in 1678. His parish work brought to his attention the lack of education among the poor, and he helped to set up charity schools for them. He formed them into a religious order Brothers of the Christian Schools in 1684. He established what was in effect the first training college for secular teachers in conditions of great hardship and poverty near Rouen. MARVELL, ANDREW [1621-1678] English poet educated at Cambridge and acted as tutor to the daughter of Lord Fairfax which provided the subject for a poem and may also have inspired The Garden, a quasi-mystical treatment of the mind rediscovering Paradise in its own creative self-sufficiency, published in 1681. Marvell was subsequently assistance Latin secretary to Milton [see 1667] under Cromwell and after the Restoration was a member of Parliament for Hull. OATES, TITUS [1648-1705] A leader of the Popish Plot [see below]. Oates was born at Oakham in Rutland and was the son of a Baptist minister. He received Anglican ordination in 1673 without an academic degree and was converted to Catholicism but expelled from their schools in Spain and returned to London with alleged information of a plot to assassinate Charles II. With Israel Tonge he produced documentary proof which caused a great stir for a time and made him a hero. Eventually the plot was discounted, Oates was convicted of perjury in 1685 and died in obscurity. PARTHENIUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1678-1688] see 1657 and 1688. POPISH PLOT An alleged Jesuit conspiracy in England to assassinate Charles II and to replace him with the Roman Catholic James duke of York. The plot was sworn to by Titus Oates [see above] in 1678. Oates had twice been expelled from Roman Catholic seminaries and fabricated the story for his own advancement, in association with a fanatical Jesuit called Israel Tonge. This story was sufficiently credible to cause panic and instituted a witch hunt which hurried some 35 suspects to the scaffold before Oates was discredited as a liar and perjurer. SANCROFT, WILLAIM Archbishop of Canterbury [1678-1690]. He was a native of Suffolk who was educated at Cambridge working at the university until being ejected due to his resistance to the Commonwealth. He then remained abroad till the Restoration, after which he was chosen one of the university preachers, and in 1663 was nominated as dean of York. He became dean of St Pauls in 1664, greatly assisting with the rebuilding after the Great Fire of London towards which he contributed 1400. In 1668 he was elected archdeacon of Canterbury upon the kings presentation, but he resigned the post two years later. In 1677 he was unexpectedly advanced to the archbishopric of Canterbury. He attendedCharles IIupon his deathbed and crowned King James II in 1685. Sancroft wrote with his own hand the petition presented in 1687 against the reading of the Declaration of Indulgence, which was signed by himself and six of his bishops who were collectively known as theSeven Bishops. For this they were all committed to theTower of London, but were acquitted. After the withdrawal of James II he agreed with the lords in a declaration to the prince of Orange for a free parliament, and acceptance of the Protestant Dissenters but when William and Mary were declared king and queen, he refused to take the oath to them, and was accordingly suspended and deprived from the see of Canterbury in 1690. From 5 August 1691 until his death two years later, he lived a very retired life in his home village. He succeeded Gilbert Sheldon [see 1663] and was succeeded by John Tillotson [see 1691]. TINDAL, MATTHEW [c.1656-1733] Deist writer who was the son of a clergyman and educated Oxford where he became a fellow of All Souls in 1678 a position he retained until the end of his life. He was subsequently a doctor of law. His High Church principles led him briefly to join the Roman Church under James II but returned to the Church of England as he had soon discerned the absurdities of Popery. He wrote The Rights of the Christian Church asserted against the Romish and all other Priests who claim an Independent Power over it in 1706. However it was not accepted and the House of Commons had it burnt by the common hangman in 1710. 1679ATHANASIUS IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1679] who succeeded Dionysius IV [see 1671]. There is no additional information readily available. BARRIER ACT Passed in 1679 by the assembly of the Church of Scotland with its aim being the prevention of hasty and ill considered legislation which, although being seen as of value at the time, might be seen in due course to be prejudicial to the churches best interest. JAMES Patriarch of Constantinople [1679-1682, 1685-1686, 1687-1688] succeeded Anathsius IV [see above]. There is no additional information readily available. PURCELL, HENRY [1659-1695] English composer who came from a musical family. Henry Purcell is considered the only great and original musical genius between Elizabethan times and the renaissance of music that occurred in England with Elgar and Vaughn Williams at the end of the 19th century. During the intervening period except for relatively minor figures foreign-born composers dominated the British musical scene. Purcell was the organist at Westminster Abbey from 1679 until his death. He was also active in the Chapel Royal until its virtual dissolution with the advent of James II. His anthems were written for that institution. Purcell wrote much secular music throughout his short life but his best anthems still rank high among his works and his simpler ones have been most performed in more recent times. 1680CAMERON, RICHARD Scottish Covenanter [see 1638] from whom the Cameronians [see below] took their name. Originally an Episcopalian he was converted to a Presbyterian outlook and when it was suppressed he went to Holland and was ordained in Rotterdam in 1679. He spent the last year of his life field preaching in Scotland and was one of the chief authors of the Sanquhar Declaration [see below] that purported to depose Charles II. In June 1680 he was surprised by a group of dragoons who killed him at Ayrsmoss. CAMERONIANS Originally a covenanting group named after Richard Cameron [see above] who fought for religious liberty in the last persecuting years of the Stuart dynasty. Known since 1743 as the Reformed Presbyterian Church [see 1690] modern Cameronians maintain substantially their former principles particularly Christs claim to national obedience. CARGILL, DONALD [16191680] Scottish Covenanter [see 1638], ejected from his living in 1662 when he was author of the Queensferry Paper which along with a strong statement of faith advocated the establishment of a republic since monarchy was liable to degenerate to tyranny. He excommunicated Charles II in 1680. SANQUHAR DECLARATION [1680] The Declaration was delivered at the Burgh Cross at Sanquhar, Southern Scotland by Richard Cameron [see above] and a band of Covenanters as a significant piece of defiance against Charles II. The declaration directed its anathemas against Charles as the chief author of the persecution against the Covenanters, and does so moreover, for his civil as well as ecclesiastical tyranny. It warned against the implications of the duke of York as heir to the throne as a Roman Catholic. At the time of its declaration it was considered to represent the opinion of a tiny minority but nine years later it was the basis for the Revolution settlement. 1681-1690 AD 1681BOSSUET, JACQUES [16271704] French Catholic bishop of Meaux [16811704] who was born in Dijon and became a doctor at Sorbonne in 1652 the same year as he was ordained as a priest. In 1670 Louis XIV appointed him tutor to the Dauphin, a position he held for twelve years. In 1681 he became bishop of Meaux. He was an important orator and author defending Catholic orthodoxy in the face of rationalism, scepticism and biblical criticism. His major work was Discours sur lhistoire universelle which was published in 1681. 1682DRYDEN, JOHN [1631-1700] Essayist, playwright, and poet who was educated at Cambridge, and dominated the English literary scene throughout the latter part of the 17th century. Doctor Johnson considered him the father of English criticism and his influence on English prose very significant. His satire vigorously supported Charles II against the Whigs. He also wrote poems on religion including a defence of rational Anglicanism as the way between extremes. It was no surprise in Drydens progress that he eventually became a Roman Catholic. Drydens belief system is intellectual rather than the spiritual life. GALLICAN ARTICLES, THE FOUR The declaration concerning the respective authorities of the crown, papacy, and French bishops, adopted at Paris by a special assembly of the French clergy. The crucial first article asserted that the king was not subject in temporal things to any ecclesiastical power, he could not be deposed, nor could his subjects be relieved from obedience to him by papal authority. The second claimed that while the pope enjoyed full spiritual authority, he was subject to general councils as decreed by the Council of Constance 1414-1418. MAKEMIE, FRANCIS [1658-1708] He is regarded as the founder of American Presbyterianism. He was ordained in 1682 for missionary work in America and arrived there in 1683 working as an itinerant evangelist in North Carolina, Maryland, the Barbados, and Virginia. When he preached in New York in 1706 Governor Cornbury had him arrested for preaching without a proper license but he ably defended his right to free speech and was acquitted. 1683CROSSMAN, SAMUEL [1624-1683] Crossman was a minister of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England" \o "Church of England" Church of England and a hymnwriter. He was born at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bradfield_Monachorum&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bradfield Monachorum (page does not exist)" Bradfield Monachorum, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffolk" \o "Suffolk" Suffolk and educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembroke_College,_Cambridge" \o "Pembroke College, Cambridge" Pembroke College, Cambridge and was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebendary" \o "Prebendary" Prebendary of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol,_England" \o "Bristol, England" Bristol. After graduation, he ministered to both an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England" \o "Church of England" Anglican congregation at All Saints, Sudbury, and to a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritan" \o "Puritan" Puritan congregation simultaneously. Crossman sympathized with the Puritan cause, and attended the 1661 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savoy_Conference" \o "Savoy Conference" Savoy Conference, which attempted to update the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" \o "Book of Common Prayer" Book of Common Prayer so that both Puritans and Anglicans could use it. The conference failed, and the 1662 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1662" \o "Act of Uniformity 1662" Act of Uniformity expelled Crossman along with some 2,000 other Puritan-leaning ministers from the Church of England. He renounced his Puritan affiliations shortly afterward, and was ordained in 1665, becoming a royal chaplain. He received a post at Bristol in 1667, and became HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_of_Bristol_Cathedral" \o "Dean of Bristol Cathedral" Dean of Bristol Cathedral in 1683. He is mainly remembered for his hymn My song is love unknown HARDOUIN, JEAN [1646-1729] He joined the Jesuits, studied theology at Paris and became librarian of the Jesuit College of Louis the Great in 1683. He made some wild claims including that some of the works of the Fathers were likely spurious. Though he declared that all the church councils before Trent were fabrications, he nonetheless prepared careful transcripts of the texts for his editions of the church councils from 34 to 1714. RENWICK, JAMES [1662-1688] Last Scottish Covenanter martyr. He was born into a poor, God-fearing family and showed early signs of piety. While a student at Edinburgh University he heard Donald Cargill [see 1680] preach and saw his martyrdom. Cargills influence led him to associate with the Covenanting societies that had adhered to Richard Cameron [see 1608]. They sent him to Holland to train and he was ordained there before returning to Scotland through Dublin in the summer of 1683. He began a passionate four year ministry at Darmead, preaching in all weathers and times of day. During this time he baptised 600 children. When James II was crowned Renwick condemned the king as a murderer and idolater and an enemy of true religion. He was arrested in Edinburgh condemned to die and executed at the Grassmarket. 1684KEN, THOMAS [1637-1711] Bishop of Bath and Wells. Educated Oxford, he taught at Winchester College from 1672 and also wrote two hymns one of which was Awake my soul and with the sun. Although a kings chaplain he refused to allow his house to be used by the kings mistress Nell Gwyn on a royal visit to Winchester. Charles II greatly respected him and made him bishop of Bath and Wells in 1684 and received absolution from him on his deathbed the following year. Ken refused to read James IIs Dedication of Indulgence, but also declined to take the Oath of Allegiance to William and Mary in 1689 and was deprived of his see. LECLERC, JEAN [1657-1736] French Protestant theologian who was ordained in Geneva. After meeting John Locke and Philip Lumbach in Amsterdam he became a Remonstrant [see 1610] in theology. After a brief return to Geneva he settled in Amsterdam where he became professor of Hebrew at the Remonstrant Seminary. Between 1684 and 1712 he held the chair of church history at that school. 1685ALLIX, PIERRE [1641-1717] French Reformed pastor who fled to England after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes [see 1598]. Here he started a French church for exiles in London. He was a prolific author and he was appointed canon of Salisbury Cathedral. He also received doctorates from both Oxford and Cambridge. FLECHIER, ESPRIT [1632-1710] Bishop of Nimes who went to Paris in 1660 where he gained royal favour for a poem on Louis XIV and became tutor to the Dauphin. He lectured at the French Academy from 1673. Flechier was made bishop of Lavaur in 1685 and of Nimes two years later. At Nimes he had to deal with the consequence of the Edict of Nantes and won many Huguenots to Catholicism. He was a man of letters but neither a moralist nor a humble and spiritual preacher. JAMES II [1633-1701] King of Great Britain 1685-1688 when he succeeded Charles II who had no legitimate heir. He was a Roman Catholic. Respect for the monarchy was strong at that time however James pushed Catholic policies to ensure the Catholic succession. Though Parliament initially gave tangible sign of its goodwill and support, James overreacted to uprisings in the kingdom, alienated Parliament and influential Anglicans, and appointed Catholics to high office. As a political expedient he eventually courted the Nonconformist but failed to win them or to allay Anglican fears. In Scotland he intensified persecution on the Covenanters. William of Orange was received and James fled and heard mass in France as his people celebrated a Protestant Christmas. 1686ATHANASIUS IV Patriarch of Antioch [1686-1694, 1720-1724] see also 1674 and 1694 CAMISARDS French Protestant resistance fighters founded after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. After twelve years of passive resistance outbreak of open warfare occurred until 1709. Many Protestants were executed and suffered unspeakable tortures. Following a truce in 1704 many Camisards left France and joined the British army. DUPIN, LOUIS ELLIES [1657-1719] French church historian and theologian who produced an immense history and criticism of theologians and their writings since the first century. It appeared in Paris in 47 volumes from 1686-1714. It was placed on the Index. He was severely attacked by both Rome and the French. He sought reunion of the Catholic, Greek and Anglican churches. He earned a doctorate at theology at the Sorbonne and was professor at the Royal College. 1687FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN [1663-1727] German Lutheran minister. He was an early advocate of Pietism and became the professor of Hebrew in Leipzig in 1684, and was converted three years later in 1687. He began to conduct Bible studies at Leipzig which led to a revival among both students and townspeople. When the theological faculty objected to his religious endeavours, he left and eventually became a minister at Glaucha and professor of oriental languages at Halle [1692]. By 1698 he was professor of theology and in this post made important contributions in the scientific study of philology. He was concerned also for poor children, founding an orphanage, common school, teacher training school, and high school, and in the course of time he added a pharmacy, bookstore, bindery, and other industries to train his wards and to help finance his work. LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE [1632-1687] Italian composer who was of humble origin and rose to a position of extraordinary influence in the court of Louis XIV. He was the virtual creator of French opera and also wrote lengthy motets for the royal chapel in which he employed soloists, large choral forces and orchestra. His followers Lalande and Charpentier wrote more extensively in the sacred categories, using his developments, the latter distinguished himself particularly in oratorios. Thus the Church music at the Restoration period was strongly influenced by French models, an influence which extended to the Church music of Henry Purcell [see 1679]. QUIETISM This system of spirituality spread rapidly in the latter part of the 17th century and is best understood as an introverted and mystical reaction to the dogmatism and oppression of the Thirty Years War. Quietism is basically an exaggeration of the orthodox doctrine of inner quiet and of elements found in the mediaeval mystics. It had three leading advocates in Fenelon [see 1675], Molinos [see 1675], and Madame Guyon [see 1680], and many lesser supporters. Most of these persons were spirituality intense who suffered constraint or persecution especially when their movement was condemned by Innocent XI in 1687. 1688BRADY, NICHOLAS [16591726] Irish Anglican prebendary of Cork who was educated at Oxford and Dublin. In 1688 he supported William of Orange and protected his home town of Brandon from burning after James II had ordered its destruction. He however is most famous as a hymn writer with As pants the hart and Through all the changing scenes of life. With Nahum Tate [see 1696] he wrote a metrical version of the Psalms which was in use until about 1800. CALLINICUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1688, 1689-93, 1694-1702] who succeeded James [see 1679]. There is no additional information readily available. GERASIMUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1688-1710] see 1678 and 1710. NEOPHYTUS IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1688] succeeded Callinicus II [see above]. There is no additional information readily available. NONJURORS The title used to describe those members of the Church of England and the Episcopal Church of Scotland who refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary after the Revolution of 1688. Six English bishops and all the Scottish bishops together with about 400 English clergy felt bound in 1689 by virtue of their oath to James II to refuse the oath and were deposed in 1690. The English bishops deprived were Archbishop W. Sancroft and bishops T. Ken [Bath and Wells] J. Lake [Chichester] F. Turner [Ely] T. White [Peterborough] and W. Lloyd [Norwich]. In 1714 the ranks of Nonjurors were enlarged by the accession of those who did not swear allegiance to George I. ROMANIA Christianity may have come to Romania from about 275 with the Roman legions. Soon after the Roman domination the barbarians came and there is little evidence of Christianity until mediaeval times when there was a fully fledged Christian church in Romania. With the fall of Constantinople in 1453 Romanian princes notably Stefan the Great [1457-1504] and Neagoe Basarab [1512-1521] became for a time the heirs of Byzantium and secular leaders of the entire Orthodox Church. They led campaigns against the Turks, assumed patronage over Athos monasteries and instituted a remarkable series of monastic foundations whose architectural brilliance still remains. The high point of the Romanian Orthodox Church came in the 17th century when powerful cultured rulers coincided with notable church metropolitans. Under their guidance theological synods were held, prolific presses established, and monastic reforms were enacted. This included the publication of the Bucharest Bible in 1688 the first complete translation of the Bible into Rumanian. In the 18th century however the Romanian Church fell increasingly under Greek domination. The 19th century saw the challenge of denominations which transcended ethnic lines with a Baptist group who spread eastward from Hungary beginning in 1870 and at the same time the Roman Catholic church became strong enough to form the archbishopric of Bucharest in 1883. SAINT-VALLIER, JEAN BAPTISTE DE LA CROIX DE CHEVIERS [1653-1727] Second bishop of Quebec who was ordained at the age of 22 and became a chaplain of Louis XIV and was then nominated by Laval to succeed him in Quebec. He arrived in Canada in 1685 as vicar general of the diocese and in 1688 was consecrated bishop. Zealous, pious, dictatorial, and undiplomatic, he was constantly in conflict with the civil authorities and other ecclesiastics over his efforts to maintain a high moral tone in colonial life by enforced asceticism. Constantly on the move he faithfully ministered his vast diocese and demonstrated his concern for the welfare of the poor by building several hospitals and setting up a rudimentary welfare system. Requests for his recall were often sent to the king but it was the English who obliged his enemies by capturing him in 1704 so that he was absent from his diocese for 13 years. SHIELDS, ALEXANDER [1660-1700] Scottish Covenanter who was educated in Holland where he committed to the Covenanting cause. He suffered frequent imprisonments in London, Edinburgh, and on the Bass Rock. After the martyrdom of James Renwick [see 1683], Shields became leader of the Covenanting minority. At the Revolution Settlement he left the society to join the re-established Church of Scotland. He was a minister in London as well as being chaplain to the Cameronian Regiment in Scotland and Flanders before being chaplain to the ill-fated Scots expedition to Darien where he died. His main writing was A Hind Let Loose which exposed the folly of the Stuart claim to the Divine Right of Kings. VERBIEST, FERDINAND [1623-1688] Jesuit missionary to China. Verbiest was a Dutchman trained in mathematics and astronomy who became assistant to J.A. Schall [see 1619] in Peking and unsuccessfully defended the Jesuits against the false accuses who would have had Schall executed. After the latters death and the controversy over the calendar he was appointed, like Schall had been, president of the board of astronomy and a successor to his discredited Chinese predecessor. The emperor studied mathematics under his tuition and he conducted all kinds of public works. He became convinced that the future of Christianity in China lay in the hands of the Chinese clergy and founded a seminary in which they could be trained. 1689ALEXANDER VIII Pope [1689-1691]. At 17 he won a doctorate in civil and canon law at Padua. Innocent X [see 1644] made him a cardinal in 1652 and bishop of Brescia two years later. Under Innocent XI [see 1676] he became Grand Inquisitor of Rome and secretary of the Holy Office. As pope he was conspicuous for nepotism. Charities on a large scale and unbounded nepotism exhausted the papal treasury, reversing the policies of his predecessor. Among the various nominations, his 22-year-old nephew Pietro was made cardinal, nephew Marco was made Duc of Fiano, and nephew Antonio was made general. Out of compassion for the poor of the impoverished HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States" \o "Papal States" Papal States, he sought to help them by reducing taxes. But this same generous nature led him to bestow on his relations the riches they were eager to accumulate; on their behalf, and to the discredit of his pontificate, he revived HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinecure" \o "Sinecure" sinecure offices which had been suppressed by Innocent XI. He bought the books and manuscripts of Queen HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_of_Sweden" \o "Christina of Sweden" Christina of Sweden for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_Library" \o "Vatican Library" Vatican Library. Alexander VIII assisted his native Venice by generous subsidies in the war against the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" \o "Ottoman Empire" Turks, as well as sending seven HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galley" \o "Galley" galleys and 2,000 infantry for the campaign in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania" \o "Albania" Albania. He reconciled with Louis XIV and arranged the return of Avignon which had been lost under Alexander VII [see 1655]. He was interested in a possible Stuart restoration in England and established a group to study English affairs. He succeeded Innocent XI [see 1676] and was succeeded by Innocent XII [see 1691]. ARNAUD, HENRI [16411721] French Waldensian leader who organised the so called Glorious Return of the Waldensians to their ancestral home in Savoy. Here they were persecuted and had to flee. Eventually he led a group into Germany where he became a pastor at Wurttenburg where many of the Waldensians settled. BATES, WILLIAM [16251699] Presbyterian pastor of St Dunstans in West London was ejected from his church in 1662. He attended the Savoy Conference and worked ceaselessly for comprehension. After the success of toleration in 1689 he became pastor of the Presbyterian church of Hackney. BURNET, GILBERT [16431715] Bishop of Salisbury [16891715]. He was born in Scotland and studied at Aberdeen and after continental travel was ordained in 1665 as minister of Saltoun East Lothian. While he was there he published a tract attacking both bishops and clergy for the low moral standards of the land for which he was almost excommunicated. Dispossessed by Charles II and outlawed by James II he became a staunch friend of William III by whom he was appointed bishop of Salisbury in 1689. He preached the sermon at William IIIs coronation. DISSENTING ACADEMIES After the 1662 Act of Uniformity some English Nonconformist ministers opened small academies to prepare younger men for the ministry. The first to do so was probably Jarvis Bryan of Coventry sometime after 1663. By 1690 some 23 academies existed, the most famous being that at Newington Green run by Charles Morton. English novelist Daniel Defoe was a student at Newington. After the 1689 Toleration Act academies grew in number and importance. In the 18th century there were large ones in many cities and towns. Their teaching methods and curricula especially in the new science subjects were often superior to those of ancient universities. Philip Doddridge [see 1729] and Joseph Priestley [see 1767] were among those educated in academies. In the 19th century Nonconformists were able to attend university so the need to have academies ceased to exist. GUYON, MADAME [1648-1717] French Quietist [see 1687] who was a deeply religious girl who after conventional education desired to enter a religious order but was forced by her mother to marry in 1664. Her response was to retreat more deeply into a life of private contemplation. Her husband died in 1676 and in 1680 she said that she had achieved the state where the divine God me had supplanted self me. A year later she began to receive visions and revelations. She began to exchange a series of spiritual letters with Fenelon [see 1675] who admired and later defended her, and she became prominent in court circles. Examination of her writings in 1694 caused her to be imprisoned for six years. LATITUDINARIANISM The term applied to the 17th-century Anglicans who appealed to reason as a source of religious authority besides scripture and church practice, e.g. Chillingworth [see 1634], Stillingfleet [see 1689], and to later Broad Churchmen such as Whateley, S.T. Coleridge, and Kingsley [see 1842]. Latitudinarians have often been visible by what they oppose rather than by any particular doctrines they hold to. STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD [1635-1699] Bishop of Worcester who was educated at Cambridge and gained rapid advance through his great learning. He was appointed bishop of Worcester after the revolution in 1689 where he proved himself an energetic and active pastor. He strongly defended the rights of bishops to sit in the House of Lords. Frequently consulted by the bishops he was a close adviser of Archbishop Tillotson [see 1691] on such controversial matters as the erroneous doctrines of the Roman Catholics and Socinians [see 1578]. STRYPE, JOHN [1643-1734] English church historian and biographer. He was educated at Cambridge and became a curate at Leyton which he combined with that of a lecturer at Hackney from 1689. Strype was a poor historian but a great collector of documents. His principal contribution was the publication of his sources such as the valuable Annals of the Reformation in four volumes, Ecclesiastical Memorials in four volumes, and numerous appendices in biographies. TOLERATION ACT [1689] Passed by Parliament in England after the toppling of the Stuart dynasty. The Toleration Act provided a limited measure of relief to Nonconformists, apart from Unitarians. The Nonconformists were permitted to have their own place of worship and to have their own pastors and teachers if such were willing to take certain vows of loyalty and accept most of the established churchs 39 Articles [see 1571]. The act did not remove social and political disabilities and Nonconformists, like the Roman Catholics, were still barred from public office. WILLIAM III [1650-1702] King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, who was born at The Hague and educated at Leyden. William was raised a Calvinist, though religiously tolerant, proved himself to be a strong willed soldier politician. When France invaded the United Provinces [the Netherlands] in 1672 the government was overthrown and William was made captain general for life. He foiled Louis XIVs plan for European domination. William married Mary, daughter of the future James II of England, in 1677 and was invited by English nobles to take the throne due to James pursuing pro-Catholic policies. William and Mary were crowned as joint monarchs in 1689. Although William died in 1702 by a fall from his horse he brought his country to greatness in Europe by helping to seal the downfall of France in the War of Spanish Succession. 1690ABJURATION, OATH OF Originated under William III in 1690 and made compulsory in 1701 requiring holders of public offices in England including the clergy to renounce the claims of the recently overthrown Stuart dynasty. It was extended in Hanoverian times to require Roman Catholics to reject papal claims for jurisdiction in England. MATHER, COTTON [1663-1728] Puritan minister born in Boston Massachusetts who was educated at Harvard College. He assisted his father, Increase Mather, as a pastor and eventually became senior pastor. In 1690 he was elected a fellow of Harvard. The greater part of his 400 publications was published after 1692. They reveal that he was primarily a theologian and historian. He was well known now as a philanthropist supporting a school for slaves. The theology he expounded in his later life for e.g. Christian Philosopher published in 1721 suggests a move away from orthodox Calvinism. ORANGEMEN Members of the Orange Order, an organisation of Protestants originating in Ireland with lodges also in England, Scotland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Africa. The order derives its name from its attachment to the memory and achievements of William III [see 1689] prince of Orange, whose victories over the Roman Catholic forces of James II, particularly at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, are commemorated in annual processions. The Orange Order was founded in 1795 and the movement grew rapidly in Ireland and England in the early years of the 19th century but its influence in England declined when it was suspected of political intrigues involving the duke of Cumberland, uncle of Queen Victoria. OWEN, JAMES [1654-1706] Dissenting Academy tutor, born in Wales and educated at Carmarthen and at Samuel Joness Academy. He became a Nonconformist preacher and in 1676 was fined for preaching. In that year he became private chaplain to a Mrs Baker at Swinney near Oswestry and had oversight of the Dissenting congregation in the town. Owen was a close friend of Philip Henry [see 1657] and both engaged in public debate with Bishop William Lloyd of St Asphs in 1681. In 1690 Owen opened his academy and moved it in 1700 to Shrewsbury when he became fellow minister there to Francis Tallents. Owen ruled his students strictly and insisted that their conversation should be in Latin. In theology he favoured Richard Baxters [see 1661] form of Calvinism. It was Owen who provided the material Edmund Calamy [see 1702] used in his Account of ministers being ejected in Wales. He also published books in Welsh and composed hymns. 1691-1700 AD 1691The CHRISTIAN FAITH SOCIETY FOR THE WEST INDIES was established in Britain as the first Protestant missionary society. INNOCENT XII Pope [1691-1700]. He was educated at a Jesuit college from where he entered the Roman Curia in 1635 at the age of twenty. He received advancements under succeeding popes especially under Innocent XI who made him a cardinal in 1681 and archbishop of Naples in 1687. He was elected pope as a compromise candidate in the Hapsburg-Bourbon struggle and patterned his pontificate on that of Innocent XI except that he sided with the Bourbons rather than the Austrian Hapsburgs. He proved to be a strong willed reformer as well as successfully healing divisions within the church. Innocent issued a bull against nepotism, abolished sinecures and set up the mechanism for the forceful and fair administration of justice and instituted many charitable and educational works. He also helped to contribute to the War of Spanish Succession by convincing Charles II of Spa to name Philip of Anjou as his successor. Innocent XII appears as one of the narrators inRobert Brownings long poem The Ring and the Book (1869), based on the true story of the popes intervention in a historical murder trial in Rome during his papacy. He succeeded Alexander VIII [see 1689] and was succeeded by Clement XI [see 1700]. PATRICK, SIMON [1626-1707] Bishop of Ely who was educated at Cambridge and was influenced by John Smith. Patrick was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1648 but six years later became an Anglican and as vicar of St Pauls, Covent Garden, remained there throughout the plague in London. In 1687 he opposed James IIS Declaration of Indulgence and took the Oath of Allegiance to William and Mary in 1689 whereupon he was appointed bishop of Chichester. He was translated to Ely two years later, where he founded schools in London and helped found the Society for the Promoting Christian Knowledge and supported the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. JOHN TILLOTSON Archbishop of Canterbury [1691-1694]. He was the son of a Puritan clothier from Yorkshire and was educated at Cambridge. In 1656 he became tutor to the son ofEdmund Prideaux, attorney-general to Oliver Cromwell. Tillotson was present at the Savoy Conference in 1661, and remained identified with the Presbyterians until the passing of the Act of Uniformity 1662. Shortly afterwards he became curate of Cheshunt, Herts, and in June 1663, rector of Kedington in Suffolk. He now devoted himself to an exact study of biblical and patristic writers, especiallyBasiland Chrysostom. The result of this reading, and of the influence ofJohn Wilkins, master ofTrinity College, Cambridge, was seen in the general tone of his preaching, which was practical rather than theological, concerned with issues of personal morality instead of theoretical doctrine. This plain style of preaching was typical of the late 17th century, when the integration of reason into Protestant theology came to be seen as one of its finest attributes against Roman Catholicism. He was a man of the world as well as a minister and in his sermons he exhibited a way of speaking which enabled him grasp the attention of his audience. In 1664 he became preacher atLincolns Inn. The same year he married Elizabeth French, a niece of Oliver Cromwell. In 1672 he became dean of Canterbury. In 1684, he wrote a Discourse againstTransubstantiation. Through his friendship with Princess Anne she followed his advice in regard to the settlement of the crown onWilliam of Orange with whom he also possessed the special confidence and was made clerk of the closet to the king in March 1689. It was chiefly through his advice that the king appointed an ecclesiastical commission for the reconciliation of the Dissenters. In August of this year he was appointed by the chapter of his cathedral to exercise the authority of the see of Canterbury during the suspension of its archbishop, William Sancroft. Soon afterwards he was elected to succeedSancroft but accepted the promotion with extreme reluctance, and it was deferred from time to time, at his request, until April 1691. His attempts to reform certain abuses of the church, especially that of clerical non-residence, awakened much ill-will, and of this the Jacobites, who were supporters of the Stuarts, took advantage, pursuing him to the end of his life with insult and reproach. He died on22 November1694. He succeeded William Sancroft [see 1678] and was succeeded by Thomas Tenison [see 1694]. WHARTON, HENRY [1664-1695] Anglican scholar who was educated at Cambridge and studied there under Isaac Newton and others. Wharton worked first for T. Tenison [see 1695] producing works on celibacy and the Scriptures, and for W. Sancroft [see 1678] both of whom were archbishops of Canterbury. In 1689 he took the oaths, separating from his Non-juror [see 1688] friends ending his ecclesiastical hopes. He wrote a masterly survey of English bishops and dioceses with a collection of relevant original texts. The first two volumes of this work appeared 1691 while a third volume was published after his death. 1692Chinese HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" \o "Kangxi Emperor" Kangxi Emperor permits the Jesuits to freely preach Christianity, converting whom they wish. 1693BAYLE, PIERRE [1647-1706] He was a French writer who became an educator teaching first at the Huguenot Academy of Sedan and then when it was closed in 1681 in Rotterdam. In some of his later books he advocated universal toleration even towards the French government even after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes [see 1685]. These ideas antagonised important French leaders such as Pierre Jurieu [see 1681] who supported the school where he taught and led to his dismissal in 1693. In later years he concentrated on writing an encyclopaedia. BLAIR, JAMES [16551743] Scottish Anglican who graduated from Edinburgh in 1673 and ministered in Scotland until he was sent to Virginia by the bishop of London. Here he served the Henrico parish from 1685 to 1694. Here he founded and was first president of the William and Mary College in 1693 and was also a member of the Virginia Council until his death. CAUSSADE, JEAN PIERRE DE [1675-1751] French mystical writer and preacher who joined the Jesuit order in 1693 and worked in Lorraine, Perpignan, Albi, and Toulouse. He was the last of the 17th century mystical school whose work has had a continuing influence. HOCHMANN VON HOCHENAU, ERNST CHRISTOPH [1670-1721] German Pietist mystic who was raised as a Lutheran. While studying law in Halle he was influenced by A. H. Franke [see 1687] and converted in 1693. The initial radicalism of his belief was intensified by contact with Gottfried Arnold [see 1699] at Giessen in 1697. Hochman taught that the church was primarily spiritual in character and minimised the importance of structure, creeds, and sacraments. Regarding the conversion of the Jews as a sign of Christs impending return, he engaged briefly in Jewish missionary work. He became the spiritual father of the Church of the Brethren [see 1708] and the most important separatist mystic of the early 18th century. He was also on friendly terms with the Mennonites. VITRINGA, CAMPEGIUS [1659-1722] Protestant Orientalist and biblical exegete who was born in Holland son of the recorder of the supreme council of Friesland. Vitringa learned Greek and Hebrew early and studied philosophy and theology at Leyden University. From 1860 he taught Oriental languages and theology and became professor of sacred history in 1693 at Franeker. He was a lucid author whose chief work was a commentary on Isaiah, and other writings include a commentary on Revelation where he promoted the literal millennial reign of Christ despite the Augsburg and Helvetic confessions which branded acceptance of a literal millennium as a Judaistic heresy. 1694CYRIL III Patriarch of Antioch [1694-1720] see also 1686 and 1720. HICKS, GEORGE [1642-1715] Non-juror [see 1688] who graduated from Oxford and was ordained in 1666. As chaplain to the duke of Lauderdale he participated in Scottish church affairs. Refusing allegiance to William and Mary he was deprived of his deanery in 1690. He was consecrated titular bishop of Thetford in 1694 by the Non-jurors. He was a significant author. 1695NORIS, HENRI [1631-1704] Roman Catholic scholar and cardinal. He was born in Italy of English descent and studied with the Jesuits at Rimini but joined the Augustinian Hermits [see 1256] there in 1646. He lectured in theology and ecclesiastical history at various universities and was the first custodian of the Vatican Library becoming a cardinal in 1695. He was an author with the emphasis of his chief works defending Augustines doctrine of grace. The Spanish Inquisition later accused Noris of heresy and his writings were put on the Index [see 1559]. Eventually in 1748 some 44 years after his death Benedict XIV ordered his books to be removed from the Index. THOMAS TENISON Archbishop of Canterbury [1694-1715]. He was in Cambridgeshire and received a scholarship to Cambridge where he initially studied medicine but in 1659 was privately ordained. As vicar of St Andrew-the-Great, Cambridge, he set an example by his devoted attention to the sufferers from theplague. In 1680 he received the degree of doctor of divinity, and was presented by KingCharles IIto the importantLondonchurch ofSt Martins-in-the-Fields. He was a strenuous opponent of the Church of Rome and preached vigorously against it. Under KingWilliam III, Tenison was in 1689 named a member of the ecclesiastical commission appointed to prepare matters towards a reconciliation of the Dissenters. He preached a funeral sermon forNell Gwynin 1687, in which he represented her as truly penitent, a charitable judgement that did not meet with universal approval. The general relaxed attitude of Tenisons religious views won him royal favour, and, after being made bishop of Lincoln in 1691, he was promoted to archbishop of Canterbury in December 1694. He attended QueenMaryduring her last illness and preached her funeral sermon in Westminster Abbey. When William in 1695 went to take command of the army in the Netherlands, Tenison was appointed one of the seven lords justices to whom his authority was delegated. Along with Burnet he attended the king on his deathbed. He crowned Queen Anne, but during her reign was in less favour at court. He was a commissioner for the union with Scotland in 1706. A strong supporter of the Hanoverian succession, he was one of three officers of state to whom, on the death of Anne, was entrusted the duty of appointing a regent till the arrival of George I, whom he crowned on31 October1714. Tenison died in London a year later. He succeeded John Tillotson [see 1691] and was succeeded by William Wake [see 1715]. VAUGHAN, HENRY [1621-1695] Poet, who was educated at Oxford and fought briefly for the Royalists in the Civil War and spent the rest of his life as a country doctor. He acknowledged the influence of George Herbert [see 1629] in his religious poems but in his experience he was more a mystic than Herbert. He emphasised the link he saw between the nonhuman creatures and God as an unfallen relationship, as well as a quasi-Platonic view of the prenatal existence of the soul with God. 1696CONSTANT, PIERRE [1654-1721] Roman Catholic scholar who studied in Maurist houses in Rheims. After working on the Maurist edition of Augustine and works by Hilary of Poitiers [see 353] he returned to Paris in 1696 to do his main work on an edition of papal letters of which only those up to 440 had been completed by his death. TATE, NAHUM [1652-1715] Poet and dramatist born in Ireland and educated at Trinity College Dublin. Three of his children were killed and his house burned when he reported plans of a revolt to the government. He then left Ireland is settled in England where he wrote poems and plays in which he adapted works of earlier dramatists. With Nicholas Brady [see 1688] he wrote a widely used metrical version of the Psalms in 1696. The hymns While shepherds watched their flocks by night, Through all the changing scenes of life are attributed to him. He became Poet Laureate in 1692 but at the end of his life was very poor and died in debt. 1697GRABE, JOHANNES ERNST [1666-1711] Anglican scholar who was born in Germany and questioned the validity of Lutheran orders and contemplated becoming a Roman Catholic. On P.J. Spencers recommendation he went to England in 1697 seeking a church possessing apostolic succession. Ordained into the Anglican priesthood he had close links with the Nonjurors [see 1688]. On receiving a pension from William III he gave himself to biblical and patristic research. 1698The SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE is the oldest HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" \o "Mission (Christian)" mission organisation. It was founded in 1698 by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bray" \o "Thomas Bray" Thomas Bray and a small group of friends. The most important early leaders were HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anton_Wilhelm_Boehm&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Anton Wilhelm Boehm (page does not exist)" Anton Wilhelm Boehm and court preacher HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Michael_Ziegenhagen&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Friedrich Michael Ziegenhagen (page does not exist)" Friedrich Michael Ziegenhagen. Throughout the eighteenth century it was by far the largest producer of Christian literature in Britain. The range of its output was considerable from pamphlets aimed at specific groups such as farmers, prisoners, soldiers, seamen, servants and slave-owners, to more general works on subjects such as baptism, confirmation, Holy Communion, the Prayer Book and private devotion. Increasingly, more substantial books were also published, both on Christian subjects and, from the 1830s onwards, on general educational topics as well. The Scottish wing was formed by royal charter in 1709 as a separate organisation with the purpose of founding schools in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" \o "Scottish Highlands" Scottish Highlands. By 1808 some 189 schools had been established. By 1709 the Society was spreading overseas with a printing press and trained printer sent out to Tranquebar in East India to assist in the production of the first translation of the Bible into HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language" \o "Tamil language" Tamil produced by the German HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran" \o "Lutheran" Lutheran missionaries HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomaeus_Ziegenbalg" \o "Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg" Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heinrich_Pluetschau&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Heinrich Pluetschau (page does not exist)" Heinrich Pluetschau from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Danish-Halle_Mission&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Danish-Halle Mission (page does not exist)" Danish-Halle Mission. [see 1706]. Today its overseas mission concentrates on providing free study literature for those in a number of ministerial training colleges around the world, especially in Africa, and supporting translation in India through its sister organisation there. 1699ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED [16661714] German Lutheran who wrote a critique of the church which he said had become far too full of dogma, and proposed a much simpler means of operation with poverty in the church being more evident. He also wrote a monumental Church History [16991700] and a number of beautiful Christian songs. In 1704 he became a pastor at Werben in Prussia and became reconciled with establishment Christianity. BERNARD OF MONTFAUCON [1655-1741] French Catholic scholar from a noble family who entered the Maurist Benedictine order in 1676 after a brief period of military service. He produced excellent editions of works of Athanasius, Origen and John Chrysostom. He defended the Benedictines against Jesuit attack in 1699 and heavily influenced Benedictine students in the years to come. FREDERICK IV [1671-1730] King of Denmark and Norway. From his accession in 1699 he was continually a war, but he did introduce reforms in the treatment of persons, the administration of justice and public finance, military organisation, and commercial relations. While crown prince, he was influenced greatly by Pietism and decided to emulate Roman Catholic rulers by caring for the spiritual welfare of his subjects in the south Indian dependency of Tranquebar. Finding no suitable candidates in Denmark he secured Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg [see 1706] and Heinrich Plutschau [see1706] who were ordained as missionaries and immediately set sail for India in November 1705. In 1718 Frederick approved the mission of Hans Egede [see 1721] to Danish owned Greenland. JABLONSKI, DANIEL ERNST [1660-1741] Theologian, Hebraist, and bishop of Unitas Fratrum. On the death of his father he was chosen to succeed his maternal grandfather Comenius [see 1618] as leader of the Unitas Fratrum and he was consecrated bishop in 1699. When the revived Moravian Brethren sought an Episcopal link with the older Brethren Church, Jablonski, assisted by Christian Sitkovius bishop of the Polish Brethren, consecrated David Nitschmann as bishop in Berlin in 1735. He worked for the union of Lutherans and Calvinists and later sought to reform the church of Prussia by introducing the Episcopate and liturgy of the Church of England. 1700CLEMENT XI Pope [1700-1721]. Ten years after being made a cardinal he reluctantly accepted election as pope. His reign occurred during the period of the War of Spanish Succession. He had to deal with Jansenism [see 1638] which he condemned in a bull in 1705. In 1713 he issued a famous bull in which he attacked Quesnels thesis [see 1672] that grace is irresistible and without it man is incapable of spiritual good. Another important decision of Clement XI was in regard to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" \o "Chinese Rites controversy" Chinese Rites [see 1601] controversy: The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuits" \o "Jesuits" Jesuit missionaries were forbidden to take part in honours paid to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius" \o "Confucius" Confucius or the ancestors of the emperors of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China, which Clement XI identified as idolatrous and barbaric, and to accommodate Christian language to pagan ideas under plea of conciliating the heathen. In 1708 he made the Feast of the Immaculate Conception [see 1854] obligatory. He secured a valuable library from the East and at his death had reigned longer than any pope in the previous five centuries. He succeeded Innocent XII [see 1691] and was succeeded by Innocent XIII [see 1721]. GRIGNION DE MONTFORT, LOUIS-MARIE [1673-1716] Missionary trained at the Jesuit College in Rennes and after a life devoted to prayer and poverty he was ordained priest in 1700. In 1704 he recognised his true vocation as a missionary in Western France. During the initial period he suffered from the jealousies of the Jansenists who were envious of his influence. Several years before his death he founded a second congregation, the Company of Mary, having founded in 1703 the Daughters of Wisdom. Both foundations suffered severe numerical losses during 1715, but they have since been revived. HALYBURTON, THOMAS [1674-1712] Scottish theologian who was ejected in 1662 for nonconformity. He was educated at St Andrews and was minister at Ceres from 1700 to 1710 then became professor of divinity at St Andrews two years before his early death. Halyburton was the champion of Reformed theology in the controversy over Deism [see 1624], and has been regarded as one of Scotlands greatest theologians. 1701-1710 AD 1701BRAY, THOMAS [16561730] Anglican missionary and educator who founded the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. He was responsible for the development of parochial libraries both in England and the U.S.A. with 120 such libraries some with upwards of 1000 volumes being established at the time of his death. MECHITARISTS Congregation of Armenian monks in communion with the Church of Rome. The founder was Mechitar who formally joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1701 and with 16 companions formed a religious institute with himself as the superior. This incurred Armenian opposition and they moved to Morea which then belonged to Venice. Here he built a monastery in 1706. During a war between the Turks and the Venetians they migrated to Venice where they were granted the island of St Lazzaro in 1717. Mechitar died there in 1749 and it has remained headquarters for the congregation ever since. The UNITED SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL is a 300-year old HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary organisation, formed originally as the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in 1701. Its name changed in 1965 when it merged with Universities Mission to Central Africa. On June 16, 1701, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_III_of_England" \o "William III of England" King William III issued a charter establishing the Society as an organisation able to send priests and schoolteachers to America to help provide the Churchs ministry to the colonists. The societys first missionaries started work in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" \o "North America" North Americain 1702 and in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indies" \o "West Indies" West Indies in 1703. By the time of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution" \o "American Revolution" American Revolution, the Society had employed about 300 missionaries in North America. It soon expanded to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" \o "Australia" Australia, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand" \o "New Zealand" New Zealand and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa" \o "West Africa" West Africa. The Society was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave" \o "Slave" slave owner in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados" \o "Barbados" Barbados in the 18th and early 19th centuries employing several hundred slaves on the Codrington Plantation which had been bequeathed to the Society in 1710 by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Codrington" \o "Christopher Codrington" Christopher Codrington. Slaveholders had become accustomed to using HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical" \o "Biblical" Biblical justification for slavery. Like many other major slaveholders the church relinquished its slaveholdings only when it was forced to after the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" \o "Slavery Abolition Act 1833" Slavery Abolition Act of 1833. In 1820, the Society sent missionaries to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India and in 1821 to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" \o "South Africa" South Africa. It later expanded outside the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire" \o "British Empire" British Empire to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China in 1863 and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" \o "Japan" Japan1873. 1702ANNE [16651714] Queen of England [17021714]. Anne married George, prince of Denmark, a Lutheran in 1683 and supported the High Church party of the Church of England as the only Protestant in her family. She replaced Latitudinarians with High Church bishops on the ecclesiastical bench. There was an increasing lack of tolerance of dissenters in the latter years of her reign. She failed to produce an heir so her policy died with her in 1714. CALAMY, EDMUND [16711732] Grandson of Edmund Calamy [see 1649]. He was an English Nonconformist historian who wrote biographies of Nonconformist ministers such as Richard Baxter [see 1661] from 1702 to 1722. He also defended the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity in 1722 and the principle of non conformity in 1703-4 [see 1662]. GABRIEL III Patriarch of Constantinople [1702-1707] succeeded Callinicus II [see 1688]. There is no additional information readily available. WATTS, ISAAC [1674 1748]. Hymn Writer who was the son of a dissenting schoolmaster also named Isaac. As a dissenter Watts was unable to go to Oxford or Cambridge and was therefore educated at Stoke Newington Academy. Watts is recognised as the Father of English Hymnody, as he was the first prolific and popular English hymn writer, credited with some 750 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymns. Many of his hymns remain in active use today including O God our help in ages past, Jesus shall reign whereer the sun When I survey the wondrous Cross, Were marching to Zion and HYPERLINK "http://www.hymntime.com/tch/htm/a/l/a/alasand.htm" Alas! And did my Saviour bleed. His education led him to the pastorate of a large Independent Chapel in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London in 1702, and he also found himself in the position of helping trainee preachers, despite his poor health. Taking work as a private tutor, he lived with the non-conformist Hartopp family at Fleetwood House, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abney_Park" \o "Abney Park" Abney Park in Stoke Newington, and later in the household of Sir HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Abney" \o "Thomas Abney" Thomas Abney and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Mary_Abney" \o "Lady Mary Abney" Lady Mary Abney at Theobalds, Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, and at their second residence, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abney_House&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Abney House (page does not exist)" Abney House, Stoke Newington. Though a non-conformist, Sir Thomas practised occasional conformity to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England" \o "Church of England" Church of England as necessitated by his being HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London" \o "Lord Mayor of London" Lord Mayor of London 170001. Likewise, Isaac Watts held religious opinions that were more non-denominational or ecumenical than was at that time common for a non-conformist, having a greater interest in promoting education and scholarship, than preaching for any particular ministry. On the death of Sir Thomas Abney, Watts moved permanently with his widow and her remaining daughter to Abney House, a property that Mary had inherited from her brother, along with title to the Manor itself. The beautiful grounds at Abney Park, which became Watts permanent home from 1736 to 1748, led down to an island heronry in the Hackney Brook where he sought inspiration for the many books and hymns he wrote. On his death, Isaac Watts papers were given to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University" \o "Yale University" Yale University, an institution with which he was connected because of its being founded predominantly by fellow Independents 1703CARSTARES, WILLIAM [1649-1715] Scottish churchman and statesman. He spent most of the two decades preceding the Revolution of 1688 in Holland as a refugee from the tyrannical Scottish government of Charles II. In 1703 Carstares became principal of Edinburgh University. He was the main architect of the form of church government in Scotland that still survives. LEIBNITZ, GOTTFIED WILHELM [1646-1716] German philosopher who studied at Leipzig and Jena. In 1676 he became ducal librarian to the duke of Brunswick at Hanover. As a Protestant theologian Leibnitzs optimism is conspicuous and his work demonstrates the harmony of faith and reason. However in his writings there are certain areas of serious departure from Lutheran orthodoxy especially in relation to sin. Leibnitz spent a number of fruitless years negotiating between Protestant and Roman Catholic theologians He also strived to promote union between Protestant churches including establishing a college in Berlin in 1703. WHISTON, WILLIAM [1667-1752] Church historian, mathematician and translator, the son of a minister who was educated at Cambridge where he studied mathematics and became friendly with Sir Isaac Newton [see 1705] being appointed a fellow in 1693. Five years later he became vicar of Lowestoft but was recalled to Cambridge in 1703 to succeed Newton as professor of mathematics on Newtons recommendation. From a theological viewpoint he caused concern among the Anglicans because of unorthodoxy and in 1710 was expelled from Cambridge. He regarded the Reformation as only half complete and believed that the miracle gifts of the Holy Spirit had been withdrawn. He suffered intensely and lived in poverty. Whiston was barred from Anglican Communion and joined the Baptists in 1747.Today he is best known as a translator of Josephus. WHITBY, DANIEL [1638-1726] Anglican scholar who trained at Oxford and was involved in several controversies. He attacked Roman Catholicism in an attempt to gain concessions for Nonconformist so that they would join the Church of England, and he also refuted Calvinism. His most famous publication was a Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament published in two volumes in 1703. This work was well received and continued to be used in the next two centuries. Whitbys area of great significance was in popularisation of post-Millennialism. This view was adopted by most leading 18th century ministers and commentators. 1704CLARKE, SAMUEL [1675-1729] English theologian who was an admirer of Newton and promoted his concepts successfully at Cambridge. After ordination he wrote several texts including paraphrases of the gospels. He is best known for his Boyle lectures of 1704 and 1705 on the attributes of God. HENRY, MATTHEW [1662-1714] Biblical expositor, the son of an evangelical Church of England minister who was born shortly after his father had been ejected from his living as a result of the Act of Uniformity. He studied at a Nonconformist Academy in London, and then read law at Grays Inn. He considered becoming an Anglican minister, but decided to be Nonconformist and was privately ordained as a Presbyterian. His first pastorate was in Chester. Greatly influenced by the Puritans, he made exposition of the Scriptures the central concern of his ministry. Beginning at five in the morning each day he aimed to use his time to the full. In 1704 he began the seven-volume Commentary on the Bible for which he is well remembered. He finished up to the end of Acts; ministerial friends completed the New Testament from his notes and writings. NEAL, DANIEL [1678-1743] Best known as the historian of the Puritans. He was educated at a Dissenting Academy and later at Utrecht and Leyden. In 1704 he became assistant minister at a Congregational church in London. He wrote a History of New England published in 1720 but his main work was a History of the Puritans published in several volumes covering the period from the Reformation to 1689. 1705NEWTON, SIR ISAAC [1642-1717] Scientist, theologian and master of the Mint. He came from a farming family and was converted as a student at Cambridge. His paramount aim was to understand Scripture. Science he said was a garden given him to cultivate with every discovery he made he believed being communicated to him by the Holy Spirit. As an Anglican here rejected infant baptism and held that all who believe simply in the love of God were entitled to Communion in church. He also believed that the Scriptures taught Arianism but avoided controversy. Among his main interests were those of church history, chronology, prophecy, mathematical science, and the relation of science to religion. Newton was president of the Royal Society [see 1662]. In earlier years he was lovable and generous and helped in the distribution of Bibles to the poor but in later years his character seemed to change and he became a far more hardened character. Newton was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705. 1706PLUTSCHAU, HEINRICH [1677-1747] Missionary to India. Co-founder with B. Zeigenbalg [see below] of the Halle-Danish Mission which was the first Protestant mission in India. When the two were summoned from theological studies at Halle to become missionaries of King Frederick IV of Denmark they at first believed that West Africa was their destination. They went instead in 1706 to Tranquebar a tiny Danish settlement on the coast of Tamil-speaking India. Plutschau concentrated on the Portuguese-speaking congregation and proved himself to be an able partner of the more renowned Zeigenbalg. He returned to Europe in 1711. ZIEGENBALG, BARTHOLOMAEUS [1682-1719] Co-founder with H. Plutschau [see above] of the first Protestant mission to India and the first to translate the New Testament into an Indian language. He was converted at sixteen and was a theological student at Halle when a request came for missionaries to the overseas territories of Frederick IV of Denmark. They arrived in 1706 at the Danish settlement of Tranquebar on the Coromandel coast. There they encountered incredible opposition from the authorities, apart from the predictable hostility of Hindus and Roman Catholics. As a result of one controversy Zeigenbalg was imprisoned for four months by the commandant. The missionaries gathered together Portuguese-speaking and Tamil congregations and built a church. The Tranquebar method became a pattern for later missions: schools, orphanages, Bible translation, printing, training of preachers as well as training of the young, and all aimed at personal conversion. Zeigenbalg produced a Tamil New Testament in 1714 and did some translation of the Old Testament. His letters had great influence in stirring missionary interests in Britain. 1707BOSTON, THOMAS [16761732] Scottish Presbyterian who studied at Edinburgh becoming an expert in Hebrew. He was installed at Ettrick on the day of the union of England and Scotland. He was very devout and performed many exemplary parochial tasks. In the last two weeks of his life he was so weak that he could not go to the pulpit so he preached from the manse window. CHRYSANTHOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1707-1731] see 1707 and 1731. CYPRIANUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1707-09, 1713-14] who succeeded Neophytus V [see below]. There is no additional information readily available. NEOPHYTUS V Patriarch of Constantinople [1707] succeeded Gabriel III [see 1702]. ROCK, JOHANN FRIEDRICH [1678-1749] German religious leader who was born into a poor family and became a harness maker. In 1707 Rock underwent a mystical experience and became a prophet of the ecstatic communities of the True Inspired group. He led his sect together with Eberhard Ludwig Gruber until 1728 and thereafter alone. He was a powerful teacher and leader but lost many followers through defections to other movements, emigration to America, and through personal quarrels including that with Zinzendorf [see 1727] in 1734 over Rocks rejection of preaching and the sacraments. After his death his mystical communities declined rapidly. 1708ADDISON, JOSEPH [16721719] English hymn writer and founder of the Spectator. He rated Milton above Homer and Virgil and wrote the hymns When all thy mercies O my God and The spacious firmament on high. CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN One of the three peace churches of the USA and originated in Germany in this year as a Pietist protest against the state church. Their leader was Alexander Mack [see below]. They emphasised a warm enthusiasm as well as study of the Bible and holy living. Brethren fled to America in 1719 after a short period in Holland. They currently have a membership of 200,000. MACK, ALEXANDER [1679-1735] Organiser and first leader of the New Baptists or Brethren. This group was founded in Germany in 1708. Mack was a miller by trade who became attracted to radical Pietism and was a close associate of E.C. Hochmann von Hochenau [see 1693] and accompanied him on preaching missions. The group under his leadership became convinced that complete alignment with the New Testament required the gathering of a community of believers. The Brethren were born. They were persecuted and eventually went to America settling in William Penns land. The total obedience to Jesus Christ including the constituting of the visible brotherhood community was a key concept of his two writings. Alexander Mack Junior [1715 to 1803] followed his fathers steps guiding the Brethren in his adult life. SAYBROOK PLATFORM [1708] A confessional document produced by the Congregational churches of Connecticut. It contained the confession reaffirming the Savoy Confession and articles which was a 15 point statement of church government. The articles provided for the establishment of churches in each county with powers of oversight of the local congregations together with ministerial associations in each county with powers to examine ministerial candidates on doctrine and morals, and a general annual association with undefined responsibility but with delegates from each group. This replaced the Cambridge Platform of 1648 as the most important confessional document of New England. 1709ATHANASIUS V Patriarch of Constantinople [1709-1711] who succeeded Cyprianus I [see 1707] There is no additional information readily available. 1710SAMUEL Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1710-1712, 1714-1723] see 1688 and 1712. VAN CANSTEIN BIBLE SOCIETY Founded in Germany. It was the first ever Bible Society to be formed. 1711-1720 AD 1711CYRIL IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1711-1713] who succeeded Athanasius V [see 1709]. DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD [1673-1734] German Pietist who taught astrology and palmistry and professed piety. He fled from his creditors to Darmstadt where his views received a better hearing and he was deepened into intense conviction under the influence of G Arnold [see 1699], however for the rest of his life he enraged the Lutheran authorities with his views. In 1707 he went to Holland where he undertook a medical degree. Later he appeared in Denmark and was sentenced to exile on the island of Bonholm. Released in 1726 he went to Sweden and became physician to King Frederick I but was again expelled and returned to Germany where he died. 1712COSMAS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1712-1714, 1723-1736] see 1710 and 1737. 1713GIBSON, EDMUND [1669-1748] Bishop of London who was educated Oxford and rose from being a chaplain to becoming bishop of Lincoln before moving to London. He was offered the see of Canterbury but declined. Gibson was distinguished in several fields; his huge work on English ecclesiastical law in 1713 became a standard work of reference and earned for him the nickname Doctor Codex. He was chief adviser to Walpole on church matters until they quarrelled in 1736. He wrote fiercely against Deists, freethinkers, Catholics, intemperance, and Sabbath-breaking. Toward the Methodist revival he was at first sympathetic, but later he became a hostile critic. 1714AMANA CHURCH SOCIETY A Pietistic sect in Iowa also called The Community of True Inspiration. It commenced in 1714 when a group of German Pietists was awakened by the message of Johann Rock and Ludwig Gruber who claimed the days of true and direct inspiration from God had not ended. To escape persecution a group of 800 migrated from Germany settling in a village called Ebenezer near Buffalo New York. In 1855 the Amana Society moved to Iowa. COSMAS III HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1714-1716] succeeded Cyril IV [see 1711]. LAW, WILLIAM [1686-1761] English devotional writer who was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1711. He declined to take the oath of allegiance to King George I in 1714 and was deprived of his fellowship and became a Nonjuror [see 1688] for the rest of his life. In 1727 he first became associated with the Gibbon family at Putney, on his appointment as tutor to Edward Gibbon, father of the historian. He became recognised as the notable controversialist. He ridiculed the theory that sincerity alone should be the test of religious profession, though it might testify to moral integrity, and instead he built up a constructive apologetic orthodox Christianity. Laws most influential work was his Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life published in 1728 which influenced the lives of many early evangelicals including Whitefield, the Wesleys, and Henry Venn. In association with two ladies Mrs Hutchinson and Miss Hester Gibbon his closing years were spent in founding schools and alms houses and other practical works of piety. SWIFT, JONATHAN [1667-1745] Irish satirist and clergyman, born in Dublin and educated there at Trinity College. He was ordained and became prebendary of Kilroot in Ireland. His real interest in the first decade of the 18th century was London politics and he attached himself in particular to the Tories. After the Hanoverian succession in 1714 he withdrew from politics and spent the rest of his life as dean of St Patricks in Dublin suffering periodically and ultimately continually from painful mental disorder. Swifts greatest work is Gullivers Travels with an ingenious but also very gloomy view of humanity. Swift had very little faith in his fellowmen and immense capacity to showing it. However his sermons were straightforward with short sentences, logical progression, and calm assurance. 1715COURT, ANTOINE [1696-1760] French Reformed minister who succeeded in reorganising his fellow Protestants after their church had been broken and scattered by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes [see 1685]. In 1715 he called together at Manobet the first provincial synod of the Reformed Church of France since 1685. Other synods were called attracting increasing persecution. Court withdrew to Lausanne Switzerland where he founded and directed a seminary for the training of ministers. WAKE, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1715-1737]. Wake was born in Dorset and educated at Christ Church, Oxford. Having been ordained, he went toParisin 1682 as chaplain to the ambassador Richard Graham, Viscount Preston. Here he became acquainted with many of the Paris elite and became very interested in French clerical affairs. He also collated some Paris manuscripts of theGreek New Testament for John Fell, bishop of Oxford. He returned to England in 1685. Three years later he became preacher at and eventually dean of Exeter. In 1705 he was consecratedbishop of Lincoln and was translated to the see ofCanterbury in 1715 on the death ofThomas Tenison. During 1718 he negotiated with leading French churchmen about a projected union of the French and English churches to resist the claims ofRome. In dealing with nonconformity he was tolerant, and even advocated a revision of the Prayer Book if that would allay the scruples of Dissenters. His writings are numerous, the chief being his State of the Church and Clergy of England which was a massive defence of Anglican Orders. He succeeded Thomas Tennison [see 1694] and was succeeded by John Potter [see 1737]. WATERLAND, DANIEL [1683-1740] Theologian who was educated at Cambridge and became master of his College from 1714 to 1740 and vice-chancellor of the University in 1715. Much of his life was involved in the Deist controversy. His accurate scholarship and brilliant writing did much to restore Trinitarianism in England again the Arians and the Deists. Waterland sought always to base Christian faith on objective evidence. 1716COLLIER, JEREMY [1650-1726] He became rector of Ampton near Bury St Edmunds and was imprisoned for provocative political writing supporting James II and possible contact with him in 1692. In 1713 he was consecrated as bishop of the non jurors and became archbishop in 1716. He was in favour of union with the eastern church. He wrote extensively including An Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain. HOADLY, BENJAMIN [1676-1761] Anglican theologian who was one of the most scandalous of the 18th century bishops who owed his ecclesiastical career and translation to the rich dioceses of Bangor, Hereford, Salisbury, and Winchester entirely to his championing of the Whig party and his authorship of skilful pamphlets against Tories and High Churchman. He was a Latitudinarian, writing down all mysteries and dogma, and justifying the inclusion of all groups within his church including Arians. In 1716, a sermon which denied that there was a visible Church of Christ at all and defined Christianity as merely sincerity, provoked the Bangor Controversy [see 1717] which led to an outcry and the government suspension of convocation which did not meet for 150 years thereafter. JEREMIAS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1716-1726, 1732-1733] succeeded Cosmas III [see 1714]. There is no additional information readily available. VINEGAR BIBLE The popular name of the fine folio edition of the Bible printed in Oxford in 1716-1717 by John Baskett, the kings printer. The headline of Luke 20 reads The Parable of the Vinegar instead of The Parable of the Vineyard. 1717BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was caused by a sermon preached by Bishop Hoadly before King George I in 1717 on the Nature of the Kingdom of Christ taken from John 18:36. A committee of the Lower House of Convocation asked the Upper House [bishops] to rule on it as Hoadly, they believed, had ignored the work of the Holy Spirit and the visible nature of the true Church. Two of the main opponents were William Sherlock and William Law [see 1714]. George I, to save Bishop Hoadly, closed down the Convocation which was to transact no further business until 1852. 1718ABERNETHY, JOHN [1680-1740] Irish Presbyterian minister who became a pastor in 1703 but in 1718 refused the synods appointment to a church in Dublin which was an unprecedented act which divided the church into Subscribers and Non Subscribers. The latter headed by Abernethy were excommunicated in 1726. From 1730 he ministered in Wood Street Dublin. GILL, JOHN [1697-1771] Baptist minister and biblical scholar. He was ordained in 1718 and the following year entered upon a pastorate at Horsleydown Southwark that was to last over 50 years. A profound scholar and extensive writer, he was a hyper-Calvinist and so zealous to maintain the sovereignty of God that he denied that preachers had the right to offer Christ to unregenerate sinners. PETROS VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1718-1726] see 1676 and 1727. 1719GLAS, JOHN [1695-1773] Founder of the Glasites or Sandemanians. Born in Scotland, he graduated from St Andrews and became a minister in the Angus Parish of Tealing in 1719. Known for his preaching, his congregation increased. Later while lecturing on the Shorter Catechism it struck him that since Christ is king of the church, power cannot be exercised over it by the state or magistrates. These views led to his deposition in 1730. He continued to preach in nearby fields and most of his congregation remained loyal to him. He took the Bible more literally than most of his day. Creeds and catechism he regarded as useless; he considered it was easier to learn from the Bible itself. He disagreed with attempts to enforce uniformity in the church or to permit domination by a single individual. 1720BEISSEL, JOHN [16901768] German founder of the Protestant commune at Ephrata, Pennsylvania. He emigrated to the United States in 1720 because of religious persecution. From 1750 some 300 lived in celibacy and pacifism, holding all goods in common. They kept Saturday as the Sabbath and were incorporated in the Seventh Day Baptists in 1814. PAUL OF THE CROSS [1694-1775] Founder of the Passionists [see 1725]. Paul led a life of austerity and became a hermit in 1720. In a 40 day retreat he drew up the rule for a religious order to honour Christs Passion. He was ordained in 1727 and the first Passionist Retreat was opened 10 years later. Paul was elected superior general of his order in 1747. He founded the Order of Passionist Nuns in 1771 and by the time of his death he had established 12 monasteries in Italy. He was an eloquent preacher and was renowned also as a miracle worker and spiritual director. RENAUDOT, EUSEBE [1646-1720] Roman Catholic scholar who trained as a Jesuit but became a secular priest. He was particularly noted for his knowledge of oriental languages becoming one of the principal advisers to Louis XIVs minister Colbert on matters relating to the East. His writings are mainly devoted to showing the relationship between the Orthodox and the Roman churches as he sought to prove the continuity of the faith in opposition to Protestant contentions that the Roman Catholic Church had perverted the faith. 1721-1730 AD 1721EGEDE, HANS [1686-1758] Apostle of Greenland who was born in Norway and became a pastor in the northern part of the country. Deeply concerned about the descendants of Norwegian settlers in Greenland of whom nothing had been known for about two centuries, and aware of the fact that the inhabitants were pagans who spoke an unknown language, he decided to go there as a missionary. He arrived there in 1721 and learned the difficult language of the Eskimos, fought the witch doctors, and evangelised the people. From 1740 he was the titular bishop of Greenland. His sons Paul and Hans continued on the missionary work of their father and Paul translated the New Testament into the local language. HOLY SYNOD The Russian emperor, Peter the Great [1682-1725], created the Holy Synod as part of his efforts to reorganise the Russian Church thus replacing the old patriarchate of Moscow in 1721. The synod became the supreme authority of the Russian Orthodox Church second only to the emperor. As a result the clergy became a kind of auxiliary police force in the subordination of the church to the state which remained until the Communist revolution of 1918. INNOCENT XIII Pope [1721-1724]. Like Pope Innocent III, Pope Gregory IX and Pope Alexander IV he was a member of the family of the Conti, counts and dukes of Segni. He was born in Rome and became a cardinal underPope Clement XI in 1706. From 1697 to 1710 he acted as papal nuncio to the Kingdom ofPortugal, where he is believed to have formed the unfavourable impression of the Jesuits which afterwards influenced his conduct towards them. In 1721 his high reputation for ability, learning, purity, and a kindly disposition, secured his election to succeed Clement XI as Pope Innocent XIII. His pontificate was prosperous, but comparatively uneventful. Innocent XIII prohibited the Jesuits from prosecuting their mission in China, and ordered that no new members should be received into the order. This indication of his sympathies encouraged some French bishops to approach him with a petition for the recall of the bull by which Jansenism had been condemned but this request was immediately denied. Like his predecessor, he showed favour to James Francis Edward Stuart, the Old Pretender to the British throne and generously supported him. He succeeded Clement XI [see 1700] and was succeeded by Benedict XIII [see 1724]. 1722BINGHAM, JOSEPH [16681723] English church historian who was educated at Oxford where he became a fellow but was expelled for heresy in 1695 for preaching a sermon on the Substance and Person of the Godhead. He became rector of Havant and lost most of his meagre savings in the South Sea Bubble collapse. His main work was Antiquities of the Christian Church which was published in 1722. MORAVIAN BRETHREN Church of the United Brethren, reborn following the decline of the Bohemian Brethren [see 1454] after the Thirty Year war. Fugitives from Moravia found refuge on the estate of Count Von Zinzendorf [see 1727] in Saxony in 1722. Joined by others from Bohemia in association with some German Pietists they worshipped at the Bertholdsdorf Lutheran Church under Pastor J.A. Rothe. They then set up their own church and Zinzendorf was gradually drawn into their affairs becoming superintendent and in succeeding months saw a great spiritual awakening. Their orders of ministry were restored when David Nitschmann [see 1735] was consecrated bishop by Daniel Jablonski [see 1699] who was bishop of the sole remaining branch of the Bohemian Brethren in Poland in 1735. It was essentially a missionary movement. As early as 1732 Nitschmann and J.L. Dober [see 1732] went to St Thomas, Virgin Islands. Work followed in Greenland in 1733, North America in 1734, Lapland and South America in 1735, South Africa in 1736, Labrador in 1771, among Australian aborigines in 1850, and on the Tibetan boarder in 1856. The proportion of missionaries to communicants has been estimated as one in 60 compared with one in 5000 in the rest of Protestant churches. Moravian influence was a major factor in Evangelical Revival in Britain. John Wesley owes his conversion largely to Moravian Peter Boehler [see 1748]. The brethren did not always encourage the establishment of local churches, preferring to remain as a church within a church e.g. in Lutheranism or Anglicanism. This did limit them in some places. Doctrine is basically that of the Augsburg Confession [see 1530] with liberty of view being permitted in nonessentials. This strongly evangelical movement considers Scripture to be the only rule of faith and conduct. 1723BACH, JOHAN SEBASTIAN [1685-1750] German composer, the greatest composer for the organ of all time. Kappellmeister at Kothen for six years. Bach went to a school which once had been attended by Luther, and was brought up in the orthodox Lutheran faith. He was orphaned at 10 and went to live with his brother who was an organist, in which capacity he operated in a church from age 15 and became court organsist to the duke of Weimar by the age of 23. From 1723 he was cantor of the historic Thomasschule in Leipzig. He composed over 300 cantatas, choral works such as St Matthews and St John Passion, and a Mass in B minor, oratorios including the Christmas Oratorio, and music for organ and concerti. His compositions influenced Haydn [see 1809], Mozart [see 1791], and Beethoven [see 1827]. Every major composer of sacred music since has been in varying degrees his debtor. Our access to his work is mainly due to Felix Mendelssohn. HEPBURN, JOHN [1649-1723] Scottish minister who became one of the most contentious ministers of Scottish Presbyterianism. Ultimately hailed as The Morning Star of the Secession and ordained while in exile in London he was for some 36 years minister at the parish of Galloway without ever having been formally elected or inducted and this despite admonition, suspension, banishment, imprisonment, and deposition at the hands of the ecclesiastical authorities. Ranging over wide tracts of country he gathered several thousand followers. His followers formed the nucleus of many Secessionist churches once the movement had taken shape under Ebenezer Erskine [see 1740]. REIMARUS, HERMANN SAMUEL [1694-1768] German scholar who was educated at Jena and taught philosophy at Wittenberg. He travelled to England and came under the influence of the English Deists. Reimarus was a pastor at Wismar from 1723 to 1727 before becoming professor of Hebrew and oriental languages in Hamburg. He was one of the few in the history of Christian thought to identify correctly that Jesus had proclaimed the nearness of the messianic age to the Jews. 1724BENEDICT XIII Pope [1724-1730]. He was a member of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orsini_family" \o "Orsini family" Orsini of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" \o "Rome" Rome, the third and last member of that family to become pope. He entered the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Order" \o "Dominican Order" Dominican order and was named cardinal-priest of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Sisto_Vecchio" \o "San Sisto Vecchio" San Sisto in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1672" \o "1672" 1672. He endeavoured to put a stop to the decadent lifestyles of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italian cardinals and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest" \o "Priest" priesthood and also abolished the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery" \o "Lottery" lottery in Rome. A man fond above all of asceticism and religious celebrations, according to Pope HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_XIV" \o "Benedict XIV" Benedict XIV he did not have any idea about how to rule with the government being effectively held by the cardinal who had been Benedicts secretary when he was archbishop of Benevento. Here the secretary committed a long series of financial abuses at his own advantage causing the ruin of the papal treasure. In foreign politics, he struggled with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_V_of_Portugal" \o "John V of Portugal" John V of Portugal and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jansenists" \o "Jansenists" Jansenists. Pope Benedict XIII also repealed the world wide smoking ban set by Pope Urban VIII. Benedict XIII consecrated at least 139 bishops for various important European sees, including German, French, English, and New World bishops. In 1727 he inaugurated the famous HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Steps" \o "Spanish Steps" Spanish Steps and founded the University of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camerino" \o "Camerino" Camerino. Benedict died in 1730. He succeeded Innocent XIII [see 1721] and was succeeded by Clement XII [see 1730]. MELCHITES A name given to those Christians who adhered to a creed supported by the authority of the Byzantine emperor. Derived from the Greek form of a Syriac adjective, it means royalist or emperors men. It has been applied to a number of different groups during history including Arabic-speaking Catholics in Syria, Palestine, Egypt, etc. They were organised from 1724 when Cyril Taras, a Catholic became patriarch of Antioch. SYLVESTER Patriarch of Antioch [1724-1766] see also 1720 and 1766. TERSTEEGEN, GERHARD [1697-1769] German hymn writer who received a classical education after which he was apprentice to a shopkeeper. After his conversion he spent much time in prayer, fasting, and almsgiving for a year. He lived alone near Mulheim as a ribbon weaver. He suffered a great deal from spiritual depression but found assurance of faith in 1724. The following year he began to speak at prayer meetings and became known as a religious leader. He gave up weaving and was supported by gifts from friends. He conducted an immense correspondence, translated works by Mystics and Quietists including Madame Guyon [see 1680]. He published 111 hymns. 1725PASSIONISTS A group which was founded in 1725 by Paul of the Cross [see 1720]. The first house was opened in 1737 and after 1840 the order expanded, founding houses in 13 countries in Europe and America. Emphasising the contemplative life they took a fourth vow to further the memory of Christs Passion in the faithful. The Passionist Nuns founded by Paul and Mother Mary Crucifixa were approved by Pope Clement XIV in 1770. Strictly enclosed and contemplative, they also take the fourth vow practising devotion to the passion. 1726FRANK, JACOB [1726-1791] Founder of the sect called Frankists. He was the son of a rabbi in Poland and came under the influence of various sects. He declared himself to be an embodiment of the Messiah and adopted a doctrine of the Holy Trinity in which he was the holy king. Returning to his homeland he was attacked by the Jews and eventually he and his followers became Catholics, professing conversion to Christianity. After Frank allowed himself to be worshipped as the Messiah, however, he was imprisoned and released only when the Russians partitioned Poland in 1773. After his death his daughter Eve continued to lead his followers. LIGUORI, ALPHONSUS [1696-1787] Roman Catholic moral theologian who became a successful barrister before becoming a priest in 1726. His simple oratory, which was in direct contrast with the rhetoric of the day, appealed to the common people and he became a mission preacher in and around Naples. In 1731 he founded the Congregation of the Redemptoristines for women and in 1732 The Most Holy Redeemer [Redemptorists see 1732] for men, whose main mission was amongst the poor in rural areas. In 1762 Ligouri became bishop of St Agatha of the Goths, a small diocese near Naples but ill-health caused him to retire in 1775. He produced popular devotional and mystical writings, often on the themes of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary as semi-divine mediatrix, and wrote many hymns. PAISIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1726-1732, 1740-1743, 1744-1748] succeeded Jeremias III [see 1716]. There is no additional information readily available. VOLTAIRE [1694-1778] French philosopher and writer who was an extremely versatile figure of the new Enlightenment vision of secular and rationalist regeneration. Educated by the Jesuits he was influenced by Descartes and others. During his exile in England [1726-1729], Voltaire learned from the English Deists and especially John Locke [see 1690], which permanently transformed his world-view. He called himself a Theist but his god was, as Torrey puts it, a vague impersonal being with no particular concern for the affairs of men. The organised Christian Church was an abomination to him. Christ he admired as a great man and Christian ethics he considered correct insofar as they concurred with elements found in other religions. Voltaire was the supreme example of the proud self-sufficient humanist. 1727AMERICAN INDIANS AND CHRISTIANITY Commenced, as far as Europeans were concerned, when in June 1523 Charles V instructed Lucan Vasquez de Ayllon that the main feature of his mission to the New World was the conversion of the Indians of Florida. In the far West much the same development occurred with the number of Christian Indians in New Mexico in 1630 was put at 35,000. The Puritans also attempted to extend Christianity to the Indians, this being part of the charter of the Massachusetts Colony. The Mayhew family had success in the Marthas Vineyard area and translated the Psalms and the Gospel of John into the Indian language and John Eliot [see 1661] translated the Bible and published a catechism in 1653 which was the first book printed in an Indian language. Eleazer Wheelock organised Dartmouth College [then called Moors Indian Charity School] in Lebanon Connecticut to train Indians to minister to their own people. CONVULSIONARIES The name given to ecstatic behaviour in the cemetery of St Medard in Paris at the tomb of a Jansenist Francois de Paris after 1727. It resulted in the cemetery being closed by the authorities. The movement ended in discredit. LARDNER, NATHANIEL [1684-1768] Nonconformist scholar educated at Utrecht and Leyden. He was both an Independent minister and a domestic chaplain from 1709-1729 with his theological opinions developed from Calvinism through Arminianism to a modified Arianism. Between 1727 in 1757 he published his remarkable Credibility of the Gospel History in which with disarming candour and immense learning he strove to defend the facts of the New Testament against the critics; in effect by detaching the Old Testament from the New and developing novel ideas concerning the Logos. WOOLSTON, THOMAS [1669-1733] English Deist who was educated at Cambridge and wrote Discourses on the Miracles of our Saviour in 1727 which was a blunt attack on the miracles of Christ in which Woolston claimed they were allegories. He was a keen student of Origen and a lover of allegorising. As a result of this publication he was sentenced to a year in prison and a 100 fine and died in prison unable to pay the fine. Many considered that Woolston may have been mentally unbalanced. YOANNIS XVII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1727-1745] see 1718 and 1745. ZINZENDORF, NIKOLAUS LUDWIG COUNT VON [1700-1760] Founder of the Moravian Church. He was the son of a high Saxon official and was raised by his Pietist grandmother before being educated at Halle [1710-1716]. He became interested in foreign missions after meeting the Danish-Halle missionaries to India but his family pressured him into a governmental career. He studied law at Wittenberg and while travelling in Europe in 1719 came into contact with the Reformed theology. After entering the Saxon civil service in 1721 he sponsored religious assemblies in his Dresden home and purchased an estate where in 1722 he invited a group of Bohemian Protestant refugees to form a Christian community called Herrnhut. In 1727 he retired from government service to devote full time to the colony. He became convinced of the need for Christian community, worldwide evangelism and ecumenical relationships. Orthodox Lutherans also attacked him and in 1730 his beliefs were formally examined. He then became a student of theology at Tubingen and was ordained bishop by the Berlin court preacher D.E. Jablonski [see 1699] which gave official recognition to his movement. While visiting Copenhagen in 1731 a chance meeting with a West Indian Negro rekindled his interest in foreign missions and the first Moravian missionaries were sent to the Caribbean in 1734. Zinzendorf himself went to St Thomas in 1738. He was expelled from Saxony and visited Holland and England founding Moravian communities, and travelled to America [1741-1743] where he worked in Indian missions and in building up the Moravian congregations. He returned to Herrnhut in 1747. His last years were marred by personal tragedy with the death of his son and wife and financial difficulties. His importance lies in the creation of a missionary service-orientated, ecumenical free church based on a common experience of salvation, mutual love, and the emphasis upon deep emotional religious experience which infused new life into Protestant orthodoxy. 1728ROUSSEAU, JEAN-JACQUES [1712-1778] French writer and philosopher who was born in Geneva and raised a Calvinist but converted to Catholicism in 1728. He became a Deist which was tempered with quietist sentimentality. After immersing himself in contemporary philosophical literature he went to Paris in 1742 where he met Denis Diderot. In 1746 he took a servant girl as his common-law wife; their five children he placed in an orphanage. Rousseaus emphasis upon irrationality, subjectivism, and sensualism made him the forerunner of both Romanticism and modern totalitarianism while his elevation of the individual above society contributed to individualism and democratic thought. By substituting sentimental faith for revealed religion and by removing Christian doctrine from their supernatural context he paved the way the humanistic liberalism. 1729ASTRUC, JEAN [1684-1766] Physician and founder of modern Pentateuchal criticism. His father was a Huguenot pastor who became Roman Catholic when the Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685 so Jean was brought up a Catholic. After teaching medicine in France he became court physician to Augustus II of Poland in 1729 and Louis XV of France the following year. In 1753 he produced a book in which he concluded that Moses made use of earlier documents when compiling the Pentateuch. DICKINSON, JONATHAN [1688-1747] Presbyterian theologian, educator, and revivalist. He became pastor of Elizabethtown Presbyterian Church New Jersey [1708-1747]. He is said to have been the most powerful mind in his generation of American ministers. He was a reconciling influence in the controversy over subscriptions to the Westminster Confession and authored the 1729 Adopting Act which brought about a compromise. In 1739 the Great Awakening [see 1740] divided dissenters in the Presbyterian split of 1741. At first Dickinson kept a mediating position but seeing the old side was bent on a schism he abandoned reconciliation efforts and joined George Whitefield and Gilbert Tennents group. Dickinson founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 for men preparing for the new side ministry. Dickinson served as first president until his death. DODDRIDGE, PHILIP [1702-1751] Nonconformist who was born in London and educated at Kibworth Academy. He was minister in various places and moved to Northampton where he stayed from 1729 to his death in 1751. Here he accomplished his lifes work training generations of students in the ministry, letting each one decide controversial theological points for themself, encouraging the village preaching and promoting unity among the Nonconformist bodies. Theologically he occupies a curious position. He adhered to the modified Calvinism of Richard Baxter [see 1661] and was the leader of the middle way after the death of Edmund Calamy [see 1702]. At the same time he was deeply impressed by the warmth of the Methodist revival, and he regarded dissent as a religion of the common people not as a political prop for the Hanoverian dynasty. Most of his students became liberal Presbyterians although a few became earnest evangelicals. His two most famous hymns are Hark the glad sound, the Saviour comes O happy day that fixed my choice 1730CLEMENT XII Pope [1730-1740]. The new pope represented a family in the highest level of Florentine society, with a cardinal in every generation for the previous hundred years. He was a lawyer, with a degree from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pisa" \o "University of Pisa" University of Pisa. After the death of his uncle and his father, in 1685, Clement now aged thirty-three purchased, according to the custom of the time, for 30,000 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_scudo" \o "Italian scudo" scudi, a position of rank and devoted his wealth and leisure to the enlargement of the library bequeathed to him by his uncle. He was created a cardinal in 1706 by Clement XI retaining his services as papal treasurer. Various members of the curia had drained the financial resources of the see. Clement XII was one of the oldest men to be elected Pope. Though he was blind and compelled to keep to his bed, from which he gave audiences and transacted affairs of state, he surrounded himself with capable officials, many of them his Corsini relatives, but he did little for his family except to purchase and enlarge the Palazzo Corsini. His first moves as Pope Clement XII were to restore the papal finances. He demanded restitution from the ministers who had abused the confidence of his predecessor. The chief culprit, Cardinal Coscia, was heavily fined and sentenced to ten years imprisonment. Papal finances were also improved through reviving the public lottery, which had been suppressed by the severe morality of Benedict XIII. Soon it poured into Clement XIIs treasury an annual sum amounting to nearly a half million scudi, enabling him to undertake the extensive building programs for which he is chiefly remembered, but which he was never able to see. He took action against Jansenism and in 1738 forbad Roman Catholics to be involved in Masonic Lodges under the pain of excommunication. He vigorously supported missionary works helping the Lebanese Maronites and sending Franciscans to Ethiopia. He succeeded Benedict XIII [see 1724] and was succeeded by Benedict XIV [see 1740]. CHAPTER 6. CHURCH: PHILADEPHIA MISSIONARY CHURCH 1750-1910 AD PHILADELPHIA REVELATION 3:7-13 3:7 And to the angel of the church in Philadelphia write; These things saith he that is holy, he that is true, he that hath the key of David, he that openeth, and no man shutteth; and shutteth, and no man openeth; 8 I know thy works: behold, I have set before thee an open door, and no man can shut it: for thou hast a little strength, and hast kept my word, and hast not denied my name. 9 Behold, I will make them of the synagogue of Satan, which say they are Jews, and are not, but do lie; behold, I will make them to come and worship before thy feet, and to know that I have loved thee. 10 Because thou hast kept the word of my patience, I also will keep thee from the hour of temptation, which shall come upon all the world, to try them that dwell upon the earth. 11 Behold, I come quickly: hold that fast which thou hast, that no man take thy crown. 12 Him that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple of my God, and he shall go no more out: and I will write upon him the name of my God, and the name of the city of my God, which is new Jerusalem, which cometh down out of heaven from my God: and I will write upon him my new name. 13 He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches. INTRODUCTION Philadelphia means brotherly love. This church reflected the Biblical teaching of John. 13:34-35. The Lord Jesus Christ who holds the keys of history sets before this Church an open door of service (cf. 1 Corinthians. 16:9; Colossians 4:3). This missionary minded church would have victory over the Synagogue of Satan, and because of faithful perseverance, would be kept from the hour (time) of tribulation. The overcomer is promised a permanent place of service in Gods eternal temple bearing the name of God. Historically Philadelphia represents church history of 1700 to 1900 AD During this time we have the great mission outreach of the Wesleys, Taylors, and Careys, among others. China, India, and Africa became centres of great evangelistic work. This missionary zeal will continue until the Rapture removes the true church from Tribulation. This removal is verified in such passages as 1 Thessalonians. 1:910, 4:13-18, 5:9 as well as Revelation 1:19 and 4:1. In addition, the word church is mentioned all the way up to Revelation 4:1 (a picture of the Rapture) and from here Israel becomes the focus. The reason for this is that the Tribulation is the time of Jacobs trouble (Jeremiah. 30:7) to refine and regenerate the nation of Israel. God never deals with Israel and the Church at the same time until the Millennium. The description of Christ in verse 7 comes from Revelation 1:18 picturing Christ as the one with the authority to open and close doors. This is the only church other than that of Smyrna which has no condemnation set against it. Christ finds nothing against this church and is satisfied with it. Christ opens up again the door of service. We need to be walking with the Lord to have the privilege to serve him. We as Christians can get windows of opportunity and it is up to us to be sensitive to them and work for the Lord in His strength. In verse 8 the Lord Jesus Christ is seen as omniscient, He is all knowing. He had set some opportunities by opening a door and had kept it open. They had a little strength which indicates that they worked on the basis of grace. During the period of 1700-1900 there was virtually no place where a missionary could not go. Every place was open to them. Today more and more countries are closing their doors to missionaries. They had little power, it was a minority supporting these missionaries. Yet with a little power they were commended for it. The Lord Jesus Christ knows our works and attitudes. It is only when they conform to His will that we are able to use the door He has opened. The little strength indicates that they are basing their works on His grace and not relying on their own strength. God is in control and no one can shut the door other than God. The church in general and we specifically should be faithful. The church at Philadelphia was also promised in verse 9 submission and worship from those who claim to be Jews or the people of God and are not. Hosea 1:8-9, 2:23 makes it clear that when Israel are on the sideline of Gods program and are considered not my people. In the future however they will, again become my people. There is an antagonism between the church and the Jews who as a nation have been set aside temporarily in Gods plan. In the Tribulation however the Jews will come into their own and will see a massive conversion. It is of interest that it is during this time that Jewish missions came into its own and by 1900 some 250,000 came to Christ. Jewish missions first began in Germany, took root in England and finally came to fruition in the United States. It was a time when the natural branches were again regrafted in the olive tree. In verse 10 temptation means trial or testing. The testing will be a universal time of hardship which will test the whole population of the world. God will protect those who are his and will not allow them to be tested above what they able to bear. This universal period of severe testing which comes immediately before the Second Advent of the Lord Jesus Christ is called the Tribulation. The believing church will not go through this period as the Rapture of the Church occurs before this time. Hold that fast indicates that there needs to be continued persistence The Lord tells them to keep on doing what they are doing until He comes. From the above it appears it is possible that people will be able to lose their crowns. The Lord is coming back swiftly when he comes and will catch people unawares who are not ready. We need to have stickability in the Christian life. We can lose rewards but we cannot lose our salvation. To the believer in verse 12 the Lord promises to remember them. In the ancient world the deeds of the great people in a community were inscribed on the pillars of the most important buildings, usually a temple so that they would be recorded as long as the settlement lasted. The Lord will especially honour us if we are faithful to Him. The deeds that we do in the power of the Spirit will be recorded. He is going to write the name of God, the New Jerusalem and a new name. This talks of possession of the believer by God and His protection. We are in enemy territory but in fellowship with God we are invincible. 1731-1740 AD 1731JONES, GRIFFITH [1683-1761] Welsh preacher and educator who was ordained in the established church in 1709. He was a travelling preacher and keen to improve religious and social conditions in Wales and established his first charity school in 1730, where children and adults were taught by day and night to read the Bible in Welsh; education grew despite ecclesiastical opposition. Teachers travelled in circuit and schools multiplied. Before his death over 3000 schools were opened and 150,000 taught. Daniel Rowland [see 1752] founder of Welsh Methodism was supposedly converted his ministry. MELETIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1731-1737] see 1707 and 1737. METHODISM A movement which originated in a search for an effective method to lead Christians towards the goal of Scriptural holiness. This name was applied to members of the Wesleys Holy Club at Oxford. Their disciplined, methodical practices gave rise to what Charles Wesley called the harmless nickname of Methodist. His brother John defined it a Methodist is one who lives according to the method laid down in the Bible. After the evangelical conversion of George Whitefield [see 1737] and the Wesleys [see 1738], the title Methodist was attached to all who were influenced by them whether within the Church of England or beyond. Methodism is now accepted as a general term to cover the worldwide family of Methodist churches, stemming from Wesleys societies, most of which are affiliated to the World Methodist Council. 1732BERKELEY, GEORGE [16851753] Irish Bishop of Cloyne who was the most brilliant theistic philosopher of his age. He wrote Alciphron in 1732 and was enthusiastic regarding missionary work and unsuccessfully proposed a college in Bermuda. DOBER, JOHANN LEONHARD [1706-1766] Moravian brethren [see 1722] leader. He was a potter by trade and came to Herrnhut in 1725 where he soon became one of the most significant spiritual figures. In 1732 Dober and David Nitschmann [see 1735] volunteered to go to St Thomas, Virgin Islands, as the first Moravian missionaries. Unable to practice his trade Dober supported himself by working as a plantation watchman. He tried to evangelise Negro slaves on the island but his black congregation numbered only four when he left in 1734. He returned to become superintending elder at Herrnhut and he was replaced by a group of 14 missionaries. He was consecrated bishop of the Moravian congregations in Europe in 1747. FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN [1706-1790] Inventor, author, and diplomat. He left school at the age of 10 to help with his fathers candle and soap business. He became apprenticed to a printer who was his half-brother. He achieved great success in several fields as publisher, author, businessmen, philanthropist, moralist, inventor, scientist, civil servant, and statesman. He influenced American religious thought and public morality through his writings, especially through his widely read Poor Richards Almanac 1732-57. Here he extolled the virtues of hard work, thrift, moderation, and common sense. However he personally rejected the distinctive doctrines of Orthodox Christianity in favour of an optimistic natural religion. He was a Deist who believed that nature rather than Scripture is the place where human reason recognises God. He admired Jesus and his teachings, but doubted his divinity, and believed that the basis of religion was to do good to men. PROTESTANT DISSENTING DEPUTIES Since 1732 these have consisted of two members of each congregation of the Presbyterians, Congregationalist, and Baptist denominations within 12 miles of the city of London. From this large body which usually met only once or twice a year the committee of 21 was chosen in order by all legal means to lead the fight for obtaining civil rights for Protestant Dissenters. The first meeting in 1732 was at the Meeting House in Silver Street London. Through their committee these deputies were an effective force in 18th and 19th century politics as by their influence Nonconformists were given the right to be buried in churchyards, to register their children in the civil registers of births, and to enter universities of Oxford and Cambridge without offence to their conscience. REDEMPTORISTS A name commonly given to the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer a community of priests and lay brothers founded by Alphonsous Maria di Ligouri [see 1726] at Scala Italy in 1732 for mission work among the poor. It has steadfastly refused to engage in purely educational activities. Its purpose is the sanctification of members through the imitation of Christ and through preaching. The Order received papal approval in 1749. Under Clement Hofbaeur [see 1785] the Redemptorists moved across the Alps into northern Europe and they entered the United States in 1832 and England in 1843. SPANGENBERG, AUGUST GOTTLIEB [1704-1792] Moravian missionary and church leader who first studied law and then theology and finally became a teacher in Halle. When he joined the Herrnhut [see 1722] community in 1732, Zinzendorf [see 1727] assigned him to conduct legal negotiations with various European colonial powers for permission to establish mission works abroad. He took personal charge of the Moravian group which settled in Georgia America in 1735, and greeted and advised John Wesley who arrived there in February the following year. He then joined a group in Pennsylvania as a simple farmer and within a short time was preaching to the Indians. Spangenberg was appointed Zinzendorfs successor in 1760 and he returned to Herrnhut two years later and led the group until his death. 1733BURGHERS They were a Scottish Presbyterian secessionist group who in 1733 made their first secession from the Church of Scotland because of patronage. Despite efforts by the general assemblies of 1732 and 1736 to effect reconciliation continued splitting occurred. The Burghers split into two, the Burghers and Anti Burghers who both split into the New Lichts and the Auld Lichts. The New Lichts of both parties formed the United Secession Church in 1820. The Auld Licht Anti Burghers joined the Free Church of Scotland in 1852 whilst the Auld Lichts Burghers reunited with the Church of Scotland in 1839. DAVID, CHRISTIAN [1691-1751] Moravian Brethren leader, born in Moravia, and was a carpenter by trade. He was converted in 1717 and became a lay evangelist. In 1722 he met Count Zinzendorf in 1727 and helped him to found the Christian community of Herrnhut on his estate, and recruited settlers from the exiled Brethren in Moravia. In 1733 David led a group of missionaries to Greenland to assist the Norwegian pioneer Hans Egede [see 1721] but sharp differences developed between them. David, strongly self willed and at times intolerant criticised Egedes Lutheran orthodoxy while the latter resented the sentimental nature of the Moravian message. However by 1736 they had been reconciled. The work in Greenland prospered. David travelled extensively in Europe, returned to Greenland in 1747 with more missionaries and built a church and mission residence. MODERATES The name given to various groups of Scottish ministers in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Their basic position was that because of our present happy constitution in Church and State secured by the Revolution Settlement of 1690, hardships such as the presentation of ministers to parishes by lay patrons and the necessity of subscribing to the Westminster Confession of Faith could be tolerated. Their opponents regarded lay patronage as a serious infringement of the rights of the church and many seceded from the prevailing party in the Church of Scotland in 1733, in 1761, and most notably in the Disruption of 1843. The Moderates were also interested in science, history and philosophy and helped to found the Royal Society of Edinburgh. SERAPHEIM I Patriarch of Constantinople [1733-1734] succeeded Jeremias III [see 1716]. There is no additional information readily available. WHEELOCK, ELEAZAR [1711-1779] Congregational minister, founder and first president of Dartmouth. Wheelock graduated from Yale in 1733. While at Yale he was a member of a group similar to the Holy Club at Oxford of which the Wesleys and Whitefield were members. During the first year of his pastorate a revival broke out in his church under the influence of Jonathan Edwards [see 1740] ministry in Massachusetts. During the Great Awakening [see 1740], Wheelock gave himself unstintingly to promotion of revival, preaching on the north-east coast of America. He was interested in converting and educating the Indians and received from Col Joshua More a gift of a house and schoolhouse at Lebanon to aid in his work this becoming known as Mores Charity School. Later they moved to Hanover, New Hampshire and the facility was renamed Dartmouth College. 1734BENGEL, JOHANN [16871752] Lutheran minister and theologian who trained at Tubingen and whose chief work was a critical edition of the New Testament published in 1734 which founded textural criticism. This work was followed by a verse by verse commentary on the New Testament which was translated by John Wesley [see 1738] and incorporated into his Notes upon the New Testament [1755]. NEOPHYTUS VI Patriarch of Constantinople [1734-1740, 1743-1744] succeeded Serapheim I [see 1733]. There is no additional information readily available. REVIVALISM The spontaneous spiritual awakening by the Holy Spirit among professing Christians in the churches, which results in a deepening religious experience, holy living, evangelism and missions, the founding of educational and philanthropic institutions, and social reform. Revival should not be confused with evangelism which is the result of revival. Revival has been linked with the Anabaptists, Puritans, and Pietists, and has mainly occurred in Protestantism since the Reformation. As a determinative influence in America, revivalism may be dated from the Great Awakening which began New Jersey after 1720. In 1734 revivals broke out in New England under the preaching of Jonathan Edwards and by 1740 when George Whitefield arrived bearing the spirit of the Wesleyan revival in England, the Awakening was widespread in America. The Second Awakening occurred mainly among middle and upper-class Anglicans in England after 1790 and in America in college awakenings such as that in Yale under Timothy Dwight in 1802 and in the Western American frontier camp meetings. Charles Finneys urban revival meetings of the 1830s have been considered a later flowering of the Second Great Awakening. After the Civil War there were the professional, planned, urban mass evangelistic meetings held in public in auditoriums by such men as D.L. Moody and R.A. Torrey and in the 20th century by Billy Sunday and Billy Graham. There have been no general revivals in Western industrialised societies since the 1904 Welsh revival which stimulated revival world wide but there have been regional revival in less advanced societies such as in Korea, East Africa and Ethiopia. WALCH, JOHANN GEORG [1693-1775] Protestant theologian who was educated Jena and taught there all his life as a professor of philosophy, poetry, and finally theology in 1734. He wrote extensively on Lutheran Orthodoxy and also edited Luthers works in 24 volumes. His sons Johann [1725-1778] and Christian [1726-1784] were also noted Lutheran theologians. 1735BUTLER, ALBAN [1711-1773] Catholic professor who was educated at the Roman seminary at Douai from the age of eight as both of his parents had died. He became a professor of philosophy and then divinity at the seminary being ordained as a priest in 1735. After a period as chaplain to the duke of Norfolk he went to Paris where he completed a large scale history of the fathers, martyrs and saints with 1600 biographies. He spent the last seven years of his life as president of the English College at St Omer in France. HARRIS, HOWEL [1714-1773] Welsh preacher of a humble family background who was converted in 1735. He went to Oxford and returned to Wales to begin a campaign of tireless evangelism. He aroused first the south by his stately appearance, powerful voice, and overwhelming passion, and though often threatened by mobs and magistrates he extended his activities with equal success to the north in 1739. Harris must be regarded as the principal founder of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodism and the greatest spiritual force in the principality of his day. He was shy and awkward in the presence of other evangelical leaders, and quarrelled with both Rowland and Whitefield [see 1737]. In 1752 he retired to a house in Trevecca Park which he built up as the centre for revivalist activity. In this he was supported by the Countess of Huntingdon who after 1768 sent her own students to train there. HOLY CLUB The name derisively given to the group of earnest Methodists which in the early 1730s met in John Wesleys rooms at Lincoln College Oxford and included Charles Wesley, Benjamin Ingham, and George Whitefield. Membership was never more than 25, and when John Wesley left Oxford in 1735 the group disintegrated. The club owed much to Moravian example and to earlier religious societies which flourished in the Anglican church. LATIN AMERICA [see also 1510 and 1844] Early Protestantism. Attempts to plant Protestantism in Latin America were made by the French Huguenots in 1555 and the Dutch Reformed in 1624 and both were effectively crushed by the Catholic Portuguese. The German Moravians settled permanently in British Guiana in 1735 and carried on successful evangelistic work among the Arawak Indians in Dutch Guiana. Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and Chile received European immigrants in the 19th century, among whom were colonies of Lutherans, Scots Presbyterians, Anglicans, and Italian Waldensians. Their religious influence however was typically confined to their own ethnic communities. NITSCHMANN, DAVID [1696-1772] Moravian missionary and bishop who was a carpenter by trade and joined the Herrnhut community as an evangelist. In 1732 he accompanied J.L. Dober [see 1732] on the first Moravian Brethren mission to the Negro slaves on St Thomas, Virgin Islands, but returned to Germany after a few months. In 1735 he was the first Moravian and to be consecrated bishop thus establishing the principle of historical succession among the Brethren. Immediately after this he led a group of sixteen missionaries to the colony of Georgia in North America and made a deep impression on John Wesley who was on the same ship. Constantly active as a bishop he made at least 50 sea voyages before his death in Bethlehem Pennsylvania, a settlement that he had founded. TENNENT, WILLIAM [1673-1746] Presbyterian minister and educator who was born in Ireland and graduated from Edinburgh and was ordained a priest in the Church of Ireland. About 1717 he migrated to Philadelphia where he was admitted to the Presbyterian ministry. He held a number of pastorates during his ministry. About 1735 he built a small log building on his property where he educated his three younger sons for the ministry. Some 15 other men were trained in what came to be derisively called the Log College by its detractors because the influential young men trained there were active revivalists who did not need the educational requirements set by the Philadelphia Synod. Tennent made a great contribution to Presbyterian history especially in the Great Awakening [see 1740]. One of his sons was Gilbert Tennent [see 1740]. WALES [see also 1567] The evangelical revival in Wales started in 1735 under the leadership of Howell Harris [see above] who was soon joined by such men as Daniel Rowland [see 1763] and William Williams [see 1744]. By about 1780 this revival was developing into a massive folk movement with far-reaching social and cultural effects. The Methodists formed the Calvinistic Methodists in 1811. It left no aspect of life in the nation untouched and by the Victorian Age it was a major force in education, culture, and politics. Welsh religious life throughout the 19th century continued to be rebuilt by religious revivals, the greatest of which occurred in 1859-1860 and 1904-1905. However having reached a new zenith about 1908, Welsh Christianity ran into great difficulties and began to decline being affected by the World War I and the intrusion of anti-Christian philosophy. 1736BUTLER, JOSEPH [16921752] Bishop of Durham [17501752], the son of a Presbyterian draper who studied at Oxford and owed his rise to the level of bishop, to some extent, to his friendship with Queen Caroline. He was the author of Analogy of Religion in 1736. This was the greatest theological book of its age and did more than any other book to refute deism. He argued that fact should support religion with the order found in nature paralleled by revelation suggesting joint authorship by God. It influenced writers such as David Hume [see 1739] and John Newman [see 1845]. ZEISBERGER, DAVID [1721-1808] Moravian missionary to American Indians for 63 years. He was born in Moravia and when he was five the family fled to Herrnhut in Saxony. In 1736 the parents joined the Moravian colony in Georgia, David following two years later. In 1745 after moving to Pennsylvania he began his missionary work with such acceptance that the Six Nations made him a keeper of their archives. His greatest work however was with the Delawares and demonstrates the frustration of Indian missions. Persecuted in Pennsylvania in 1772 they migrated to Ohio where their settlements were destroyed in the Revolution. Particularly shocking was the massacre in 1782 by colonial militia. He accompanied the Indians to Michigan and finally to Canada. In 1798 Congress restored the Indians land, so he returned to Ohio and built Goshen. 1737COSMAS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1737-1746] see 1742and 1746. CRUDEN, ALEXANDER [1699-1770] Scottish author of the famous Concordance first published in 1737 which is still a standard reference guide to the King James Version. It was not a financial success. Soon after graduating from Aberdeen he had a mental breakdown and was confined to an asylum on three occasions. On his release after his first incarceration in 1722 he went to London where he opened a bookstore and became a proof reader. The appearance of the 2nd and 3rd editions of the concordance won Cruden recognition and was profitable. He influenced the preaching of Wesley and came to think of himself as a guardian of the nations morals calling himself Alexander the Corrector. GREY NUNS A name given to the Sisters of Charity who were founded by Madame dYouville in Montral in 1737 as a small community of women devoted to the care of the sick. Their Rule [1745], besides the usual three vows, included a promise to devote their lives to the relief of suffering. They persisted in their dedication despite hostility and invective. They were called the grey nuns because of the colour of their habit. PARTHENIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1737-1766] see 1731 and 1766. POTTER, JOHN Archbishop of Canterbury [1737-1747]. He was the son of a linen-draper atWakefield,Yorkshire. At the age of fourteen he entered University College, Oxford and in 1694 he was elected fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Besides holding several livings he became, in 1704, chaplain toArchbishop Tenison, and shortly afterwards was made chaplain-in-ordinary toQueen Anne. From 1708 he wasregius professor of divinityand canon ofChrist Church, Oxford; and from 1715 he wasbishop of Oxford. He took a prominent part in the controversy with Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of Bangor as even though Potter was a notable Whig, he was a high churchman and had opposed Hoadly. In January 1737 Potter was unexpectedly appointed to succeed William Wake in the see of Canterbury. While in that seat, he continued to represent a high church position, but he was also ineffective at restoring theConvocation. He died on 10 October 1747. He succeeded William Wake [see 1715] and was succeeded by Thomas Herring [see 1747]. WHITEFIELD, GEORGE [1714-1770] English preacher who was educated at Oxford where he associated with those who formed the Holy Club and who would later be known as the first Methodists. At Oxford he experienced an evangelical conversion and was subsequently ordained. His first sermon in Gloucester, his native town, was of such fervour that a complaint was made to the bishop that he had driven fifteen people mad. He accepted an invitation from John and Charles Wesley [see 1738] to go to Georgia where with the exception of a notable visit home he remained from 1737 to 1741. The visit home included his first attempt at open-air preaching in Bristol. He was to continue that practice until the end of his life, regularly delivering up to twenty sermons a week and travelling vast distances including 14 visits to Scotland and no less than seven journeys to America where he eventually died. He argued with the Wesleys over salvation having a Calvinistic viewpoint compared with the Arminian view of the brothers. J.C. Ryle has justly claimed that no preacher had ever retained his hold on his hearers so entirely as Whitefield did for 34 years. 1738WESLEY, CHARLES [1707-1778] Hymn writer who was the 18th child of Samuel and Susanna Wesley. Charles was educated at Oxford and was instrumental in forming the Holy Club there and in 1735. He joined his brother John in an abortive mission to Georgia acting as secretary to the governor James Oglethorpe. On his return to England he came under the influence of Peter Boehler [see 1748] the Moravian. Lying ill in the house of John Bray he first read Luther on Galatians. On Whitsunday 1738 he experienced an evangelical conversion three days before his brother John. Charles now threw himself into the work of evangelism. He began in the house of friends, visited the prisons, and preached in the churches until the doors were closed against him. He became one of the most powerful of the field preachers in the revival. He was the most gifted and most prolific of all English hymn writers with some 7270 hymns coming from his pen including many of the very highest order. He gave expression to evangelical faith and experience in language at once biblical and lyrical. Hymns that are still used today include And Can It Be That I Should Gain?, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_the_Lord_Is_Risen_Today" \o "Christ the Lord Is Risen Today" Christ the Lord Is Risen Today, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hark,_The_Herald_Angels_Sing" \o "Hark, The Herald Angels Sing" Hark! The Herald Angels Sing, Jesus, Lover of My Soul, Lo! He Comes with Clouds Descending, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Divine,_All_Loves_Excelling" \o "Love Divine, All Loves Excelling" Love Divine, All Loves Excelling, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_for_a_Thousand_Tongues_to_Sing" \o "O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing" O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing, Rejoice, the Lord is King, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldiers_of_Christ,_Arise" \o "Soldiers of Christ, Arise" Soldiers of Christ, Arise and Ye Servants of God WESLEY, JOHN [1703-1791] Founder of Methodism. John was the 15th child of rector Samuel Wesley and although his father was a staunch High Churchman his grandparents were Puritan Nonconformists. Educated at Oxford he was ordained by John Potter in 1728. Returning to Oxford he found that his brother Charles had gathered a few undergraduates together including George Whitefield [see 1737] into a society for spiritual improvement which was nicknamed the Holy Club of which he eventually took over the leadership. Its members met for prayer, the study of the Greek Testament and self-examination. To their devotional exercises they added works of charitable relief. In 1735 he went to Georgia but when he got back to England in 1738 Wesley wrote I went to America to convert the Indians but oh who shall convert me? On the journey to America he met German Moravians whose simple faith made a considerable impression on him. Wesley was converted in 1738 shortly after which he visited the Moravian settlement at Herrnhut and met Count Zinzendorf [see 1727]. In April 1739 he took to open-air preaching at the instigation of Whitefield. It was at Kingswood, Bristol that he ventured into this strange way of preaching in the fields as he described it. This gave him great flexibility and brought him face to face with the common folk who heard him gladly. To conserve the gains of evangelism Wesley formed societies in the wake of his missions. The organisation of Methodism was thus a direct outcome of his success in preaching the gospel. He soon extended his journeys to include Ireland and Scotland while he left Wales to Howell Harris [see 1735] and though he never went to America again he ordained Thomas Coke [see 1777] in 1784 to superintend the work. YOUNG, EDWARD [1683-1765] English poet who was educated at Oxford and is best known for Night Thoughts 1742-1745. He had entered the church in 1727 becoming rector at Welwyn in 1730. Night Thoughts was meant as a poem of Christian triumph over death but is often dismissed as a gloomy work. There is indeed much argument to that but there are also flashes of joy celebrating Christs victorious death and glorious resurrection. 1739HUME, DAVID [1711-1776] Scottish philosopher, historian, and man of letters. His philosophical program first outlined in A treatise of Human Nature 1739, involved the application of Newtonian scientific method to human nature. In religion he is chiefly noteworthy for his sceptical attacks on miracles and on the argument from design. He said miracles are denied as it is always more reasonable to reject someones testimony about the miracle than to accept it. He attacked argument from design as it involves showing the ambiguity of the evidence. His work on religion can be regarded as one of the most fundamental attacks on natural theology in modern times. MUHLENBERG, HENRY MELCHIOR [1711-1787] Father of American Lutheranism who was born in Germany, a son of a master shoemaker, he had a hard upbringing especially after his fathers death. He graduated from Gottingen in 1738. In 1739 he was ordained and appointed co-pastor and inspector of an orphanage. He had at first contemplated going as a missionary to the East Indies but in 1741 was called to serve the United Lutheran congregations of Pennsylvania. He arrived in America in 1742 where he set himself to build up the church. Expert as a linguist and a tireless traveller he summoned the first Lutheran Synod in America in 1748. The number of churches grew throughout the middle colonies, many of them planted as a result of his missionary labours. SCHLATTER, MICHAEL [1716-1790] Organiser of the German Reformed Church in the thirteen colonies. Born in Switzerland, Schlatter was educated at Gelmstadt University and ordained in 1739 as a minister in the German Reformed Church. In 1746 he was sent to America to organise and supervise the scattered German Reformed congregations, This he did so ably and then returned to Europe to secure ministers for the colonial churches one of whom was Philip Otterbein [see 1752]. He also served as superintendent of schools in Philadelphia 1754-56 and as a British army chaplain 1756-59. He then became a pastor in Philadelphia and lost his property and was imprisoned during the Revolutionary War. 1740BENEDICT XIV Pope [1740-1758]. He was born into a noble family of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna" \o "Bologna" Bologna and created cardinal-priest in 1728. He was elected pope in 1740. After a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_conclave" \o "Papal conclave" conclave lasting six months. He is alleged to have said to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholicism)" \o "Cardinal (Catholicism)" cardinals: If you wish to elect a saint, choose HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Louis_Gotti" \o "Vincent Louis Gotti" Gotti; a statesman, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeo_Aldrovandi" \o "Pompeo Aldrovandi" Aldrovandi; a donkey, elect me. His papacy began in a time of great difficulties, chiefly caused by the disputes between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic" \o "Roman Catholic" Catholic rulers and the papacy about governmental demands to nominate HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishops rather than leaving the appointment to the church. He however managed to overcome most of these problems. He had a very active papacy, reforming the education of priests, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_of_saints" \o "Calendar of saints" calendar of feasts of the church, and many papal institutions including missions. In 1741 Benedict XIV produced a bull against the enslavement of the indigenous peoples of the Americas and other countries. He was also responsible for beginning the catalogue of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_Library" \o "Vatican Library" Vatican Library. He succeeded Clement XII [see 1730] and was succeeded by Clement XIII [see 1758]. EDWARDS, JONATHAN [1703-1758] After a precocious childhood he entered Yale in 1716 having by the age of 13 obtained a good knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and had written papers on philosophy. It was during his time at Yale, Edwards began to have a new kind of apprehensions and ideas of Christ, and the work of redemption, and the glorious way of salvation by Him. After a short pastorate in New York he was appointed a tutor at Yale. Under the influence of Edwards powerful preaching the Great Awakening occurred in 1734-1735 and a geographically more extensive revival in 1740-1741. Edwards became a firm friend of George Whitefield who was then ministering in America. After various differences with prominent families in his congregation he was dismissed as pastor in 1750 and the following year he became a pastor of a church in the frontier town of Stockbridge and a missionary to the Indians. He was elected president of Princeton in 1757 but in March the following year he died of the effects of a smallpox injection. ERSKINE, EBENEZER [1680-1754] Founder of the Secessionist Church [see 1842] called the Burghers [see above] in Scotland. Son of a Minister ejected in 1662 for nonconformity, he graduated at Edinburgh University in 1697 and was ordained six years later. He was very successful as a preacher often having to hold open-air services because the church could not contain the congregation. He moved to Stirling in 1731 and as synod moderator preached against assembly legislation on patronage, convinced that it took away the right of Christian people to elect and call their minister. Rebuked by synod and assembly Erskine with three others handed in a formal protest. The breach widened and in 1740 Erskine and seven other ministers were deposed. Within five years the Seceders were ministering to more than 40 congregations in Scotland. THE GREAT AWAKENING A series of revivals in the American colonies between 1725 and 1760 with the earliest occurring among the Dutch Reformed in New Jersey through the preaching of T.J. Frelinghuysen [see 1747]. This reached a peak in 1726 when encouraged by him Gilbert Tennent [see 1735], a Presbyterian pastor in New Brunswick, began to preach for conviction. This also led to a revival in New England through the preaching of Jonathan Edwards [see 1740]. However it was the English evangelist George Whitefield who after 1740 helped to plant evangelical Christianity on American shores and prepared the colonies spiritually for the trials of the revolutionary age. Through the Reading Houses of Samuel Morris and the preaching of William Robinson and Samuel Davies [see 1747], the Presbyterians experienced revival in the south. The Methodists and Baptists also grew rapidly in the era of the Great Awakening. The revival soon met resistance from the established clergy led by Charles Chauncey [see 1727] in New England. Jonathan Edwards however vigorously promoted the Great Awakening, showing that a change made in the disposition of people created in the heart by the Holy Spirit and showing itself in unselfish love for the things of God and in a burning desire for Christian conduct in other men. Those who followed Edwards were called New Lights and those who opposed it were the Old Lights. In the Presbyterians there was also a split into the New Side and the Old Side between 1741 and 1758, and the Baptists into Separate and Regular Baptists. Some of the changes included the fostering of early antislavery sentiment and an increased missionary activity amongst the Indians as represented by the work of David Brainerd [see 1745], Eleazar Wheelock [see 1733], and Samuel Kirkland. A number of very significant schools were created because of the Awakening. Of equal importance was the mood of tolerance that crossed denominational lines. This attitude not only contributed to a national spirit of religious tolerance that helped to make the first Amendment to the U.S. Constitution a workable arrangement but it also provided an evangelical consensus that is traceable to the present. NEWLIGHTISM New England Congregational preachers who supported the Great Awakening in the 1740s with its emphasis on the instantaneous or sudden conversion experience and attendant emotional and mystical features became known as New Lights because they sought to get their congregation new lighted by the spirit of God. A majority of the preachers were moderates such as Jonathan Edwards but many became radical separatists. RAUCH, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH [1718-1763] First Moravian missionary to the American Indians. He was born in Texas and became a missionary under the Moravians, arriving in New York in 1740. He soon made contact with a group of Mohicans who accepted his offer to serve as a teacher among them. After months of severe hardship living in the Shekomeko village he baptised several converts in the presence of Count Zinzendorf [see 1727]. By 1743 the mission prospered and a chapel was built but growing white settler opposition resulted in the expulsion of the Moravians and termination of the work by 1746. Rauch then served in Pennsylvania and North Carolina before going to Jamaica where he spent his last years working among black people. TENNENT, GILBERT [1703-1764] Presbyterian minister and revivalist who was the eldest son of William Tennent [see 1735]. He was born in Ireland and read theology under his father and was licensed to preach in 1725. Tennent became the minister of New Brunswick Presbyterian Church in New Jersey. Theodore Frelinghuysen [see 1747] befriended and guided him in his revivalistic ministry among the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians in what was the opening phase of the Great Awakening [see above]. Tennent accompanied George Whitefield through the colonies in 1740-41. His famous sermon on The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry in 1740 was a broadside against the Philadelphia Synods opposition to ordaining graduates of the Log College and was a factor in causing the Old Side New Side schism in 1741. He and Samuel Davis [see 1747] went to Britain from 1753 to 1755 to raise money for the new College of New Jersey later named Princeton. 1741 1750 AD 1741CHALLONER, RICHARD [1691-1781] Roman Catholic writer born into a Protestant family. After his fathers death he was educated in a Catholic establishment embracing that faith at 13. He spent time at Donai before joining the London Missionary Society in 1738. After an argument with Conyers Middleton he returned to Donai and was consecrated bishop of Hammersmith in 1741. He produced modernised Donai Old and New Testaments and wrote anti Protestant tracts. FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH [1660-1741] Musical composer who was perhaps the greatest Catholic composer of church music in the Germanic cultural sphere of his day. He attempted to keep alive the legacy of Palestrina and the Counter Reformation. 1742 CALVINISTIC METHODISM The title first given to those who in the 18th century revival adhered to the doctrinal emphases of George Whitefield [see 1737]. More than twenty years before the conversion of either Whitefield or the Wesleys, Griffith Jones [see 1730] of Llandowror had heralded the awakening in Wales with his evangelical preaching. He was soon supported by Howell Harris [see1735], Daniel Rowland [see 1752], Howell Davies, and the hymn writer William Williams [see 1744]. The first Methodist Association of Wales met in 1742 two years before Wesleys first conference. In 1770 the publication of Peter Williams Bible led to a renewal of interest in the Scriptures and in 1784 the work was continued to North Wales through Thomas Charles of Bala. In 1811 the body was officially recognised as the Calvinist Methodist Connexion and regular ordinations commenced. A ministerial training college was opened in Bala in 1837 and another for the south in 1842 which was transferred to Aberystwyth in 1905. Until 1840 the Calvinistic Methodists supported the London Missionary Society but in that year they started their own work in France and India. CHAUNCY, CHARLES [1705-1787] American Congregational leader of the Old Light which opposed the revivals of Great Awakening in 1742. He also opposed the appointment of any Episcopal bishops. ERNESTI, JOHANN AUGUST [1707-1781] German Lutheran theologian educated at Wittenberg and Leipzig whose early career was given in the main to the classics. In 1742 he became professor of ancient literature at Leipzig, to which post was added in 1758 the chair of theology, which dual role he sustained until 1770. He tried to reconcile traditional Lutheran beliefs with biblical scholarship. GRIMSHAW, WILLIAM [1708-1763] Anglican minister educated at Cambridge who became a curate and was later converted in 1742 after a long spiritual struggle. He was converted through reading Scripture and 17th century books. He was the incumbent at or Haworth in Yorkshire which was afterwards famous for the Brontes. Here, his uncouth racy preaching with plenty of humour; his athletic prowess that won him their respect; his affection for sinners and saints and his passionate sense of Christ as Saviour made him a powerful evangelist. Before sermons he would go out and roundup shirkers with a riding crop and his preaching brought many hearers from a distance. He took particular pains with the very poor, the isolated, and the sick. Because neighbouring parishes never heard the gospel he went around preaching. He was a fine example of the evangelical revival in parish life. HANDEL, GEORGE FRIDERIC [1685-1759] Musical composer. Unlike Bach, who had been born in the same year, Handel was not from a musical family and his father only grudgingly acknowledged his musical talent and destined him for the law. The greater part of his career was concerned with dramatic music, opera, and oratorio. His only music written for the church consists of his early German passions, the Latin psalms during a stay in Italy, the cantata-like anthems composed for the British duke of Chandos, and occasional festal works for coronations and national celebrations. Two of his oratorios, Messiah and Israel in Egypt, draw entirely upon biblical texts, while others are from different librettos and not always of great poetical merit. The classical masters such as Mozart and Beethoven admired and drew inspiration from the choral style. Messiah, written in 1741 and first performed in 1742, became the most performed major choral work in history, and continues to be so. Handel was also an outstanding composer of chamber music and concertos. SABATIER, PIERRE [1683-1742] French biblical scholar who studied at the monastery of St-Germain-des-Pres the great centre of Maurist learning under Thierry Ruinart [see 1674]. After the latters death he made his lifes work the search for the pre Vulgate Latin text of the Bible. Though not completed at his death, his virtually exhaustive collection of manuscripts and materials was published in 1743 at Reims, the first work of its kind and is still of great value today. SCHMIDT, GEORG [1709-1785] Missionary to South Africa. Schmidt joined the Moravian Brethren at Herrnhut in 1727. He was imprisoned by Catholic authorities and recanted after six years to obtain his freedom. As a punishment for this weakness he was sent alone to the Cape as first missionary to the Hottentot area some 120 kilometres from Cape Town and arrived in 1737. Here he gathered a small community of interested Hottentots. In 1742 Zinzendorf ordained him by letter and he baptised five converts. This action was resented by the local Dutch Reformed clergy who already doubted Moravian orthodoxy. Schmidt was told to discontinue baptisms pending the decision of the Amsterdam Classis. He appealed against this and lonely and depressed he left for Holland in 1744 hoping to remove obstacles to his work and to return but he was not permitted to do so and it was only in 1792 that Moravian work resumed in South Africa. 1743ACRELIUS, ISRAEL [1714-1800] He was a Swedish Lutheran minister and author who was ordained in 1743 having studied at Uppsala. He served for six years as a pastor in Sweden before sailing for missionary service amongst the Swedes in Delaware. Poor health forced him to return home in 1756. WOOLMAN, JOHN [1720-1772] American Quaker advocate of the abolition of slavery who spent his youth on a farm and became a minister of the Society of Friends in 1743 and travelled throughout the 13 colonies. He preached against conscription and taxes for military supplies, Negro slavery, and ill-treatment of the Indians. His testimony ended in 1776 with the Quakers stopping the practice of the Philadelphia yearly meeting of owning slaves. His writings greatly influenced 19th century abolitionists. Woolman died of smallpox on a visit to the English Quakers and was buried at York. 1744WILLIAMS, WILLIAM [1717-1791] Welsh Methodist leader and hymn writer. Although known to English readers as nothing more than the author of Guide me O thou Great Jehovah, Williams, whose works are almost entirely in Welsh, is the most significant literary exponent of the mind and spirit of the evangelical revival. He was educated at a Dissenting Academy and there he experienced evangelical conversion under the Ministry of Howell Harris [see 1735]. Williams joined the Church of England but was refused ordination in 1743. After this unhappy experience he devoted himself to the Methodist Revival as an itinerant preacher. Williams was one of the most prolific of Welsh Methodist authors with some 90 titles being published between 1744 and 1791. His greatest contribution was as a hymn writer and poet with large numbers of hymns being included in all the denominational hymnbooks. 1745BRAINERD, DAVID [17181747] American pioneer missionary to the Indians who had a profound conversion experience in 1739 and went to Yale from which he was expelled in 1742. Afterwards he studied divinity privately and was appointed by the Scottish Society for the propagation of Christian Knowledge as a missionary to the Indians in eastern Pennsylvania. Through his ministry he saw many converted during 17451746. Increasing ill health caused his retirement and he died at the New England home of Jonathon Edwards [see 1740]. His journal became a devotional classic and influenced hundreds to become missionaries. KOHLER, CHRISTIAN & HIERONYMUS [17141753] Two brothers formed a small sect called the Brugglers, in Brugglen near Berne Switzerland, about 1745, proclaiming themselves as the Holy Trinity with Elizabeth Kissling functioning as the Holy Spirit. Because of this and the prediction of the end of the world at Christmas 1748 they were exiled by the Berne Government in 1749. Hieronymus was executed for heresy in 1753. MARKOS VIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1745-1770] see 1727 and 1770. He joined the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Saint_Anthony" \o "Monastery of Saint Anthony" Monastery of Saint Anthony at a young age, then moved to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Saint_Paul_the_Anchorite" \o "Monastery of Saint Paul the Anchorite" Monastery of Saint Paul the Anchorite, where he became a monk and was ordained a priest. He was a contemporary of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" \o "Ottoman Empire" Ottoman HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultans" \o "Sultans" Sultans HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_I" \o "Mahmud I" Mahmud I, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_III" \o "Osman III" Osman III, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_III" \o "Mustafa III" Mustafa III. He ordained a general bishop over HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Egypt" \o "Upper Egypt" Upper Egypt to shepherd its HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christians 1746MATTHEW Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1746-1766] see 1737 and 1766. PEMBERTON, EBENEZER [1704-1777] American pastor who graduated from Harvard in 1721 and was called to be the pastor of the Presbyterian Church in New York in 1727. He formed close ties with J. Dickinson [see 1729], Aaron Burr, and John Pierson, and these four represented a powerful element in the formative stages of the Presbyterian Church. Pemberton became a close friend of George Whitefield [see 1737] and with Dickinson was prominent in founding the College of New Jersey in 1746. In 1754 he left the Presbyterian Church and for twenty years had a ministry in the famous Congregational Old South Church in Boston. 1747DAVIES, SAMUEL [1723-1761] Founder of southern Presbyterians. After theological training in Pennsylvania he was ordained as an evangelist in 1747 and sent to Hanover County in Virginia to preach to Presbyterian converts of the Great Awakening. He went to England with Gilbert Tennent in 1753 and raised funds mostly in Scotland for the College of New Jersey which is now Princeton University. His constantly frail health gave way and he died in 1761 after he contracted pneumonia and blood poisoning from being bled. FRELINGHUYSEN, THEODORE JACOBUS [1691-1747] Dutch Calvinist and Pietist. He served as pastor in the Netherlands and became aware of the need for trained ministers among the Dutch congregations in America and emigrated to New Jersey in his late 20s. Noted there as a good preacher, he stressed the need for spiritual revival, and found in the Great Awakening that swept the colonies a similar emphasis. He was in active touch with Gilbert Tennent [see 1735] and other revivalist leaders. He is an important figure in the history of the Dutch Reformed in America. HERRING, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1747-1757]. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge where he was a contemporary of Matthew Hutton, who succeeded him in turn in each of his dioceses. He was a fellow at Corpus Christi College from 1716 to 1723. Herring became a close friend of Philip Yorke, the solicitor general who would later as Lord Hardwicke serve for many years as lord chancellor, and as such was able to advance quickly. In 1728 he became doctor of divinity and a chaplain to George II. In 1737 he was appointed bishop of Bangor and six years later he became archbishop of York. On 23 September 1745, during the Jacobite rising, Herring gave a rousing sermon which it is said captured the patriotic imagination as nothing previously had, accusing the rising of the rebellion to be a threat posed by France and Spain to bring back the Catholic faith with its oppression to England. He contrasted this with the benign rule of George II who he claimed had given a situation where they were now blessd with the mild Administration of a Just and Protestant King, who is of so strict an Adherence to the Laws of our Country, that not an Instance can be pointed out, during his whole reign, wherein he made the least Attempt upon the Liberty, or Property, or Religion, of a single Person. In contrast he said that if the Ambition and Pride of France and Spain, is to dictate to us, we must submit to a Man to govern us under their hated and accursed Influence, who brings his Religion from Rome, and Rules and Maxims of his Government from Paris and Madrid. When Lord Hardwicke, the lord chancellor, repeated the speechs contents to King George II, the king ordered that the speech be printed in the Gazette. Herring organised Yorkshire into resistance against the Jacobites by raising volunteers and money. Herrings behaviour during the rebellion had demonstrated that he was a resolute Whig, a brave Briton, and a commanding prelate.He was also deeply suspicious of France as a Roman Catholic nation and a threat to the British nation. In 1747 he was appointedarchbishop of Canterbury. There he generally followed the lead of his friend the lord chancellor, and frequently came into disputes with theduke of Newcastle, thesecretary of state. Herring, like his immediate predecessor, had taken a generally Hanoverian side through theBangorian controversyand stood against theconvocation. He succeeded John Potter [see 1737] and was succeeded by Matthew Hutton [see 1757]. 1748BOEHLER, PETER [17121775] Moravian missionary and bishop of the Moravian Church in England from 1748. Peter was the son of an innkeeper who studied at Frankfurt and Jena where he was influenced by Spagenberg [see 1732] and Zinzendorf [see 1727] who encouraged Peter to become a missionary. The English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel sent him among the slaves of South Carolina and he became a pastor of some Moravians in Savannah. While in England he met and greatly influenced the Wesleys. He was also a pastor in New England for eleven years. BRIDAINE, JACQUES [1701-1767] French Roman Catholic preacher who conducted missions to towns and villages across France that led to many conversions. His style of preaching was extemporaneous in a day when it was extremely rare. He edited a book of Spiritual Songs in 1748. CYRIL V Patriarch of Constantinople [1748-1757] who succeeded Paisius II [see 1726]. There is no additional information readily available. 1749VENN, HENRY [1724-1797] Anglican clergyman who came from a long line of clergyman and was educated at Cambridge becoming a fellow of Queens College in 1749 the same year as his ordination. Ten years later he became vicar of Huddersfield in Yorkshire. He found that Huddersfield when he arrived was dark, ignorant and immoral but when he left for health reasons twelve years later it was shaken in the centre by the lever of the Gospel. As a preacher he was esteemed highly by many including the Countess of Huntingdon, William Cowper, and Charles Simeon. He was chosen to give the funeral oration at the burial of George Whitefield. 1750BELLAMY, JOSEPH [17191790] Congregational pastor, theologian, and educator who was a pupil of Jonathon Edwards [see 1740]. He was ordained in 1740 in Bethlehem. He was a travelling preacher in New England and taught universal atonement, based on the teachings of Hugo Grotius [see 1625] an Arminian, despite his Calvinistic background. In 1750 he published his main work True Religion Delineated in 1750. BYROM, JOHN [16921763] English poet and hymn writer who was educated at Cambridge and afterwards lived in Manchester. He wrote the famous hymn Christians Awake salute the happy morn. He was very aware of the activity of the Holy Spirit which was very unusual in the 18th century. CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST [1715-1775] German theologian who became professor of theology at Leipzig in 1750. He attacked a series of important works: the determinism of Leibnitz, the perfectionism of Wolff, and the biblical criticism of his colleague Ernesti, as dangerously anti Christian. His prophetic theology was rediscovered and popularised in the 19th century. ENGLAND, CHURCH OF [see 1532 and 1919] Like most Protestant denominations the Anglican Church was affected by Deism in the 18th century but the key movement of this period was the Evangelical Revival with its emphasis on justification by faith, personal conversion, and the Bible. Though the Wesleys and Whitefield increasingly worked out side the Anglican system, a sizeable evangelical party emerged in the church, valuing the Prayer Book and the parish system, gaining its leadership from laymen such as William Wilberforce [see1807] and the members of the Clapham Sect [see 1844]. The early 19th century with its movement for Catholic Emancipation and the removal of Nonconformist disabilities saw the position of the Establishment threatened but spirituality was revived by the Oxford movement although some saw this as a Romanising tendency, a suspicion which seemed to be confirmed by the secession of J.H. Newman [see 1845] and others to Rome in 1845. EPHRATA SOCIETY A cloistered, Protestant commune founded at Ephrata, Pennsylvania by a German Pietist mystic J.K. Beissel [see 1720] and his Dunker disciples. By 1750 some 300 brothers and sisters lived in monastic austerity within the cloister, practising celibacy, pacifism, keeping Saturday as the Sabbath, sharing agricultural and trade labour, and holding all property and profit in common. The society printed about 200 books from 1745-1800. The first music printed in America was published at Ephrata. After Beissels death in 1768 the society with its monastic features deteriorated, was subsequently incorporated as the German Religious Society of the Seventh-Day Baptists in 1814 and was finally dissolved in 1934. NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY [c.1750-1850] Calvinistic movement began under Jonathan Edwards [see 1740]. Regarded as one of Americas greatest thinkers, he set out to re-formulate Puritan Calvinism and to make it more harmonious towards the spiritual experiences the Great Awakening [see 1740]. In order to justify the results of the latter he wrestled with freedom versus sovereignty. Edwards sought a middle ground between the enthusiasts of revival and Charles Chauncey [see 1727] who accused the revival of mindless emotion. Edwards agreed that heat without light was wrong but one could not divorce truth from experience. The New England Theology of Edwards dominated conservative Congregational schools such as Yale from about 1750 to the late 1800s when German critical theology won the day. SCHWARTZ, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH [1726-1798] German missionary and translator. The son of a master baker in Prussia he was educated at Halle University where he encountered Benjamin Schultze a former missionary who had extended the work of Ziegenbalg [see 1706] at Tranquebar and completed the latters Tamil translation of the Bible. This encounter led to Schwartzs call to India. Having learnt Tamil before sailing he arrived in India in 1750 and spent his first years at the Danish-Halle Mission in Tranquebar. In 1760 he paid a notable visit to Ceylon. Seven years later he was appointed chaplain to the British at Trichinopoly. Schwartz was therefore one of the remarkable succession of Germans who built up English missions in South India. He was invited by the Rajah of Tanjore in 1772 to minister in his area and for a period became virtually prime minister of Tanjore. All of these political duties never deflected him from his primary calling as a missionary. At Tinnevelly in the far south he appointed the catechist Sattianaden, and thus had a share in building what became a famous church. Often regarded as the greatest the 18th century German Protestant missionaries in South India Schwartz died at Tanjore. 1751-1760 AD 1751BACKUS, ISAAC [17241806] American Baptist minister, historian and champion of the separation of Church and State who was converted during the Great Awakening in 1741 and joined the New Light. Inspired by Whitefield he went on preaching tours and in 1751 became a Baptist and the pastor of the Middleborough congregation. He contributed to the growth of the Baptists in New England. BROWN, JOHN [17221787] of Haddington. Scottish self educated minister who because of his prodigious learning as a child was accused of witchcraft by his minister. He was ordained in 1751 to minister at Haddington [17511787]. During this period he trained many Burgher students [see 1733]. He was a prolific author who is best known especially for his Self Interpreting Bible. GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FURCHTEGOTT [1715-1769] German Poet. He was born in Saxony and entered HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" \o "University of Leipzig" Leipzig University in 1734 as a student of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" theology, and on completing his studies in 1739 was for two years a private tutor. Owing to shyness and weak health Gellert gave up all idea of entering the ministry, and, established himself, with much success, in 1745 as a lecturer at the university of Leipzig in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry" \o "Poetry" poetry, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric" \o "Rhetoric" rhetoric and literary style. In 1751 he was appointed extraordinary professor of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" \o "Philosophy" philosophy at Leipzig, a post which he held until his death. He was said to have been the noblest and most amiable of men, generous, tender-hearted and of unaffected piety and humility. He wrote in order to raise the religious and moral character of the people. His most famous hymn was Jesus lives! No terrors now KLOPSTOCK, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB [1724-1803] German poet who studied theology at Jena and Leipzig. He was a private tutor to Frederick V of Denmark in 1751. While still at school he drafted the plan for a religious epic Der Messias inspired by Miltons Paradise Lost. Der Messias which was started in 1751 was not completed until 1773 when he was living in Hamburg. He wrote religious odes, hymns, and lyrical and epic poems, and made important contributions to German poetry. 1752DENMARK During the Age of Enlightenment and Rationalism 1752-1800 much energy was spent on useful social reforms but otherwise it was a period characterised by widespread religious differences and serious spiritual decline. The first half of the 19th century was a period of transition gradually the old rationalism was overcome through the influence of men such as N F S Grundtvig [see 1825], J P Mynster [see 1834], and H L Martensen [see 1854], and through the rising tide of revivalism. In 1849 the common peoples fight for freedom led to the overthrow of the absolute monarchy and the spiritual coercion of the state run church system. The principle of religious liberty and freedom of conscience was legally established in the basic law of the new constitution. Many from the awakened circles joined the Grundtvigian movement, or founded the more pietistic Indre Missions [see 1861]. Smaller groups joined the Lutheran Mission called Bornholmians [see 1868] or various free churches. Since World War II the great majority of the population maintain membership of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, recognised and supported by the state as the national church. [See 1536] EMBURY, PHILIP [1728-1773] Probably the first Methodist minister in America. Born in Ireland he was a carpenter by trade. John Wesleys preaching led to his conversion in 1752. He became a local preacher in Ireland six years later. He migrated to New York City in 1760 and was encouraged to preach to migrants and he did this in a meeting at his own home in 1766. During the week he worked as a carpenter and preached on Sundays until his early death on the farm. GILLESPIE, THOMAS [1708-1774] Scottish minister who trained under Philip Doddridge [see 1729] at Northampton and was a friend of Jonathan Edwards [see 1740]. He ministered at the country parish of Carnock in Fife and was deposed by the Church of Scotland general assembly in 1752 for refusing to take part in a forced settlement at Inverkeithing. Supported by the large congregation that built his Dunfermline church he stood alone for nine years, and then was joined by two other ministers one of them Thomas Bostons son. Passing into the history as the founder of the Relief denomination, Gillespie sponsored the first Presbyterian body in Scotland to encourage foreign missions and to open its pulpits to all ministers of Christ and its communion table to all believers. OTTERBEIN, PHILIP WILLIAM [1726-1813] Co-founder of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ [see 1800]. He was son of a Reformed minister from Germany and studied at Herborn and was ordained to the ministry of the Reformed Church. In 1752 he responded to an appeal from Michael Schlatter to do missionary work in America. While serving as pastor of the German Reformed congregation of Lancaster Pennsylvania he struggled earnestly in his attempts to preach a vital message but felt inadequate in explaining how one might know the assurance of salvation. A moving spiritual experience brought him into a more complete awareness of salvation in Christ, and he henceforth taught the need for every person to experience repentance and a new birth. He organised prayer meetings, trained laymen in the evangelistic work, and worked closely with ministers and other denominations including the Methodist bishop, Francis Asbury [see 1784]. Bishop and co-founder with Martin Boehm [see 1768] of the United Brethren in Christ [1800] he served as minister of the German Evangelical Reformed Church in Baltimore from 1774 until his death. SEMLER, JOHANN SALOMO [1725-1791] German biblical scholar who was son of a Pietistic pastor. Semler was educated at Halle where in 1750 he became professor of theology. When J.S. Baumgarten died five years later, Semler became the head of the theological faculty. He pioneered in biblical and church historical criticism investigating the origins of the New Testament books in a manner unacceptable to Lutheran Orthodoxy and this caused controversy. 1753SEABURY, SAMUEL [1729-1796] First bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the USA. He was born in Connecticut and graduated from Yale in 1748 and then studied theology and medicine in Edinburgh. He was ordained in 1753 and served as a missionary in New Brunswick and was then a rector on Long Island [1757-1766] where he also practiced medicine and taught school. Seabury was imprisoned for a short while during the American Revolution because of his Tory sympathies after which he went over to the British side and served as a hospital and later regimental chaplain. He became bishop of Connecticut and Rhode Island and died while making parish calls. 1754 1755ALISON, FRANCIS [17051779] Irish born American Presbyterian minister and educator. He studied at Glasgow University and in 1735 moved to America where he opened a school in New London in 1743. In 1755 the granting of degrees was authorised with Alison as vice provost of the college with whom he was to be associated for twenty five years. He also founded the Presbyterian Society for the Relief of Ministers and their Widows. MOSHEIM, JOHANN LORENTZ VON [1694-1755] Lutheran Church historian who became a Lutheran when his Roman Catholic father died. He was educated at Lubeck and at the University of Kiel where he became a faculty member. Theologically mediating between the Pietists and the Deists he opposed both groups. Although he contributed to most fields of theology his principal works were in church history, which he endeavoured to make more scientific and objective. His interests extended even to Chinese church history. His main work was published in 1755. PARAGRAPH BIBLES In 1755 John Wesley published a New Testament in which he returned to the pre-Geneva Bible practise of paragraphing, as opposed to the arrangement in verses followed in the King James Version and other versions. The Religious Tract Society brought out an edition of the King James Version in paragraphs in 1838. The Revised Version of 1881 adopted the paragraph arrangement, and this has been followed in most modern translations. 1756RABAUT, PAUL [1718 1794] French Huguenot leader born into a Protestant family and at the age of 16 accompanied and helped itinerant preacher Jean Betrine. The four years of experience served him well when he became in 1738 a pastor and an opponent of repressive legislation. He was associated with the church in Nimes most of his life. In 1756 he was voted president of the national synod of the Huguenot Church which at this period was in difficulties with the revocation of the Edict of Nantes [see 1598] and though beset by problems Rabaut did much to rehabilitate the Protestants of France. With Antoine Court [see 1715] he is to be regarded as of major importance in the history of 18th century French Calvinism. One significant success in which he and his sons shared was the passing of the Edict of Toleration in 1787. 1757CALLINICUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1757] who succeeded Cyril V [see 1748]. He is a unique case of an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch" \o "Ecumenical Patriarch" Ecumenical Patriarch who was patriarch for a single day. He was bishop of Heracleia and a very ambitious man who used any means in order to become patriarch. He had tried many times unsuccessfully to seize the throne. In 1757, he plotted with some high ranking Greek civil servants against the incumbent patriarch Cyril V and by bribing the grand vizier, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Mehmed_Pasha" \o "Kprl Mehmed Pasha" Kprl Mehmed Pasha, managed to depose his rival and ascend the throne as Patriarch Callinicus III. His patriarchate lasted only for hours though, because he died from a sudden heart attack when he heard that he had indeed been elected. FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM [1729-1785] He was born in Switzerland and came to England with a distinguished university record from Geneva and was appointed as a private tutor in 1752. Converted under the influence of the Methodists he was ordained by the bishop of Bangor in 1757. After assisting John Wesley in London, Fletcher settled in Shropshire in 1760. For a time he was superintendent of Countess of Huntingtons ministerial training college at Trevecca. During the Calvinistic controversy Fletcher was the chief defender of evangelical Arminianism. In personal relationships with theological opponents Fletcher was a model of Christian reconciliation. That Wesley recognised his work can be seen in the fact that he designated Fletcher as his successor, had he consented, as the leader of Methodism. HART, JOSEPH [1712-1768] Hart was an 18th century HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinism" \o "Calvinism" Calvinist minister in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London. His works include Harts Hymns, a much-loved hymn book amongst evangelical Christians throughout its lifetime of over 200 years. However one of Joseph Harts early publications, prior to his conversion was a tract denouncing Christianity called The Unreasonableness of Religion criticising John Wesleys Sermon on Romans 8:32. He was brought up by evangelical parents and said that he imbibed the sound HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrines" \o "Doctrines" doctrine of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel" \o "Gospel" Gospel from my infancy However he was not converted until he heard George Whitefield at Whitsun in 1757. After these times Hart still had sufferings and uncertainties as to his conversion, but he could always look back to his conversion and believe that God saved his soul. He reflected this in his hymn How good is the God we adore. Joseph Hart preached at Jewin Street chapel in London, a building with multiple galleries, to a congregation of significant size. Only one of Harts sermons remains, that of Christmas 1767. HUTTON, MATTHEW Archbishop of Canterbury [1757-1758]. Matthew Hutton was ahigh churchman who served as archbishop of York (17471757) and archbishop of Canterbury(1757 to 1758). He was a direct descendant of Matthew Hutton, who served as archbishop of York in the 17th century. Hutton was born near Richmond in Yorkshire, and was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1713. He was a fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, from 1717 to 1727, and became a doctor of divinityin 1728. He became a royal chaplain toGeorge II in 1736. While he became archbishop of Canterbury in 1757 he died the next year without having ever lived in Lambeth Palace. He succeeded Thomas Herring [see 1747] and was succeeded by Thomas Secker [see 1758]. SERAPHEIM II Patriarch of Constantinople [1757-1761] succeeded Callinicus III [see above]. There is no additional information readily available. TAYLOR, JOHN [1694-1761] Nonconformist minister who after a lengthy pastorate in Norwich was appointed as professor of divinity at Warrington Academy in 1757. Taylor adopted Arian views of the person of Christ, and also claimed that the orthodox reformed view of the imputation of Adams sin to his posterity lacked biblical support, and that Adams sin had natural not moral consequences. His views were fully answered by Jonathan Edwards [see 1740] in The Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin Defended in 1758 but Taylors thoughts continued to be influential in England and the United States of America. 1758BOYCE, WILLIAM [17101779] English composer who was trained as a chorister at St Pauls Cathedral. He became organist at Chapel Royal for 11 years from 1758 but was forced to resign due to loss of hearing. He wrote Cathedral Music an historical review which did much to keep alive the music of Byrd and Gibbons. He was the best native composer of the late 18th century. CLEMENT XIII Pope [1758-1769] [see 1740]. He received a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" \o "Society of Jesus" Jesuit education in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna" \o "Bologna" Bologna and was created cardinal by Clement XII [see 1730] in 1737 becoming bishop of Padua six years later. During his tenure as bishop of Padua he visited all the parishes in the diocese, the first bishop to do that for 50 years. He was elected at a time when the papacy was declining in prestige and the Jesuits were under attack. He took up the cause of the Jesuits to whom he owed his election. In 1758 the reforming minister of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_I_of_Portugal" \o "Joseph I of Portugal" Joseph I of Portugal (175077), the marquis of Pombal, expelled the Jesuits from Portugal, and shipped them en masse to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitavecchia" \o "Civitavecchia" Civitavecchia, as a gift for the pope. The Jesuits were abolished in France in 1764 and expelled from Spain, Naples and Malta. The Bourbon kings seized HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" \o "Avignon" Avignon, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benevento" \o "Benevento" Benevento and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontecorvo" \o "Pontecorvo" Pontecorvo, and united in a demand for the total suppression of the Jesuits in January 1769. Driven to extremes, Clement XIII consented to call a meeting to consider the step, but on the very eve of the day set for its meeting he died (February 2nd 1769), not without suspicion of poison, of which, however, there appears to be no conclusive evidence. They were finally suppressed by Clement XIV [see 1769]. He succeeded Benedict XIV and was succeeded by Clement XIV [see 1769]. HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG [1730-1788] German religious thinker who underwent a religious experience in 1758 during a business trip to London. Returning to Germany he began to study and was the most evangelical of his group rediscovering in Luthers work a spontaneous personal faith, a religious experience which rose superior to Protestant scholasticism, pietistic subjectivism, and a rationalistic philosophy. He wrote a number of notable works. HEUMANN, CHRISTOPH AUGUST [1681-1764] German Protestant theologian. He studied at Jena and was director of the theological seminary at Eisenach [1709-1717] from where he moved to Gottingen. He became professor of history and literature and professor of theology at the University of Gottingen, resigning in 1758 when he came to reject the Lutheran understanding of the Eucharist. He devoted the remainder of his life to writing. He wrote a 12 volume commentary on the whole New Testament and published numerous controversial papers on the Lords Supper. SECKER, THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1758-1768] He was a native of Nottinghamshire and at Richard Browns Free School at Chesterfield attained a competency in Greek and Latin. Brown congratulated Secker for his successful studies by remarking, If thou wouldst but come over to the Church, I am sure thou wouldst be a bishop. In London he met Isaac Watts, who encouraged Secker to attend Samuel Joness dissenting academy atGloucester, at that time functioning in the house of Joseph Wintle, a distiller. Under Jones, Secker significantly increased his ability at languages, supplementing his understanding of Greek and Latin with studies in Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac. Joness course was also famous for his systems of Jewish antiquities and logic; maths was similarly studied to a higher than usual level. Also at Joness academy at the same time as Secker were the later Church of England bishops Joseph Butler, Isaac Maddox, and John Bowes, and other leading Christians included the future dissenting leaders Samuel Chandler, Jeremiah Jones, and Vavasour Griffiths. In 1713, Jones moved his academy to larger premises inTewkesbury, partly financed by 200 from Secker. He studied medicine inLondon, Paris and Leiden, receiving his MD degree at Leiden in 1721. Having decided to take orders he graduated, by special letters from the chancellor, at Exeter College, Oxford, and was ordained in 1722 and after a number of parishes he became bishop of Bristol in 1735. About this time George II commissioned him to arrange reconciliation between the prince of Wales and himself, but the attempt was unsuccessful. In 1737 he was translated toOxford and eventually in 1758 was raised to the see of Canterbury. His support of an American episcopate raised considerable opposition in England and America. His principal work was Lectures on the Catechism of the Church of England. He succeeded Matthew Hutton [see 1757] and was succeeded by Frederick Cornwallis [see 1768]. WILKINSON, JEMIMA [1752-1819] A religious leader whose interest was raised about 1758 by George Whitefields sermons and by the meetings of the New Light Baptists. In 1774 she was influenced by Ann Lee [see 1766] the founder in America of the Shakers. Following a fever she claimed she had died and that her body was inhabited by the Spirit of Life. Taking the name Public Universal Friend she held open-air meetings, led processions on horseback dressed in a long robe over masculine attire. Wilkinson established churches and her disciples, claiming that she was Christ come again, aroused hostility forcing her to leave New England. Internal disputes affected the movement which disintegrated entirely after her death. 1759OCCOM, SAMSON [1723-1792] Best-known American Indian preacher of the 18th century who was converted with his mother during the Great Awakening in 1740 and studied theology with Eleazar Wheelock [see 1733] who began the Indian School that later developed into Dartmouth College. Occom served as teacher and minister to the Montauk Indians of Long Island from 1749 to 1764. He was ordained in 1759 and served as a missionary to the Oneidas, an Iroquois tribe. He established the Indian town of Brotherstown New York in 1784 and published an Indian hymnal. 1760HECK, BARBARA [1744-1804] Mother of American Methodism. Born in Ireland she migrated to New York with her husband in 1760. She encouraged her cousin Philip Embury [see 1752] to hold the first Methodist meeting in America in his home and encouraged him further in the building of the first Methodist chapel in America. The family moved to Canada early in the Revolutionary War because of their Tory views. 1761-1770 AD 1761FINLEY, SAMUEL [1715-1766] Presbyterian minister and educator who was born in Ireland and migrated to America in 1730. He studied at the Log College in Pennsylvania for the Presbyterian ministry. He was licensed in 1739 and sent out as an itinerant preacher in the Great Awakening as it grew in intensity. Finley was aligned with the positions held by John Dickinson [see 1729] and Jonathan Edwards [see 1740]. He founded an Academy on the Maryland Pennsylvania border which helped to feed the College of New Jersey with youth aspiring to the New Side ministry. He was elected as the fifth president of Princeton in 1761 and served in that post until his death five years later. JOANNICUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1761-1763] succeeded Seraphiem II [see 1757]. There is no additional information readily available. 1762TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE [1740-1778] Anglican hymn writer who was educated at Trinity College Dublin and converted through a Methodist lay preacher. He was ordained in 1762 and had a living in Devon. In 1770 Toplady became pastor of the French Calvinist chapel in London. He was a powerful preacher and a vigorous Calvinist bitterly opposed to John Wesley. He is best known for his hymn Rock of Ages. 1763CANADA The Churches under British Rule. After the transfer of Nova Scotia to Britain in 1713 and of the rest of Canada in 1763, Protestantism and English speaking Catholicism became established in the former French territory. In personnel and financial support they came originally from France, Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies. There were controversies such as clergy reserves [see 1791]. From this period five groups have made up the Christian community in Canada: Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists. In general the French Catholic clergy were loyal to the British as seen by the relations bishops Jean Briand [see 1766] and Joseph Plessis [see 1806] had with the British. The Anglicans drew support from pre Loyalist New Englanders, United Empire Loyalists [see 1789], British garrisons and administrators, and immigration from the British Isles. The Methodists consisted mainly of British Wesleyans and American Episcopal Methodists. Presbyterians, while derived from Britain and America, reflected the traditional breach between the Church of Scotland and the various Secession churches. The Baptist Church was pioneered in the Maritime states from New England and the Scottish Highlands. The Lutheran Church in Canada was bolstered by emigrants from Germany and Scandinavia. Early missionaries of the expansion into the west were Joseph Provencher [see 1818], John West [see 1820], James Evans [see 1840] and John Black. By 1840 it was clear that education would be in the hands of the state but with some religious instruction on a non denominational basis. Upper Canada, later Ontario, allowed for separate Roman Catholic schools while Lower Canada, later Quebec, developed into Catholic and Protestant sections. [See Canada The Church of New France 1612 and Canada the church since 1867 at 1867.] ROWLAND, DANIEL [1713-1790] Welsh Methodist leader who with Howel Harris [see 1735] had the distinction of being co-founder of Welsh Calvinistic Methodism. The son of a parish priest he was ordained in 1735 and served as a curate to his brother John in the parishes served by their father. He was converted under the ministry of Griffith Jones and began a preaching ministry of great power. He began to found societies where his converts could be established in their newly found faith. The Calvinistic Methodists in Wales were split into two groups in 1752 with Harris leading one group and Rowland the other and ten years passed before reconciliation was made. When his brother was drowned in 1760 the authorities passed over Daniel Rowland had gave the living to his son to whom he now became curate. He was finally dispossessed in 1763 but continued his ministry in the New Church that had been built for him. It is said his sweetness of spirit and magnetism of his delivery kept congregations spellbound sometimes for hours on end. SAMUEL I Chatzeres Patriarch of Constantinople [1763-1768, 1773-1774] succeeded Joannicus III [see 1761]. There is no additional information readily available. 1764HAWEIS, THOMAS [1734-1820] Co-founder of the London Missionary Society and trustee executor of Lady Huntingdon. He was converted, called to the ministry, and at Oxford University started the second Holy Club [see 1734] among the undergraduates. He took the living of All Saints, Aldwincle, in Northamptonshire in 1764. His church quickly became a centre of evangelical influence throughout the area. When the London Missionary Society was formed in 1795 he was instrumental in ensuring that Tahiti was the first field to be evangelised. HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON [1744-1803] Lutheran scholar who was born in East Prussia and studied at the University of Konigsberg where he came under the divergent influences of Immanuel Kant [see 1770] and J. G. Hamann [see 1758]. He became a Lutheran pastor at Riga in 1764 before becoming a court preacher at Weimar where he lived uncomfortably opposed by the official clergy, for the rest of his life. His study of the Gospel of John in 1797 indicated that the Gospel could not be harmonised with the synoptic, and that while a life of Jesus could come from either John or the synoptic, it could not be derived from a harmony of them all. HILL, ROWLAND [1744-1833] Preacher who was educated at Cambridge but entered in 1764 at a time when evangelical views were unpopular. He believed at first that he was the only evangelical Christian there, except for the shoe black at the gate, but soon led several students to Christ. Following ordination he was appointed to Kingston and preached to great crowds, often in the open air. Some 10 years later he inherited money and built Surrey Chapel, Blackfriars, where he had a powerful London Ministry. He welcomed advances in science as shown by himself vaccinating the children of his congregation. He was instrumental in founding the Religious Truth Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, and the London Missionary Society. Sir Rowland Hill of the penny post was named after him. HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON [1701-1790] Assistant bishop of Trier who was known by the pseudonym Justinius Febronius and was the founder of Febronianism. After 18 years of work he published a work of his doctrines which reflected Gaelic and Protestant motifs although remaining devoutly Catholic, and not secular. Clement XIII condemned it in 1764 but intense public debate continued throughout Europe. Hontheim later unconvincingly recanted in 1778 while others, including Austrian chief minister Kaunitz, used his ideas to support a more secular Josephinism. SANDEMANIANS A group of Bible loving Christians, founded by John Glas [see 1719], which flourished from 1725 until about 1900. Robert Sandeman [1718-1771], Glas son-in-law, became the leader and attacked Calvinistic evangelical work on the grounds that it made faith a work of man which earns salvation. Sandeman held that the bare assent to the work of Christ alone is necessary. After the controversy many churches were founded including the London church in the Barbican area of which Michael Faraday [see 1827] was a member. Sandeman left England in 1764 to found churches in the United States of America where the groups survived until 1890. They upheld infant baptism and foot washing as practices as well as excommunications. The sect was exclusive and intermarriage was usual. One of the conditions of membership was that the church could control the use of members private money. 1765COUGHLAN, LAWRENCE [1738 -1785] Pioneer preacher in Newfoundland was brought up as a Catholic but was converted at the age of 15 and became an itinerant preacher in Ireland. In 1765 he went to Newfoundland under the auspices of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and was ordained by the bishop of London. A revival broke out and he was soon in trouble with the leaders of the colony as he preached against the conditions of the ordinary person in Newfoundland. Opposition and long journeys broke his health and he returned to England in 1773 leaving the work in the hands of two merchant converts. JOHNSON, SAMUEL [1709-1784] Moralist, essayist, and lexicographer. Educated at Oxford Johnson unsuccessfully attempted school mastering before he went to London with the actor Garrick. He was famous for his writings including his edition of Shakespeare in 1765. Tory and Anglican he held deeply sincere religious views, though these are expressed more in moral than in spiritual terms. Nowhere is this better shown than in the last lines of the Vanity of Human Wishes. MANNING, JAMES [1738-1791] Founder and first president of Brown University, USA. He graduated from Princeton University and by 1765 had secured a charter for Rhode Island College and founded a Baptist church in Warren, Rhode Island. He was appointed first president of the college in 1765 and held the position of professor of language until his death. He represented Rhode Island in the Congress and in the summer of 1791 wrote a report that suggested the creation of the States present free public school system. 1766BRIAND, JEAN OLIVER [17151794] French born Catholic bishop of Canada who went to Canada in 1741. During the siege of Quebec by the British he directed the diocese in the absence of the bishop. He kept the French passively loyal to the British after their conquest of Canada. Due to his efforts the Quebec Act and Habeas Corpus Act of 1774 broadened the privileges of Catholics in Canada although Roman Catholicism was officially banned. He is generally hailed as the second founder of the Catholic Church in Canada and he consecrated his successors before resigning his see. CYPRIAN Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1766-1783] see 1746 and 1783. EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUST [1739-1809] German philosopher and theologian who had studied philosophy, theology, and classical philology under such teachers as J.S. Sember. After 1766 he moved into the Berlin Circle of F. Nikolai and M. Mandelssohn. He wrote a significant criticism of Kantian philosophy and a critique of such ideas as original sin, caused controversy, for which he was attacked. Eberhard was appointed a professor of philosophy at Halle where he was recognised as being in the tradition of Leibnitz [see 1703]. EPHRAIM II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1766-1771] see 1737 and 1771. GIBBON, EDWARD [1737-1794] English historian. Born in Surrey, England, he was of independent means throughout his life. His Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in seven volumes [1766 -1788] helped to make church history a critical discipline. In some ways his works is still unsurpassed. He looked at Roman history from the view of the ironic humanism of the 18th century. He was a friend of Voltaire and Diderot. Gibbon did not believe in the supernatural and sought to explain the growth of Christianity naturalistically, on the principle that the religious is at least a phenomenon of human experience. LEE, ANN [c.1736-1784] Founder of the Shakers who were originally called the Shaking Quakers. Her movement formed near Manchester England from 1758 to 1772. After unfortunate experiences in marriage, childbirth, and loss of four children she withdrew from her husband in 1766 and announced her complete conversion. Assuming leadership of the local Shakers shortly thereafter, she outlined her cardinal doctrines: confession was the door to regenerate life, celibacy its rule and cross. She migrated to New York in 1774 where the movement grew rapidly. She was largely responsible for the formulation of the characteristic beliefs of the Shakers: celibacy, communal living, pacifism, and millennialism, elitism, and spiritual manifestations through barking, dancing, and shaking. PHILEMON Patriarch of Antioch [1766-1767] see also 1724 and 1767. ROMAINE, WILLIAM [1714-1795] Evangelical Anglican who was educated Oxford and ordained in the Church of England. He was chaplain to Daniel Lambert in his year of office as lord mayor of London in 1741. One of his absorbing interests was the Hebrew language. Romaine was a friend of George Whitefield, the countess of Huntingdon, and others. Excelling as a preacher he attracted large crowds in London and on preaching tours in the country. He wished to see the Gospel penetrate the whole Church and nation and organised days of prayers to this end. In 1766 he was appointed rector of St Annes Blackfriars and remained there to his death. His message was a warm Calvinistic evangelicalism. 1767DANIEL Patriarch of Antioch [1767-1791] see also 1766 and 1792. JOSEPHISM The Austrian Habsburg policy of secular state control of the church implemented in the 18th century by Empress Maria Theresa culminating with intensity under Joseph II [1780-1790]. Its motivation was secular and rationalist, aimed at rationalising the organisation of the whole of society through an enlightened programme of state centralism. Instructions in 1767 and the following year by the chief minister Kaunitz initiated a program. As part of the project the Law of Toleration [1781] ended the Catholic monopoly, allowing Protestants and Jews certain freedoms to worship, a step permitted by Joseph as he argued that any church could be made obedient to the state. Monasteries were either dissolved or their members reduced in number on the grounds that many were useless, or wasteful; their properties were confiscated, and the revenues used to fund state reorganisation of parishes, and state-controlled schools, shops, or factories. All links between the papacy and the Hapsburg Church were abolished or controlled, since the pope was viewed principally as a foreign political power. PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH [1733-1804] Nonconformist minister famous for his work in the chemistry of gases who also published his ideas on philosophy, religion, education, and political theory. Priestly was born into a strict Calvinist family then became a dissenting minister and by 27 was a teacher of classics and literature at a Dissenting Academy in Warrington. He received a doctor of law degree from University of Edinburgh and a fellowship of the Royal Society [see 1662]. In 1767 he became the minister of a congregation in Mill Hill Leeds which shared his views. Although before this he had rejected the doctrine of the Atonement and of the Trinity, now he took the final step to Unitarianism and argued that Christ was only a man. When the French Revolution broke out Priestley supported it and because of this a Birmingham mob broke into his house and destroyed his belongings. Discouraged by the turn of events he went to America in 1794 settling in Northumberland Pennsylvania where he spent the last 10 years of his life. 1768BOEHM, MARTIN American Mennonite of Swiss ancestry who was chosen by lot at the age of 31 to become the pastor of the Mennonite congregation to which he belonged. In his itinerant preaching he was willing to preach in English which displeased the Mennonites and they denounced and expelled him. He met Philip Otterbein [see 1752] at a preaching meeting at Lancaster in 1768 and they cofounded the Church of the United Brethren in Christ with both of them bishops. CORNWALLIS, FREDERICK Archbishop of Canterbury [1768-1783]. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London, the seventh son of Charles Cornwallis, 4th HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron_Cornwallis" \o "Baron Cornwallis" Baron Cornwallis. He was educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eton_College" \o "Eton College" Eton Collegeand graduated from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ%27s_College,_Cambridge" \o "Christ's College, Cambridge" Christs College, Cambridge. He was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordained" \o "Ordained" ordained a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest" \o "Priest" priest in 1742, and became adoctor of divinityin 1748. Cornwallis was able to ascend quickly in the Church thanks to his aristocratic connections, and in 1746 was made HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaplain" \o "Chaplain" chaplain to King HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" \o "George II of Great Britain" George II and a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(priest)" \o "Canon (priest)" canon of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire" \o "Windsor, Berkshire" Windsor. In 1750 he became a canon at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral" \o "St Paul's Cathedral" St Pauls Cathedral, and later that same year became bishop of Lichfield and Coventry thanks to the patronage of the duke of Newcastle, then secretary of state. On the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Secker" \o "Thomas Secker" Thomas Secker in 1768, his friendship with the then HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_minister" \o "Prime minister" prime minister, the duke of Grafton, resulted in his appointment as archbishop of Canterbury. As archbishop, his social skills and good humour made him popular. He was a consistent supporter of the administration of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_North" \o "Frederick North" Lord North, and led efforts in support of dispossessed Anglican clergy in the American colonies during the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution" \o "American Revolution" American Revolution. On the whole, Cornwallis has generally been judged as a competent administrator, but an uninspiring leader of the eighteenth century church whose lack of zeal paved the way for the differing responses of both the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicals" \o "Evangelicals" Evangelicalsand the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Movement" \o "Oxford Movement" Oxford Movementin the early 19th century. His nephew was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cornwallis,_1st_Marquess_Cornwallis" \o "Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis" Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquis Cornwallis who was a British general during the American Revolution and later became governor-general of India. He succeeded Thomas Secker [see 1758] and was succeeded by John Moore [see 1783]. COUNTESS OF HUNTINGDON CONNECTION [1707-1791] A body founded by Countess Selina Hastings after her conversion and joining the Methodists. More piscopal t than Wesley she appointed evangelical Anglicans as her chaplains among them George Whitefield [see below]. She funded in 1768 a college in South Wales for the training of evangelical clergy. The Countess also helped to sponsor Whitefields orphanages in Georgia, took interest in American Indians, and encouraged the beginnings of Dartmouth College and Princetown University in America. EMS, CONGRESS OF [1768] This was a meeting at Ems of the representatives of the three elector-archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and the prince-archbishop of Salzburg. It sought to prevent a papal move to establish a new see at Munich that would have enabled the Bavarian Crown to communicate directly with the Romans instead of going through the archbishops as before. Another see was created at Cologne. The leaders of the congress said that they would accept only a limited primacy of the pope, require Episcopal agreement to papal communications and decrees, discontinue appeals to Rome and payment to the Roman Curia and hold authority over members of religious orders themselves. Joseph II approved the recommendations of the congress but many bishops and German princes opposed them as an unwarranted use of authority by the archbishops. The effect of the French Revolution in Germany terminated the controversy. WITHERSPOON, JOHN [1723-1794] President of Princeton University, Witherspoon was a descendant of John Knox. He graduated from Edinburgh and ministered in the parishes of Beith and Paisley. He attacked abuses in the church and satirised the Moderates [see 1733] as paganised Christian ministers. He accepted the presidency of Princeton in 1768 and held it for 25 years. He made a number of improvements and lectured in divinity, moral philosophy, and eloquence. He worked for union with Congregationalists and Dutch Reformed, and favoured a general assembly, and influenced Scots and Irish Presbyterians to support the Whigs. Witherspoon encouraged the Declaration of Independence and was the only cleric and educator to sign it. 1769CLEMENT XIV Pope [1769-1774]. He received his education from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuits" \o "Jesuits" Jesuits at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimini" \o "Rimini" Rimini and in 1724, at the age of nineteen, entered theFranciscan HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscan" \o "Franciscan" Order of Friars Minor Conventual. He became a friend of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" \o "Pope Benedict XIV" Pope Benedict XIV(174058). In 1758 he was appointed by that pope to investigate the issue of the traditional blood libel regarding theJews which he found to be untrue. He was elected Pope Clement XIV on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_19" \o "May 19" 19th May HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1769" \o "1769" 1769 and was installed on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_4" \o "June 4" 4th June, 1769, after a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_election" \o "Papal election" conclave that had been sitting since HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_15" \o "February 15" 15th February HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1769" \o "1769" 1769. Deliberations were heavily influenced by the political manoeuvres of the ambassadors of Catholic sovereigns who were opposed to the Jesuits. His policies were calculated from the outset to smooth the breaches with the Catholic crowns that had developed during the previous pontificate. The dispute between the temporal and the spiritual Catholic authorities was seen as a threat by Church authority, and Clement XIV worked towards the reconciliation of the European sovereigns. The pope went on to engage in the suppression of the Jesuits, the decree to this effect being written in November 1772, and signed in July 1773. Pope Clement XIV and the customs of the Catholic Church in Rome are described in letters of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" \o "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his father HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Mozart" \o "Leopold Mozart" Leopold Mozartwritten from Rome in April and May of 1770 during their tour of Italy the same year. Leopold found the upper clergy offensively haughty, but was received by the pope with his son after Wolfgang demonstrated an amazing feat of musical memory. The papal chapel was famous for performing a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miserere_(Allegri)" \o "Miserere (Allegri)" Miserere mei, Deusby the seventeenth-century composer HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorio_Allegri" \o "Gregorio Allegri" Gregorio Allegriwhose music was not to be copied outside of the chapel on pain of excommunication. The fourteen-year-old Wolfgang was able to transcribe the composition in its entirety after a single hearing. Clement XIV knighted the young Mozart, the only ruler who ever accorded him a similar honour in his lifetime. Ever after, Mozart was able to pass himself off as a noble when he cared to. Clement XIV succeeded Clement XIII [see 1758] and was succeeded by Pius VI [see 1775]. MELETIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1769] succeeded Samuel I [see 1763]. There is no additional information readily available. OBERLIN, JEAN FREDERIC [1740-1826] Alsatian Lutheran minister and philanthropist. He studied theology at Strasbourg and in 1769 became a pastor in Waldersbach. He was a social reformer through his endeavours in the formation of schools, building roads and bridges, encouraging better agricultural techniques, and establishment of factories, stores, and savings and loans associations. Although deeply pious and devoted to his parishioners he had an ecumenical outlook which embraced both Catholics and Calvinists. He welcomed the French Revolution. Under various French regimes he was admired for his philanthropic ways and many in the church regarded his love of Christ and deep mystical devotion combined with a desire to promote the welfare of mankind as a symbol of hope. THEODOSIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1769-1773] succeeded Meletius II [see above]. There is no additional information readily available. 1770CARLYLE, ALEXANDER [1722-1805] Moderator of the Church of Scotland in this year. A Scottish minister known by the nickname Jupiter because of his imposing appearance and a brilliant conversationalist who scandalised many by going openly to the theatre and playing cards at home with unlocked doors. He was very capable at pastoral work being ordained as a minister at Inveresk in 1746, a post he held to his death. HOPKINS, SAMUEL [1721-1803] Congregationalist theologian of the New England Theology or Hopkinsianism [see 1750]. He trained at Yale and was ordained in 1743 as a pastor in Massachusetts. In 1770 he became pastor of the Congregational Church in Newport Rhode Island. He was an early exponent of the abolitionist cause seeing slavery is a moral evil. He was even better known for his modification of Calvinism. KANT, IMMANUEL [1724-1804] German philosopher born into a Pietist family in Prussia and lived there all his life. He was professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of Konigsberg from 1770. His contact with the ideas of David Hume [see 1739] awoke him from his dogmatic slumbers and turned him into the critical philosopher of the Critique of Pure Reason and later works. Kant had a view that any knowledge of God is impossible and this has been extremely influential in Protestantism ever since. Theology has become anthropology. With the view that God is unknowable has gone a recasting of classic dogmatic theology from the notion of revelation onward. WELSH BIBLE Published by Peter Williams and led to a revival of interest in the Scriptures. YOANNIS XVIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1770-1797] see 1745 and 1797 He became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Saint_Anthony" \o "Monastery of Saint Anthony" Monastery of Saint Anthony. At the death of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Mark_VII_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope Mark VII of Alexandria" Pope Markos he was unanimously chosen to succeed him. During his papacy, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" \o "Pope Pius VI" Pope Pius VI of Rome attempted to attract the Eastern Churches to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" \o "Roman Catholicism" Roman Catholicism. Thus, he published the proceedings of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" \o "Council of Chalcedon" Council of Chalcedon and distributed it in all the countries of the East. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" \o "Pope Pius VI" Pope Pius VI of Rome even sent an envoy to Pope Yoannis XVIII of Alexandria asking him to unite with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" \o "Roman Catholic Church" Roman Catholic Church. The famous scholar and theologian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_el-Abbah&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Joseph el-Abbah (page does not exist)" Joseph el-Abbah, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" Bishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girga" \o "Girga" Girga responded to the message, refuting its claims and defending HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy" \o "Orthodoxy" Orthodoxy. During his papacy the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copts" \o "Copts" Copts were persecuted by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" \o "Ottoman Empire" Ottoman rulers. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizya" \o "Jizya" Jizya was increased to unprecedented amounts of money, and those who could not pay it had to convert to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" \o "Islam" Islam or be executed. The commander of the Ottoman army stationed in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt seized the treasury of the Patriarchate and confiscated all its funds. Pope John XVIII had to go into hiding for some time. The Pope was a good friend of the famous HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copts" \o "Copts" Coptic layman HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_El-Gohary" \o "Ibrahim El-Gohary" Ibrahim El-Gohary. Together, they worked on restoring monasteries and churches. They also prepared the Holy Myron. 1771-1780 AD 1771CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS [1740-1815] Poet and Hymn Writer. Claudius was born at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinfeld,_Holstein" \o "Reinfeld, Holstein" Reinfeld, near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" \o "Lbeck" Lbeck, and studied at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jena" \o "Jena" Jena. He spent the greater part of his life in the little town of Wandsbeck, near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg" \o "Hamburg" Hamburg, where he earned his first literary reputation by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the Wandsbeck Messenger, in which he published a large number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure and simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many there was a vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque, while others were full of quiet meditation and solemn sentiment. In his later days Claudius became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of his nature showed itself. He is known for his harvest hymn sung both in German and English We plough the fields and scatter In 1814 he moved to Hamburg, to the house of his son-in-law, the publisher HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Christoph_Perthes" \o "Friedrich Christoph Perthes" Friedrich Christoph Perthes, where he died in 1815. SOPHRONIOS V Patriarch of Jerusalem [1771-1775] see 1766 and 1775. SWEDENBORG, EMANUEL [1688-1772] Swedish scientist, philosopher, and theologian who was the son of a minister who was later appointed bishop of Skara. Emanual became very interested in mathematics and natural sciences and in 1709 went abroad to study languages and mechanics at London, Oxford, Amsterdam, and Paris. He returned to Sweden and was appointed assessor of the Royal Board of Mines from 1715 to 1747 when he resigned to study the Scriptures. He was made a noble in 1719 and now applied himself to discover the nature of the soul and spirit by means of anatomical studies. He experienced strange dreams and visions which increasing frequency after 1739 and led to a profound spiritual crisis in 1743-1745 relieved by a vision of Jesus Christ which he felt confirmed his interpretation of Christianity. In 1787 his religious followers organised into a group known as the New Church or New Jerusalem Church [see 1787]. 1772 1773BARCLAY, JOHN [17341798] The founder of the Bereans who trained as a Presbyterian minister at St Andrews where he came under the influence of Dr Archibald Campbell. He went to England and in 1773 was ordained in Newcastle. He believed that man could not reach belief in God using rationalism, that the revealed truth of the Bible could only be received by illumination of the Holy Spirit, that assurance of salvation is the hallmark of Christianity and that unbelief is a sin against the Holy Spirit. BEREANS Founded by John Barclay [see above]. After Barclays death the Berean Church in Edinburgh flourished for twenty five years under James Donaldson. However after Donaldsons death the Bereans split and like other Berean churches eventually merged with the Congregationalists. DIDEROT, DENIS [1713-1784] French encyclopaedist and key figure of the Enlightenment [see 1793] was educated in local Jesuit schools and in Paris where he received his masters degree in 1732. He married his secretary in 1743. He became editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia which monumental enterprise was his chief occupation until its completion in 1772. He travelled through Russia in 1773-1774 meeting Catherine the Great, who purchased his library, paying in advance to provide his daughters dowry. EMMONS, NATHANIEL [1745-1840] Congregational theologian who was educated at Yale college and entered the ministry of the Congregational Church. He served as a pastor in Massachusetts from 1773-1827 during which period he published more than 200 articles in periodicals, and personally instructed about 100 young men in theology and preaching, many of whom obtained positions of leadership in the church and in theological education. He generally followed the teachings of Jonathan Edwards [see 1740] as developed by Samuel Hopkins [see 1770]. He helped to found the Massachusetts Missionary Society, favoured the abolition of slavery, was a zealous patriot during the American Revolution, and became a Federalist thereafter. HOWARD, JOHN [1726-1790] Prison reformer, born in Hackney. After a short period as apprentice to a grocer came into a modest inheritance in 1742 and travelled in Europe. After one trip to Portugal his boat was captured by a pirate on the return journey and he was imprisoned in France. This caused him to reflect on where his life was going. In 1758 he settled in Bedfordshire where he built model cottages, promoted educational experiments, and developed rural industries. He travelled again after the death of his second wife and on his return in 1773 was made high sheriff of Bedfordshire. Thereafter he devoted his time, strength, and a good part of his fortune to the reform of conditions in prisons in England and Europe. He publicised terrible conditions in many institutions and agitated for reform. In 1789 he took his last journey which led him to Prussia and Poland and on to Russia where he caught camp fever and died. Howard was a very earnest evangelical Christian whose life was devoted to the cause of prison reform. 1774QUEBEC ACT [1774] An act of the British Parliament which superseded the Royal Proclamation of 1763, this was the constitution of the colony of Quebec. The Act extended the boundaries to the west and south so that they approached the earlier limits of the French colony. The Roman Catholic Church was officially recognised and permitted to collect its accustomed dues. English criminal law remained in force. The Act marked the abandonment of the policy of assimilation or Anglicisation and was resented by the English in Quebec and the other British North American colonies. SOPHRONIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1774-1780] succeeded Samuel I [see 1763]. There is no additional information readily available. 1775ABRAHAM II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1775-1787] see 1771 and 1787. ALLINE, HENRY [17481784] Born in Rhode Island, Alline underwent an unusually powerful conversion experience in 1775. He became an itinerant preacher and started a revival called the New Light movement. Leader of the Great Awakening Movement in Nova Scotia fostering the growth of Baptist churches in that Canadian province even though many considered him a fanatic. AMERICAN NEGRO CHURCHES were first known in America in a Baptist Church founded at Silver Bluff Carolina in 1775. Prior to that slaves attended church with their master or were provided minimal religious instruction by master, pastor or missionary. After the Great Awakening [see 1740], Baptist and Methodist missionaries reached them with simple, personal gospels giving them more meaning in their lives. After the Civil War there was a great expansion in Negro churches. The migration to the cities after World War I contributed to the rise of the storefront church and numerous organised cults such as Black Muslims, Black Jews, and Father Divines Peace Mission. The theology of the orthodox Negro churches is typically fundamentalist and evangelical and they have a greater proportion of ministers and churches than the general population of America. The struggle for racial and social equality has created a crisis of identity within many Negro churches. DES BRISAY, THEOPHILUS [1755-1825] The first Anglican clergymen on Prince Edward Island when he went there in 1775, and although the only Protestant clergyman he received no stipend and so became the chaplain for the army regiment stationed there. He was a tolerant churchman, and welcomed the Methodist evangelist William Black during the latters preaching tour of 1783. FULLER, ANDREW [1754-1815] Baptist theologian who was the son of a Cambridge farmer and a powerful wrestler in his youth. He was ordained as a minister of the Baptist Church in 1775. Entirely self-taught Fuller was the greatest original theologian among 18th century Baptists. He had been brought up among the hyper Calvinist but due to his studies became an evangelical Calvinist and this involved him in various controversies with hyper Calvinists. As the Baptist Church is Britain responded increasingly to his evangelicalism, Fullers role in denominational affairs grew more important and he had a profound influence on William Carey [see 1793] and the Baptist Missionary Society for which he was a secretary from 1792 to 1815. GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON [1749-1832] German poet, novelist, and scientist. As a student of law at Leipzig and Strasbourg he became interested in occult philosophy and mysticism. In 1775 he was appointed to the court at Weimar and had at this time and increasing interest in scientific questions. The central philosophical influences on him were those of Spinoza, Jacobi, and Kant. Goethes religious views were ambiguous as he was a pantheist when studying nature but a monotheist in morality. GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB [1745-1812] German New Testament scholar who became professor at Halle in 1773 and professor of New Testament at Jena in 1775. He was the first critic to make systematic application of literary analysis to the Gospels, maintaining that Mark was the latest of synoptic gospel basing his work on Matthew and Luke (the dependence theory). Subsequent New Testament criticism has built on his work. MILNER, ISAAC [1750-1820] Evangelical clergyman who after his fathers death became a weaver and managed to teach himself Latin and Greek and mathematics. When he was 18 his brother Joseph [see 1797] became headmaster of Hull Grammar School and appointed Isaac to the staff. Joseph then paid for Isaac to go to Queens College Cambridge. He was ordained in 1775 and in 1784 went to France with William Wilberforce [see 1807] and their reading of the New Testament together led to Wilberforces conversion. Back in Cambridge Milner encouraged the spreading of the Evangelical influence. He was made a dean of Carlisle in 1791. He has been described as an Evangelical Doctor Johnson and was learned in many fields of science, mathematics and philosophy. PIUS VI Pope [1775-1799]. Born of noble parents and educated by the Jesuits. In 1740 he went to Rome and eventually became secretary to Benedict XIV, however, he was not ordained until 1758. In 1773 he was created cardinal despite his opposition to the Jesuit Order which took place the same year. As pope, by delicate diplomatic efforts, he contrived to secure the Jesuits resettlement in Prussia and Russia. In the Holy Roman Empire Febronianism spread rapidly with the encouragement of the archbishop electors though at the Ems Congress of 1786 their aims were cleverly frustrated by the pope and the movement soon came to the end. Most seriously Josephinism in the Hapsburg Empire led to the popes journeying to Vienna in 1782 to plead with the reforming emperor. The following year after the threat of excommunication Emperor Joseph returned to visit Pius who partially reasserted his authority. When four years later Joseph tried to extend his policies to the Spanish Netherlands the devoutly Catholic inhabitants rose in a clerical nationalist revolt and the pope had the satisfaction of seeing princely reforms opposed by the people themselves. The French Revolution and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 led the pope to anathematise the revolutionaries and those clerics who accepted the reform. This caused the Papal States to be in the first anti French Coalition of 1796 but this led to the invasion of the Papal States and the seizure of Rome itself in 1798. Pius was captured and carried away by the French which led to his death in the depths of an Alpine winter of 1799. He succeeded Clement XIV [see 1769] and was succeeded by Pius VII [see 1800]. SAILER, JOHANN MICHAEL [1751-1832] Jesuit scholar who entered the Jesuits in 1770 and was ordained in 1775. Five years later he became professor of dogmatics at Ingolstadt and this was followed by other academic appointments. As the mentor of prospective priests, Sailer influenced a circle of evangelicals which included Martin Boos [see 1797], Johannes Gossner [see 1829], and Baron von Wessenberg [see 1817]. In 1829 Sailer was appointed bishop of Regensburg. 1776PAINE, THOMAS [1737-1809] Deistic writer and political propagandist. Born in Norfolk he was a corset maker, tax collector, teacher, and grocer until he sailed to America in 1774 with letters of introduction from Benjamin Franklin [see 1732]. In 1776 he published his famous Common Sense which argued for a republic. He returned to England in 1787 and in 1792 was indicted for treason on publication of his book The Rights of Man. He escaped to France where he had been made a citizen, and published The Age of Reason, which brought imprisonment and roused British indignation with its Deistic arguments. He returned to America in 1802 and died there seven years later having alienated most of his friends by his unpredictable allegiances. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [see also 1607 and 1914] The Reformation led to a host of national churches, sects, and dissenters, and the refuge for many of those persecuted in Europe was colonial America. In 1790 the religious groups in the majority were British in background and Puritan in Theology, and even among the remaining minorities, Germans, Dutch, French, and Swedes, the Protestant background prevailed. The Great Awakening gave Puritanism a decidedly evangelical character, and the spiritual vision that had almost disappeared was revitalised. When the winds of revolution filled the air, many of the churches were in support of independence. Because of religious diversity the Declaration of Independence banned any test for public office and separated the spheres of church and state. Immediately people began streaming westward, by 1860 states were rapidly forming west of the Mississippi, and the Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians proved most adaptable to the frontier. Revivalism was the preaching used to reach the un-churched masses which sought to make listeners vividly aware of their eternal destiny, and camp meetings of great outdoor gatherings lasted several days. Sunday Schools, academies, and societies for social reforms were developed. However, the generation just prior to the Civil War was marked by controversy and division among the denominations. The Roman Catholic Church whose beginnings went back to the Franciscan missions in the Southwest received an influx of immigrants especially from Ireland which caused Protestant fears. The greatest cause of controversy however was the national slavery issue with the agricultural boom in the South dependent upon slave labour and a radical abolitionist movement in the North contributing to the widening breach of the country with denominations torn apart by diverging ideologies. During reconstruction various church agencies poured money and men into the South to bring religion and education to the Negroes just released from slavery with Baptist and Methodist churches having the greatest appeal to the Negro. After 1860 independent Lutheran churches were formed from waves of Scandinavian immigrants and after 1880 millions of additional Roman Catholics from Eastern and Southern Europe. Another conflict swirled around the emerging social conscience within the churches with certain Protestant leaders calling for the application of the principles of Jesus to the new industrial-urban problems. This new concern was labelled the Social Gospel with its most persuasive advocate in Walter Rauschenbusch, and its goals stated in the Social Creed of the Federal Council of Churches. 1777COKE, THOMAS [1747-1814] Methodist preacher and missionary enthusiast who was closely associated with Wesley from 1777 who set him aside as superintendent for America seven years later. He was a staunch opponent of slavery and a vigorous promoter of missions organising the Negro Mission in the West Indies and developed missionary activity in Gibraltar, Sierra Leone, and the Cape of Good Hope. He died on his way to Ceylon with a party of missionaries. 1778BRETHREN IN CHRIST Originated in a society formed along the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania by Jacob and John Engel of Swiss Mennonite [see 1536] ancestry. After a century of fairly quiet growth the group burst into activity beginning Sunday schools, orphanages, homes for the aged, and education as well as missions. By 1970 more than one third of their members were in mission churches in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. 1779COWPER, WILLIAM [1731-1800] English poet who suffered all his life with depression which more than once developed into mania. From 1765 he was cared for by Mary Unwin until her death in 1796 which did much to keep Cowper serene and happy. In collaboration with John Newton [see below ] were published the Olney Hymns in 1779 including O for a closer walk with God, God moves in a mysterious way, Hark my soul it is the Lord, as well as the controversial There is a fountain filled with blood. The most moving expressions in his poetry relate to his intense feeling of his own predetermined damnation especially in his last terrible poem The Castaway. NEWTON, JOHN [1725-1807] Anglican clergyman and hymn writer, son of a merchant who had an unstable childhood and was forced to join the Royal Navy. He tried to escape but was arrested in West Africa and eventually became virtually the slave of a white slave traders black wife who completely humiliated him and he lived hungry and destitute for two years involved in the slave trade. In 1747 he boarded a ship for England and a violent storm in the north Atlantic nearly sank them. For Newton it was a moment of revelation and he turned the God. Nevertheless further slave trading followed but in 1755 he gave up the sea and in 1764 he became curate of Olney in Buckinghamshire. There he met the poet William Cowper [see 1779] and with him produced the Olney Hymns of which a number are still in common use including Amazing Grace, How sweet the name of Jesus sounds, and Glorious things of thee are spoken. In 1779 Newton moved to London and became vicar of St Marys Woolnoth. His influence was widely felt especially in the evangelical world. Handels Messiah made an enormous impact in London and Newton preached a famous series of sermons on the texts in the Messiah that Handel had used for the lyrics. After one of the sermons the young William Wilberforce [see 1807] sought his counsel. Newton played a part in the abolition of the slave trade because of his relationship with Wilberforce. PERRONET, EDWARD [1726-1792] Hymn Writer and Poet. He was the son of an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism" \o "Anglicanism" Anglican priest, who worked closely with John and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wesley" \o "Charles Wesley" Charles Wesley for many years in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" Englands eighteenth century HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revivalism" \o "Revivalism" revival. He is perhaps most famous for penning the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics" \o "Lyrics" lyrics to the well known HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymn, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Hail_the_Power_of_Jesus%27_Name" \o "All Hail the Power of Jesus' Name" All Hail the Power of Jesus Name in 1779. He was born HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent" \o "Kent" Kent and was the descendant of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_people" \o "French people" French HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenot" \o "Huguenot" Huguenot family which fled first to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" \o "Switzerland" Switzerland and then to England to escape HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious" \o "Religious" religious persecution. At the time, persecution of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodists was common. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesley" \o "John Wesley" John Wesley once noted in his diary that Edward himself was thrown down and rolled in mud and mire at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton" \o "Bolton" Bolton. Though considered a capable preacher, Perronet was uneasy about doing so in front of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesley" \o "John Wesley" John Wesley, despite Wesleys persistent urging. After wearying of his requests, Wesley simply announced one day that Brother Perronet would speak. Edward cleverly managed to escape Wesleys intention by mounting the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulpit" \o "Pulpit" pulpit, declaring he would deliver the greatest HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sermon" \o "Sermon" sermon ever preached, and proceeding to read HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ" \o "Christ" Christs HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" \o "Sermon on the Mount" Sermon on the Mount; after which, he immediately sat down. During his life, Edward published three volumes of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian poems, including a poetic rendering of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripture" \o "Scripture" Scriptures. Shortly before he died on January 2, l792 in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury" \o "Canterbury" Canterbury he uttered these last words: Glory to God in the height of His divinity! Glory to God in the depth of his humanity! Glory to God in His all sufficiency! Into His hands I commend my spirit. Perronet was buried in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" \o "Canterbury Cathedral" Canterbury Cathedral. 1780BAMPTON LECTURES were named after Canon John Bampton who died in 1751 and in his will endowed an annual lectureship to St Mays Church Oxford. He specified that the lectures shall cover the defence of the Christian faith set out in the creeds and on the authority of the Scriptures and Church Fathers. The lectures were first given in 1780. EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED [1752-1827] German biblical scholar who became professor at Jena in 1775 and at Gottingen in 1788. He dismissed as spurious many of the Old Testament books and was a pioneer of Higher Criticism. His three volume introduction to the Old Testament was influential for many years after its publication in 1780-1783. He was one of the early advocates of the so-called primitive gospel hypothesis, which holds that all three Synoptic gospels are based on a lost Aramaic gospel. GABRIEL IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1780-1785] succeeded Sophronius II [see 1774]. There is no additional information readily available. GORDON RIOTS [1780] These broke out in London on 2nd June when Lord George Gordon led a mob to the House of Commons with a petition for the repeal of the Catholic Relief Act of 1778. Lord George was a fanatical anti-papist and became president of the Protestant Association in 1779. The demonstrations soon became violent. Roman Catholic chapels were destroyed. On 6th June, Newgate and other prisons were burned down and the following day attacks made upon the Bank. While the magistrates were acting feebly, the crowd had been swollen by released criminals and resorted to wholesale looting. Many of the rioters were convicted and 25 executed. Gordon was arrested for high treason but was acquitted then he was later convicted for libel and died in Newgate prison in 1793. HORNE, GEORGE [1730-1792] Bishop of Norwich who was educated Oxford and was dean of Canterbury in 1781 before going to Norwich in 1790. He was a High Churchman but sympathised with Methodist spiritual earnestness. He strongly disapproved of the expulsion of Methodist students from St. Edmunds Hall Oxford and refused to forbid John Wesley to preach in his diocese. He actively promoted the Naval and Military Bible Society founded in 1780 and supported the cause of Scottish bishops who petitioned Parliament in 1789. He wrote a commentary on Psalms, interpreting them messianically. PALEY, WILLIAM [1743-1805] Anglican scholar, archdeacon of Carlisle from 1780. Educated at Cambridge, Paley gained fame through his books. He was not an original or subtle thinker but he was an unrivalled expositor of plain arguments. His Natural Theology of 1802 sought to prove the being and goodness of God from the order of the world. Paley took a lax view of the 39 Articles and was perhaps inclined to Unitarianism on certain points although he was a conservative apologist of the Church of England and the British Constitution. RAIKES, ROBERT [1735-1811] Promoter of Sunday schools. He was the publisher of the Gloucester Journal through which he was enabled to maintain his interest in neglected children. After meeting with Thomas Stock [1749-83] who had started a Sunday school in Ashbury, Raikes set up one in his own parish in 1780 which met a glaring need. The idea caught fire and schools sprang up in other places. Despite popular opinion however he is not the movements founder and never claimed to be. By 1786 some 200,000 children were being taught in England and a London society for establishing Sunday schools had been organised by William Fox in 1785. They spread into Wales in 1789 through Thomas Charles of Bala [see 1784] as well as to Scotland, Ireland, and America. John Wesley encouraged them and Adam Smith praised their cultivating of good manners. They taught children to read and write along with giving Bible instruction. At first teachers were paid, later they volunteered. In 1803 a Sunday School Union was founded. RANDALL, BENJAMIN [1749-1808] Founder and organiser of the Freewill Baptists. Born in New Hampshire he early went to sea with his father and became a sail maker. Three sermons by George Whitefield [see 1737] and the shock of Whitefields death converted him in 1770. He became a Congregationalist but his views led him in 1776 to become a Baptist. He was ordained in 1780 and organised a Free Baptist Church. He drew up the covenant which became the basis of the later Freewill Baptist Church. His ardent evangelism won so many that by 1783 he organised a quarterly and in 1792 a yearly meeting of his group. When he died there are about 6000 adherents. RICCI, SCIPONE DE [1741-1810] Bishop of Pistoia-Prato. Originally from Florence he was influenced by Jansenism in the Roman College and while a student at Pisa encountered Gallicanism. Ricci was ordained in 1766 and became vice general of the archdiocese of Florence in 1755 and bishop of Pistoia-Prato in 1780. In 1783 he founded a theological college at Prato with lecturers who were sympathetic with his views. He presided over the Synod of Pistola in 1786 where his schismatic propositions brought his downfall. His final years were spent in confinement. Zeal for reform and lack of proper training made his innovations dangerous and subject to political pressures. SUNDAY SCHOOLS The beginnings of an organised movement are usually dated from 1780 when Robert Raikes [see 1780], a Gloucester journalist established a small school to care for the local slum children who were neglected and illiterate. He wrote an article about his work which caught peoples imaginations and encouraged the setting up of Sunday schools throughout England. The movement spread to the Continent and to America where the First Day Society was established in Philadelphia in 1790. Raikes saw the culmination of his efforts when the Sunday School Union was founded in 1803 and received great support in evangelical circles. 1781-1790 AD 1781 1782SIMEON, CHARLES [1759-1836] Evangelical leader who was educated at Cambridge and on entering the college discovered that attendance at Communion was compulsory. His preparation to take the sacrament was the main factor in his subsequent conversion. His own adoption of evangelical views was fostered by his friendship with Henry and John Venn [see 1749 and 1783]. Appointed vicar of Holy Trinity in Cambridge in 1782 he ministered there until his death. He overcame early opposition mainly through the pastoral care he gave, and while firmly attached to the Church of England, he became the centre of the evangelicalism in Cambridge. As well as encouraging the British and Foreign Bible Society he helped to found the Church Missionary Society and the London Jews Society, and his curate Henry Martyn [see 1805] as a chaplain of the East India Company became one of Indias best known pioneer missionaries. He established the Simeon Trust, which purchased livings for Evangelicals, and this trust still exists. 1783CRABBE, GEORGE [1754-1832] English poet who was born in Suffolk and hence much of his poetry was set in that county including The Village of 1783 which is an exposure of social conditions in a small seaside community. He was successively rector at Muston and Trowbridge. There is a strong underlying moral comment in his skilful analyses of character and action and this is found also in his sermons. GERASIMUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1783-1788] see 1766 and 1788. JONES, THOMAS [1756-1820] Welsh Calvinistic Methodist theologian whose education was limited but it gave him an excellent grounding in the classics. He began to preach among the Calvinistic Methodists in 1783 and ministered to their societies for the next 40 years. He was closely associated with Thomas Charles after whose death in 1814 Jones was the most learned and distinguished leader of the Calvinistic Methodists. In the theological controversies that dominated Welsh intellectual life at the beginning of the 19th century he took a firm but moderate Calvinist position. MOORE, JOHN Archbishop of Canterbury [1783-1805]. He was the son of a butcher from Gloucester and was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford. Patronage from the third duke of Marlborough gained him a position at Durham Cathedral in 1761 and held a number of other positions including bishop of Bangor [1774-1783] before taking up his appointment of archbishop of Canterbury which he held until his death in 1805. He succeeded Frederick Cornwallis [see 1768] and was succeeded by Charles Manners Sutton [see 1805]. VENN, JOHN [1759-1815] Clapham Sect chaplain who was the son of Henry Venn [see 1749]. He was educated at Cambridge and became a rector in Norfolk in 1783 and nine years later became rector at Clapham through Charles Simeon [see 1782]. The Thorntons, Wilberforce and Zachary Macaulay were among his parishioners and he became virtually the chaplain to the Clapham Sect of Christian political activists [see 1844]. Venn took an active part in the formation of the Church Missionary Society. His health, always bad, required his resignation of these duties in 1808. 1784ALLEN, ETHAN [1737-1789] American soldier and exponent on Deism who was the military leader of the Green Mountain Boys of Vermont during the War of Independence and captured Fort Ticonderoga .He then identified himself with the ideals of the French Enlightenment and became Deistic in outlook. In 1784 he wrote the first book to be published in America openly attacking Christianity called Reason the Only Oracle for Man in which he rejected the Christian claim that the Bible is the special revelation of God to man. ASBURY, FRANCIS [17451816] Born in Birmingham England, he was one of two American Methodist bishops appointed by Wesley after responding to Wesleys call for ministers for America. He was viewed by some as autocratic but he emphasised discipline and the values of itinerant ministry. Although sickly he travelled some 300,000 miles on horseback to nurture the emerging denomination which by the time of his death had grown from a few hundred to a membership of 200,000. ARTICLES OF RELIGION was the doctrinal standard of the United Methodist Church of America. In 1784 John Wesley prepared a revised and shortened version of the Thirty Nine Articles [see 1536] for use in American Methodism. Wesleys objective was to remove from the Articles whatever inclined toward ritualism or Calvinism. The American Methodists added an article of their own affirming their loyalty to the American government following the War of Independence. The Twenty Five Articles were adopted in 1784 by the Baltimore Conference. CHARLES, THOMAS [1755-1814] Welsh Methodist educator. He was converted under the ministry of Daniel Rowland [see 1763] and lived at Bala from 1784 being involved with the Methodist Society. He organised Sunday Schools as an extension of day schools and from his approach to the Religious Tract Society for Welsh Bibles in 1802 initiated the start of the British and Foreign Bible Society [see 1804]. He was responsible for the separation of the Calvinistic Methodist Church of Wales separating from the Anglican Church by ordaining ministers [see 1811]. 1785BALTIMORE CONFERENCE adopted the 25 articles of the Limited Methodist church of America all except one having been drawn up by John Wesley. The 25th affirmed their loyalty to the American Government. BRAMWELL, WILLIAM [17591818] Lancastrian Wesleyan preacher who was the tenth of eleven children born to a devout Anglican family in Elswick. While apprenticed he devoted spare time to Bible study and was converted but finding a lack of Christian companionship within the Anglicans he joined the unpopular Wesleyan devils to the horror of his parents. He was an evangelist who led hundreds to the Lord and well known for his preaching, generosity and self denial. He preached until the last, dying suddenly after declaring the Lord had told him he only had a short time to live. HALL, ROBERT [1764-1831] English Baptist minister who was a precocious child writing hymns before he was nine and preaching his first sermon at 11. He was educated at the famous Nonconformist academy run by John Ryland and graduated in 1785 from Aberdeen University, beginning his ministry in Bristol. Theologically he moved his position from an early Calvinism view to a basically Arminian system. He was deeply interested in the rapid progress of scientific research. In 1791 he moved to the pastorate of Cambridge. A period of ill health including two mental breakdowns caused him to seek relief in drugs, then after a period of rest he became the minister of a Baptist church in Leicester in 1807. Like many evangelicals of the time, Nonconformist and Anglican, he took close interest in social need. He published a pamphlet appealing for help for a fund to provide relief for the distressed stocking-makers of Leicester during periods of unemployment. A germ of the Trade Union movement could be seen in this development. HOFBAUER, CLEMENT MARY [1751-1820] Redemptorist [see 1732] priest whose father was a Moravian grazier and butcher. He worked as a baker from his fathers death in 1757 to 1771 and then for a period lived as a hermit until 1775. The generosity of three Viennese ladies saw him through Vienna University, after which he went to Rome and joined the recently founded Redemptorists. He was ordained in 1785, returned to Vienna, and then went to Warsaw from 1787 to 1808 doing a lot of pastoral work in urban schools; he founded several houses in Poland, working mainly in the German-speaking population. Driven from Warsaw by Napoleon he returned to Vienna. He established the Redemptionists in Austria in 1819 and at his death Pius VII said Religion in Austria has lost its chief support. PROCOPIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1785-1789] succeeded Gabriel IV [see 1780]. There is no additional information readily available. 1786JOHNSON, RICHARD [1753-1827] Anglican clergymen who was educated at Cambridge and was appointed as the first chaplain to the convict colony at Botany Bay, New South Wales, Australia in 1786. He was a member of the Clapham Sect [see 1844] which helped to secure his appointment. He conducted the first service in Australia on 3rd February 1788. As the only chaplain his task was made more difficult by opposition from the military junta in the colony. He built a church at his own expense. His emphasis on personal salvation brought charges of Methodism against him. Independent observers however recognised his unsparing help towards the sick among the convicts and the orphans. Like most government officials he acted as farmer and magistrate but he made his main concern was for his clerical duties. Johnson left the colony in 1800. MACGREGOR, JAMES [1759-1820] Presbyterian minister in Nova Scotia born and educated in Edinburgh he was ordained in 1786. The following year he was sent to Pictou in Nova Scotia by the General Associate Synod. He became concerned about the decline in moral and cultural life in the Scottish communities there. Because of this he became a part-time itinerant minister and appealed for more workers from Scotland. He was the first Presbyterian minister to preach in New Brunswick and on Prince Edward Island. He aided the establishment of the Pictou Academy in 1817. PISTOIA, SYNOD OF [1786] This was a Jansenist attempt at ecclesiastical renewal. Its 57 points of church reform included the desire for liturgical revision, a just distribution of church goods, purification of private and public piety, and reorganisation of the clergy. Doctrine was widely discussed and the proceedings published in many languages. The pope however condemned many of the proposals. WHITE, WILLIAM [1748-1836] Organiser of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Born in Philadelphia he studied at the College of Philadelphia and was ordained in England in 1772 serving in Christ Church and St Peters in Philadelphia [1772-1836]. He was joint chaplain of the Continental Congress and its successor. White drafted the constitution for the church to be free of state in which the laity were equally represented with the clergy. He was elected bishop of Pennsylvania in 1786 and served in Philadelphia from 1787 until his death. 1787ALLEN, RICHARD [17601831] American founder of the African Episcopal Methodist Church. Born a slave he was sold to a farmer in Delaware. Converted under Methodist influences he was allowed to conduct services in his home which resulted in the conversion of his master and freedom for him and his family. He self-educated while working at woodcutting and hauling. He began to preach in churches and his preaching attracted so many Africans to the services that it caused a reaction from the white congregation. He withdrew from the Methodist Church to form this predominantly black church group called the Free African Society in 1787. Fifteen other Negro churches joined the group and he became the first bishop of the denomination in 1816. CLARKSON, THOMAS [1760-1846] Abolitionist and author who in 1785 wrote a prize winning essay on abolition and two years later joined with William Wilberforce [see 1807] and others to campaign on this issue. His main work was collecting information for the group. The campaign was successful with the ending of the slave trade in 1807 and emancipation in the British Empire in 1833. HIGHER CRITICISM This name seems to have been first applied to biblical literature by J. G. Eichhorn [see 1780] in the preface to the second edition of his Old Testament Introduction in 1787. Higher criticism is so designated to distinguish it from lower or textual criticism. Although higher criticism is essentially a positive term it is used by conservative Christians in a negative sense. HUNGARY [see also 1525] Not until 1787 did Hungarian Protestants gain a degree of freedom, when the Habsburg Edict of that year either eased or removed entirely the earlier restrictions. Protestants were thereafter given the same civic rights as Roman Catholics. During the 19th century Protestants in Hungary felt the effects of evangelical movements which were so influential in Britain, Switzerland, and the USA. With the restoration of the monarchy in 1920 after a short period of communist control, the religious situation of the 19th century was restored, but in 1944 the Nazi regime was created which brought great hardship to both Protestants and Catholics. When the Nazis gave way to Communists after World War II the situation was even worse, and all branches of the Christian Church suffered from 1949. INGLIS, CHARLES [1734-1816] First Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia who was born and educated in Ireland and ordained in London in 1758 before being sent as a missionary to Delaware. In 1783 he sailed with a group of loyalists to Nova Scotia and in 1787 was consecrated the first bishop of Nova Scotia. A devoted churchman and incessant traveller, he did much to organise the Anglican cause in his diocese. Because of failing healthy he retired to his farm in 1796 but remained active being named to the Council of Nova Scotia in 1809. NEW JERUSALEM, CHURCH OF THE This church is commonly called Swedenborgians and was a group organised in London in 1787 by followers of the theological teaching of Emanuel Swedenborg [see 1771]. The organisation and growth of the church is peculiar because the movement was started by books without the influence of any personal leadership. Swedenborg never preached a sermon and made no effort to gather followers about him but he left his Latin works in 20 volumes to ministers and university librarians. They were translated and won disciples who were organised by Robert Hindmarsh a Methodist. The emphasis in their worship is liturgical concentrating on Jesus Christ with preaching based on the inspired parts of the Bible, 29 books of the Old Testament and 5 in the New Testament. Baptism and Lords Supper are observed and in addition to the usual Christian holidays, New Church Day is observed on June 19. The New Churches maintain active missionary programmes and have very successful work in Africa. PORTEUS, BEILBY [1731-1808] Bishop of London who was educated at Cambridge and became rector of Hunton where he displayed great pastoral concern. In 1762 he became chaplain to Archbishop Secker [see 1758] and in 1769 a royal chaplain. He was appointed bishop of Chester in 1776 and transferred to London in 1787. As bishop he encourage residency of incumbents, better stipends for curates, regular preaching, and higher standards of clerical duty. In the House of Lords he battled for public morality and vainly tried to hedge divorce legislation. As bishop of London he was responsible for the overseas interests of the church, and he opposed slavery and founded the Christian Faith Society for West Indian slaves and proposed other forms of church mission. He was more sympathetic to the Evangelicals and enterprises like the Church Missionary Society and the Bible Society than were most high churchmen. PROCOPIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1787-1788] see 1775 and 1788. SHAKERS The common name of the celibate communities of United Society of Believers in Christs Second Appearing which originated in the Quaker revivals of mid 18th century England. Mother Ann Lee [d.1784] [see 1766] is generally considered the founder of the movement. Persecution, limited success, and a direct revelation led Mother Ann and seven followers to migrate to New York in 1774. In 1787 the first Shaker settlement was established at New Lebanon, New York which became the main base of the societys missionary enterprise in America. They believed that in Mother Ann the female principle of Christ was manifested and in her the promise of the Second Coming was fulfilled. The society reached its zenith in the decade before the Americans Civil War but by the second half of the 20th century only a handful of Shakers remained in three small communities. 1788ANTHIMOS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1788-1808] see 1787 and 1808. HORSLEY, SAMUEL [1733-1806] Anglican bishop who was educated at Cambridge and was made a fellow of the Royal Society in 1767. He was consecrated bishop of St Davids in 1788, Rochester in 1793, and St Asaph in 1802. He enjoyed science and was a High Churchmen and a prominent Tory. He upheld the establishment and opposed all innovations, particularly Sunday schools. Through the impact of the French Revolution he became mentally unbalanced and remained so until he died. MORE, HANNAH [1745-1833] English writer and philanthropist who was born near Bristol where she and her sisters developed a successful school. An unexpected settlement gave her financial independence and enabled her to exploit a remarkable range of literary and artistic gifts which were combined with marked administrative ability. In the second phase of her life from the 1780s John Newton [see 1779] became a strong influence and she was brought into close contact with the entire evangelical community centred on Clapham [see 1844]. Hannah More was much inspired by William Wilberforce who together with Henry Thornton financed many of her activities. The local action was based on a Sunday School in Cheddar to which was attached a school of industry, training personnel in spinning and domestic service. From about 1788 she aimed at producing cheap tracts for a wide range of readers. The result financed by Thornton was the series of Cheap Repository Tracts. Though the connection is not clear some of the inspiration of the Religious Tract Society can be traced to the success of Hannahs work. Because of her work she caused some controversy. William Cobbett described her as the Old Bishop in Petticoats. Hannah More never married but following the custom of the time assumed the designation of Mrs. PARTHENIUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1788-1805] see 1783 and 1805. 1789EVANS, CHRISTMAS [1766-1838] Welsh Baptist preacher who was born on Christmas Day, the son of a cobbler. He had some informal instruction by a well-known schoolmaster David Davis as well as a short period at his school. He joined the Baptist Church and was sent as a missionary to Caernarfon and was ordained in 1789. From 1791 to 1826 he ministered in Anglesey and apart from a short period in southern Wales he was in the Caernarfon area until the end of his life. Together with John Elias [see 1811] and William Williams [see 1744] Christmas Evans is enshrined in Welsh tradition as one of the three greatest figures in the history of the nations preaching. These men were exceptionally able communicators with the largely uneducated public of the period. His sermons on such themes as the Prodigal Son or the Last Judgement became existential dramas of the most poignant kind at his hands. Evans preaching was inspired by profound personal godliness and a passion for souls however he tended to be somewhat wayward in his theological opinions. NEOPHYTUS VII Patriarch of Constantinople [1789-1794, 1798-1801] succeeded Procopius I [see 1785]. There is no additional information readily available. UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS Lord Dorchester, governor general of British North America, proposed in 1789 to honour all those who had by their actions adhered to the unity of the empire. These immigrants to British North America who came during and immediately after the American Revolution settled in the Niagara Peninsula and in Nova Scotia were inscribed on a list and entitled to distinguish themselves by affixing the letters U.E. to their names. The Loyalists migration from south of the border altered the distribution of French and British in Canada in favour of the British. 1790BRANT, JOSEPH [17421807] Christian Mohawk Chief who was an Anglican convert. Educated in Connecticut he became the assistant to Sir William Johnson Indian commissioner who had sponsored his education. Chosen chief of the Mohawks he went to England in 1775 where he was well received. He was involved in the American War of Independence and afterwards was given an estate in Canada at the head of Lake Ontario. He built the first church in Upper Canada. CARROLL, JOHN [1735-1815] First Roman Catholic bishop in America. Educated in France by the Society of Jesus. When they were dissolved in 1773 he returned to America and became the leader of the Catholics in the colonies defending their rights to religious freedom. He founded Georgetown College for the training of native priests. He became in 1808 the first archbishop of Baltimore. CLAPHAM SECT The name given to a group of wealthy Anglican evangelicals who lived mainly in Clapham London. Its most famous member was William Wilberforce around whom included many talented people. Their most famous achievements were the establishment of Sierra Leone as a colony for ex slaves in 1807 and the abolition of the slave trade in the British colonies in 1833. There were also significant attempts to widen the basis of education and to make the evangelical message known to the upper classes. They were also closely connected with the foundation of the Church Missionary Society [1799], the British and Foreign Bible Society [1804], and the successful parliamentary battle of 1813 to legalise the sending of missionaries to India. ENLIGHTENMENT, THE A movement seen in particular clear-cut form in 18th century Germany. Karl Barth characterised it as a system founded upon the presumption of faith in the omnipotence of human ability. Emanuel Kant defined it in his Religion Within the Bounds of Reason Only in 1793 as follows: The Enlightenment represents mans emergence from a self-inflicted state of minority. A minor is one who is incapable of making use of his understanding without guidance from someone else. The concept was to seek a path yourself to absolute truth through pure reason. Deists rejected supernatural revelation and expressed the concept that man had developed beyond the need for Christianity. G. E. Lessing [see 1774] argued that truth was found in Christianity, Islam and Judaism, therefore toleration was imperative. Based upon the reliability of reason, The Enlightenment rejected both supernatural revelation and mans sinfulness. FRONTIER RELIGION A reference to the character of Christianity on the American frontier during the century of western expansion 1790-1890. Pioneer religion tended to encourage an individualistic faith, emotion filled meetings, and democratic church government. Employing revivals and camp meetings freely, Baptists and Methodists proved to be the most effective denominations in winning frontiersmen to the Christian faith. The Baptist ministers were generally farmers during the week and preachers of the simple gospel on Sundays while the Methodist circuit-riding preachers with their message of free will and free grace seemed to offer the right combination of method and message for the scattered democratically minded frontiersmen. GREGOIRE, HENRI [1750-1831] Bishop of Blois who was a Roman Catholic bishop of the constitutional church during the French Revolution. He led the marathon session of the Third Estate during the attack on the Bastille in 1789. He was the first priest to sign a loyalty oath of the civil constitution of the clergy demanded by the constituent assembly of 1790. As bishop of Blois 1790-1801 he was elected president of the National Assembly in 1792. At the height of the Terror of 1793 Gregoire refused to reject his faith or remove his robes. His opposition to Napoleons conciliation with the Vatican caused his resignation as bishop in 1801. VAN ESS, LEANDER [1772-1847] German biblical scholar who entered the Benedictine Order in 1790 and was ordained six years later. Appointed professor of Catholic theology at Marburg in 1812 he remained there for 10 years. In 1807 he collaborated with his cousin Karl and produced a German translation of the New Testament with the Old Testament following in 1822. Divergence from the Vulgate led to his version being placed on the Index. Nevertheless more than half a million copies of the New Testament were circulated with financial aid from the British and Foreign Bible Society. 1791-1800 AD 1791CLERGY RESERVES was the name applied to the one seventh of all land in Canada set aside under the Canada Act of 1791 for the support and maintenance of protestant clergy. Because the proceeds were used in the interests of the Church of England the other denominations soon started to urge that the funds be used for the support of all denominations. This was realised in the Imperial Act of 1840. The reserves were eventually secularised in 1854 with payments to various denominations and the Anglicans and Presbyterians retaining their former grants of land. CONSTITUTIONAL CHURCH Established in France at the Revolution by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 and was organised in 1791 under the protection of the National Assembly which had passed a law requiring all bishops , pastors and functionary priests to take an oath of fidelity to the Civil Committee under the pain of deposition. After the fall of Robespierre in 1794 a measure of toleration was adopted but the Thermidorian Convention adopted a regime in 1795 separating the state and churches thereby abandoning the Civil Convention and refusing to pay Constitutional priests. When Napoleon concluded the Concordant of 1801 [see 1801] Pope Pius VII [see 1800] had little difficulty in obtaining the churchs abolition. HOPKINSON, FRANCIS [1737-1791] American composer who was very active in the early musical life of Philadelphia. He was one of the first American-born composers and took great interest in church music as well as secular. LOSEE, WILLIAM [b. c.1764] Methodist Episcopal Church itinerant preacher from the New York area who organised the first Methodist circuit in Upper Canada. While visiting relatives in the Bay of Quinte in Upper Canada he preached a number of sermons which resulted in the people asking for a permanent minister from the New York Conference. Losee himself was sent and he set up a circuit by 1791. The following year the first Methodist church in Upper Canada was built at Adolphustown. Losee was only the first of a number of itinerant preachers who came to Canada as a result of the second great American frontier revival. MCKENDREE, WILLIAM [1757-1835] First American-born bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He was converted the age of 29 and with very little formal education began preaching two years later. In 1790 Bishop Francis Asbury [see 1784] ordained him a deacon, and in 1791 an elder. He worked closely with Asbury and served on circuits for 20 years. He was elected bishop in 1808 and served until his death in Tennessee. MOZART, WOLFGANG AMADEUS [1756-1791] Austrian composer whose meteoric and tragic career began in Salzburg, where his father Leopold was the court composer to the ruling archbishop. Taught by his father and briefly by several outstanding musicians encountered during his childhood travels to the leading music centres in Europe, Mozart learned to compose with a rapidity and sureness of technique that are almost beyond comprehension. Much of his childhood and youth was spent on musical tours planned by his ambitious father. In his late teens and early 20s he wrote much church music in the classical symphonic style. Among the works which were written in Salzburg was the Coronation Mass. In 1782 Mozarts relations with the archbishop reached an impasse and he moved to Vienna where he wrote only three more sacred works an unfinished Mass in C Minor, the exquisite miniature Ave Verum and the Requiem which others finished after his death. ROUTH, MARTIN JOSEPH [1755-1854] English patristic scholar who was educated at Oxford and became the president of Magdalen College Oxford in 1791 an office which he held until his death. He was ordained in 1810 and much revered by the Tractarians. Descended from a niece of Archbishop Laud, theologically he linked the outlook of the Nonjurors [see 1688] with the Oxford Movement [see 1833] to which he gave support. 1792BMS WORLD MISSION is a missionary society founded by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptists" \o "Baptists" Baptists from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England in 1792. It was originally called the Particular Baptist Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Amongst the Heathen but for most of its life was known as the Baptist Missionary Society. The current name was adopted in 2000. The first missionaries, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Carey_(missionary)" \o "William Carey (missionary)" William Carey [see 1793] and John Thomas, were sent to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal" \o "Bengal" Bengal, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India in 1793. They were followed by many co-workers, firstly to India, and subsequently to other countries in Asia, the Caribbean, Africa, Europe and South America. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Richard" \o "Timothy Richard" Timothy Richard [see 1870] is perhaps one of the most well-known Baptist missionaries to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China. Today BMS World Mission supports over 350 workers in 40 countries. Few missionaries are sent today who do not have practical skills to enable positive social and economic changes on a local scale. Obvious examples of such skills are medical workers and teachers. EUTHYMIUS V Patriarch of Antioch [1792-1813] see also 1767 and 1813. GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE [1770-1840] Roman Catholic priest and missionary who was the son of a freethinking Russian scientist and ambassador to Holland. He was, after his mothers return to the faith, converted to Catholicism. He came to America in 1792 and after training at Baltimore Seminary he was ordained and devoted his life to building the church in the Alleghenies. In this he exhausted his personal fortune. KELLY, THOMAS [1769-1854] Irish hymn writer who intended to be a lawyer initially but was converted in 1792 and ordained. He remained in the Church of Ireland only a short time and for most of his life conducted a vigorous evangelical ministry in un-consecrated buildings in Dublin, Wexford, and elsewhere. As a hymn writer his name has been often been linked with those of Watts and Newton. He is credited with 765 hymns in all, of which the best known are Look ye saints the sight is glorious, The head that once was crowned with thorns, and We sing the praise of Him who died. SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA [1750-1814] Self-styled prophet who was a daughter of a farmer and was eccentric from an early age. Originally an Anglican, Joanna became a Methodist in 1791 and the following year began to write a book of prophecies. In 1802 she began to issue seals to the faithful including one to Mary Bateman, the notorious murderess. In 1805 she had a chapel in London and in 1813 announced that though unmarried she was to have a child called Shiloh. She died of unknown causes. 1793CAREY, WILLIAM [17611834] Missionary to India [17931834]. From a piscopal t Baptist background he formed the forerunner of the Baptist Missionary Society. In 1792 he preached his great sermon Expect great things from God, Attempt great things for God. In 1793 accompanied by John Thomas he sailed for India. In India he supervised the translation of the Scriptures into 36 languages, evangelised, planted churches, educated and provided medical relief. Carey has been generally acclaimed as The Father of Modern Missions. FRANCE [see also 1598 and 1905] The 18th century brought a dramatic reaction to the growing power of the Church in the life of the nation. Voltaire [see 1726], Diderot and other men of the Enlightenment flourished where once the 17th century French believers had walked. This caused great hostility towards organised religion. These religious trends culminated with the French Revolution of 1789 with the revolutionaries trying to abolish the church in France. From 1793 rigorous attempts were made to remove all traces of the Christian past from France: Notre Dame cathedral became the Temple of Reason, with a prostitute being crowned as the Queen of Reason. The church persisted however and regained its freedom and some of its former privileges under Napoleon I. The French emperor and the pope reached an understanding in the Concordat of 1801. INDIA [see also 1542 and 1919] When William Carey [see 1793] and Dr. John Thomas of the Baptist Missionary Society came to Calcutta in 1793 they were considered undesirable, illegal immigrants. They found employment as managers of indigo plantations, and Carey prepared himself in Bengali and Sanskrit for his real mission. The next Baptist families in 1799 had to bypass the Company and make for Danish territory at Serampore some 25 kilometres from Calcutta so that Denmark here again had a special place in history proving to be the birthplace of the modern missionary movement. The Serampore trio of Carey, Joshua Marshman [see 1799], and William Ward [see 1799] attempted great things for God and their college [1819] and their translations of the Bible, by the time of Careys death in 1834 had been translated into six languages, indicates the foundations they laid for later work. The Serampore men were not really alone for there were evangelical chaplains at the Company who shared their missionary vision. Most famous of these was Henry Martyn [see 1805] who translated into Urdu the New Testament. Early bishops of Calcutta included such men as Reginald Heber [see 1822] and Daniel Wilson [see 1833]. Church of England missionary societies had important roles in helping the Syrian Church in Kerala. In 1833 restrictions on non-British missions was lifted and the whole process of covering the map of India was accelerated. Some of the local converts were themselves leaders. They included Pandita Ramabai [see 1891], Narayan Vaman Tilak [see 1904], and Sadhu Sundar Singh [see 1905]. Christian missions led the way in education. Alexander Duff [see 1830] used higher education as a means of evangelism but the belief that Western education would necessarily erode Hinduism and win over the higher castes did not occur. There was a revival in orthodox Hinduism and some of it was militantly anti-Christian. There was active co-operation in such union institutions as the Madras Christian College [1887] and the 1910 World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh which evolved into the National Christian Council. KIRKLAND, SAMUEL [17411808] He was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary among the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneida_tribe" \o "Oneida tribe" Oneida and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscarora_(tribe)" \o "Tuscarora (tribe)" Tuscarora people in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" \o "North America" North America. Kirkland was the founder in 1793 of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy. He was a student of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" \o "Native Americans in the United States" Native American languages and lived for many years with Indian tribes. He began his missionary work as a protg of Reverend HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleazar_Wheelock" \o "Eleazar Wheelock" Eleazar Wheelock, but the two parted company in 1770. He became an advisor and ambassador for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois" \o "Iroquois" Iroquois during the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" \o "American Revolutionary War" American Revolutionary War and was able to persuade many Oneidas and Tuscaroras to assist the American revolutionaries. After the war, he maintained good relations with the Indians and helped negotiate treaties and keep peace between Indians and whites. He is considered by many to be the peacekeeper of the Iroquois and the Settlers. On the other hand, Kirkland is also seen by some as a key person for the Americans during the revolutionary war and helped to subjugate the Oneida people. Kirkland also secured large parcels of the Oneida ancestral land for himself and his friends. MACAULAY, ZACHARY [1768-1838] Evangelical leader who was son of a Scots Presbyterian minister. He was sent out to Jamaica at the age of 16 as a book keeper on an estate which used slave labour. Deeply impressed by the evils of slavery, he returned to England in 1792 and became a member of the Sierra Leone Company. From 1793 to 1799 he was governor of the colony and ruined his health with overwork. Thereafter he was secretary of the company until the colony was transferred to the Crown in 1808 and an editor of the Christian Observer 1802-1816. He resided in Clapham with other prominent evangelicals and played a leading role in the abolition of the slave trade in 1807. Macaulay also had a great part in the affairs of the Bible Society and Church Missionary Society. His son was the famous historian and essayist. MOUNTAIN, JACOB [1749-1825] First Anglican bishop of Quebec who was educated at Cambridge and after being ordained in 1780 held several livings in England before being appointed bishop of the new diocese of Quebec in 1793 where he quickly became the centre of controversy. This was because he considered the Anglican Church to be the established church and held that the proceeds from the clergy reserves [see 1791] were therefore at his disposal. This concept was deeply resented by other denominations. Apart from this however Mountain ministered extensively during his 30 years as bishop over his large diocese travelling from one end to the other by sleigh, carriage, canoe, and on foot. MURRAY, JOHN [1741-1815] Founder of American Universalism. Murray was brought up as a Calvinist in England and moved to Cork, Ireland, where this emotional man became a Calvinistic Methodist shortly before he rejected Calvinism for the Universalism preached by John Relly. He was excommunicated by the Methodists. He migrated in 1770 to America where he preached his ideas throughout New England. He served as pastor from 1793 to 1809 of the Universalist Church in Boston, preaching that all men would ultimately be saved. 1794BALLOU, HOSEA [17711852] American leader of the Universalist Church [17941852]. He was the son of a Baptist minister who was originally piscopal t but by his study of the Scriptures became to believe that all would be saved, and lacking conviction on the Trinity moved his group towards Unitarianism. He also denied the deity of Christ, human depravity, atonement and everlasting punishment. BILLINGS, WILLIAM [17461800] American composer who had a major influence on the development of church music of his time. His most famous collection was Continental Harmony which was published in 1794 and was very influential in New England. BROTHERS, RICHARD [1757-1824] British Israelite and prophet who was born in Newfoundland and joined the Navy in 1771, rising to the rank of lieutenant and seeing action in 1781 under Admiral Rodney. He retired as a pacifist in 1782. From about 1790 he became progressively more eccentric and was placed in a madhouse in Islington until 1806. He predicted that by 1794 the ten lost tribes of Israel, that is, the English, would return to Jerusalem where he the Nephew of the Almighty would be proclaimed their Prince. GERASIMUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1794-1797] succeeded Neophytus VII [see 1789]. There is no additional information readily available. MARSDEN, SAMUEL [1764-1838] Anglican chaplain to the convict colony of New South Wales. Marsden was educated at Cambridge and at the suggestion of William Wilberforce [see 1807] left for Australia without taking his degree. He arrived in Sydney in 1794 and was stationed at Parramatta where he remained until his death. On the departure of Richard Johnson [see 1786] in 1800 he was the only chaplain in the colony and by 1810 he became senior chaplain after a visit to England to recruit others. Marsdens activities have been the subject of much controversy. On appointment as a magistrate he gained a reputation of severity scarcely excused by the character of the colony. He is famous as the founder of the mission to the Maoris of New Zealand under the Church Missionary Society. He preached the first sermon in New Zealand in 1814 and made seven journeys in support of the infant mission at his own expense. He did much to establish the evangelical character of the Church of England in Sydney. PAKISTAN [also see 1601 and 1947] William Carey [see 1793] preached in the Dinajpur district between 1794 and 1800. Baptist work was began in Dinajpur in 1800 by an ex Catholic; in Jessore and Khulna in 1812 and in Barisal in 1829. The Church Missionary Society began work in Kushtia district in 1821 and about 5000 baptisms followed a severe famine. Other missions followed. In Pakistan American Presbyterians began working in Lahore in 1849 followed by the Anglican CMS in 1851, American United Presbyterians in 1855 and the Church of Scotland in 1857. Roman Catholic work was resumed in 1843 in Karachi and in 1852 at Lahore. The events of 1857 led to the death of Thomas Hunter, the first Church of Scotland missionary with his wife and son at Sialkot. In the mid-1870s a mass movement began among low caste people in the Punjab which brought thousands into the church but this slowed down after 1915. 1795BILDERDIJK, WILLEM [1756-1831] Dutch poet who was born into a piscopal t Royalist family and developed keen interest in study as he was incapacitated by a foot injury. He practiced as a lawyer in the Hague until going into exile in 1795 returning to the Netherlands eleven years later. A committed Christian his testimony led Isaak da Costa [see 1851] to conversion. DWIGHT, TIMOTHY [1752-1817] Congregational theologian and educator. Born in Massachusetts he graduated from Yale and taught for some years before ordination as a congregational pastor in Connecticut 1783-95. He became famous as an educator and the College of New Jersey and Harvard both conferred doctorates on him. From 1795 until his death he was professor of divinity at Yale, tripling enrolment. A religious revival took place under his preaching which by 1802 converted a third of the students. He was a leading conservative force in New England and exerted powerful influence in the Second Great Awakening. HALDANE, ROBERT [1764-1842] Scottish evangelist and philanthropist who was educated at Dundee and Edinburgh before he joined the Navy in 1780. Leaving that career he lived in Stirlingshire. Converted in 1795 Haldane resolved to devote life, talents and fortune to the Christian cause. He sold his estate, determined to finance and participate in missionary work in India, but that door was closed through opposition from the East India Company. In 1796 the Church of Scotland general assembly decided against foreign mission work and much of Haldanes money went into establishing preaching tabernacles and theological seminaries. He co-operated with his brother James [see 1797] in furthering the work of evangelism and was seen as the moving spirit behind the bringing of 24 children from Sierra Leone to be educated in Britain for five years. He himself was prepared to assume complete financial responsibility for the project. As an active friend of the Bible Society he challenged its circulation of the apocrypha with the Bible in continental Europe, beginning a controversy that lasted many years. LINGARD, JOHN [1771-1851] English Roman Catholic historian who was trained at Douai and ordained a priest in 1795. He is said to have had a kindly temperament, and produced between 1819 and 1830 an eight-volume History of England. In 1836 he produced a new version of the four Gospels which relied on the Greek rather than the Vulgate text. This aroused criticism from the hierarchy. The LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY was a non-denominational HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary society formed in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England in 1795 by evangelical HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism" \o "Anglicanism" Anglicans and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconformism" \o "Nonconformism" Nonconformists who were largely HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_church" \o "Congregational church" Congregationalist in outlook. They formed missions in the islands of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania" \o "Oceania" South Pacific and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" \o "Africa" Africa. It now forms part of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_for_World_Mission" \o "Council for World Mission" Council for World Mission (CWM). Proposals for the Missionary Society began in 1794 after a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist minister, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rylands" \o "John Rylands" John Rylands, received word from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Carey_(missionary)" \o "William Carey (missionary)" William Carey [see 1793] about the need to spread HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" \o "Christianity" Christianity. Carey suggested that Ryland join forces with others along the non-denominational lines of the Anti- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery" \o "Slavery" Slavery Society to design a society that could prevail against the difficulties that evangelicals often faced when spreading the Word. This included the fierce opponents who wanted unrestricted commercial and military relations with native peoples throughout the world. The first group of missionaries arrived on the Duff skippered by a Captain Wilson who had offered to ship them unpaid to Tahiti. On his second voyage the ship was captured by French privateers who sold the ship. This incident cost the LMS ten thousand pounds which was initially devastating to the society. After recovering they were able to establish a mission in China under Robert Morrison.[see 1807] Other prominent missionaries to serve with the LMS were HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Legge" \o "James Legge" James Legge in China [see 1839], HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Livingstone" \o "David Livingstone" David Livingstone in Africa [see 1841], George Pratt in Samoa [see 1839] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Stallybrass" \o "Edward Stallybrass" Edward Stallybrass in Siberia [see 1817] and John Williams in Polynesia [see 1817] 1796HAUGE, HANS NIELSEN [1771-1824] Norwegian lay preacher who was a farmers son and brought up in a pious Lutheran home. In 1796 he had a religious experience in which he felt called by God to exhort the people of Norway to repentance. He travelled throughout the country from 1796 to 1804, usually on foot, preaching his message and gathering followers wherever he went. Arrested 10 times he was in prison from 1804 to 1811 and after a prolonged trial was sentenced in 1814 to pay a fine for unlawful preaching and strong criticism of the clergy. Helped by friends Hauge bought a farm near Oslo and during his last years relations with the authorities were friendly. His preaching stressed personal holiness and he is generally regarded as the initiator of the powerful Christian laymans movement in Norway. KILHAM, ALEXANDER [1762-1798] Founder of the Methodist New Connexion [see 1798], he was a son of a Methodist weaver. He entered the service of Robert Carr Brackenbury, the Methodist gentleman-preacher and assisted him in pioneer preaching in the Channel Islands. He became an itinerant preacher in 1785 and was soon involved in controversies about the relation of Methodism to the Church of England. The attack on conference abuses brought his expulsion in 1796 and the Methodist New Connexion was formed, embodying his principles. He died still only 36 worn out by extreme toil. His widow Hannah [1774-1832] joined the Society of Friends and became a pioneer of African linguistics and education. KING, EDWARD [c.1735-1807] Archaeologist and writer on science and religion. Educated at Cambridge he practised law and studied Scripture. His writing is characterised by Christian devotion. In his time his writings were rejected as he was before his time. In a brilliant book in 1796 he argued on biblical and observational ground the reality of meteorites at a time when this view was commonly ridiculed. His discussions and speculations on the use of heaven and heavens in the New Testament, the meaning of Genesis 1 to 3, and the possibility of a multi-populated universe are abiding interest. MONTGOMERY, JAMES [1771-1854] Hymn writer born in Scotland, a son of a Moravian missionary. He became editor of the Sheffield Register and for 31 years continued to edit the renamed Sheffield Iris. Twice he was imprisoned for his radical political opinions. He advocated foreign missions, the Bible Society, and the abolition of slavery. At various times he associated with Moravians, Wesleyans, and Anglicans. Over 50 of his 400 hymns were contributed to Thomas Cotterills Selection of Psalms and Hymns in 1819 among them Angels from the realms of glory, Hail to the Lords Anointed, and Stand up and bless the Lord. NORWAY [see also 1537] The era of Enlightenment lasted in Norway from 1750 to 1820. The theology professors of the newly established university in Oslo [1811] and the awakening by H.N. Hauge [see 1796] heralded a period are richer spiritual life. In 1842 lay preaching became lawful and in 1845 the Dissenters Law for the first time gave citizens opportunity to cancel membership in the state church and to organise free churches. Free churches however have never become very strong in Norway as Christian believers chose to stay and make their influence felt within the state church. The Norwegian Missionary Society was founded in 1842 later followed by several other organisations for foreign missions. In 1891 the Luther Foundation which had been formed in 1868 was reorganised under the name Norwegian Home Mission Society. The greatest of these new organisations was the Norwegian Lutheran Mission whose spiritual leader was a lay preacher Ludvig Hope who died in 1954. Christian believers worship in prayer houses listening to lay preachers and some also celebrate the Lords Supper there. The same believers may not go to the parish church to worship there. This lay activity which runs parallel to the activity of the established church has been of vital importance for the missionary activity of the Norwegians. In the 20th century, liberal theology has caused severe struggle which led to the formation of the conservative Free Faculty of Theology where the majority of pastors are educated [see Hallesby [1902]. During the Nazi occupation, the Norwegian church resisted. SCOTTISH UNITED PRESBYTERIAN MISSION was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" \o "Scotland" Scottish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary society that was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty starting in 1864. Work was commenced at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningbo" \o "Ningbo" Ningbo, and afterwards extended to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yantai" \o "Yantai" Yantai, but these stations were left, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria" \o "Manchuria" Manchuria became the special sphere of the Society. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Williamson_(missionary)" \o "Alexander Williamson (missionary)" Rev. Alexander Williamson, [see 1863] was the patriarch of the Mission, having been in China since 1855, working in various departments. He devoted himself entirely to literary work, and prepared some books of Christian history and doctrine. The Rev HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ross_(missionary)" \o "John Ross (missionary)" J. Ross and Rev J. Mclntyre, who went out in 1872, were at the head of the two great centres of operation, Hai-chung and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moukden" \o "Moukden" Moukden. A medical hospital operated in each of these places. Mr. Ross completed a translation of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament" \o "New Testament" New Testament into the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language" \o "Korean language" Korean language. In 1890 there were seven missionaries employed, one lady agent, fourteen native helpers, and about eight hundred communicants reported. SMITH, SYDNEY [1771-1845] English minister, writer, and wit, who was educated at Oxford and ordained in 1796. In 1802 he helped to found the Edinburgh Review and contributed to it for 25 years. Bigotry and tyranny, hypocrisy and cruelty were his particular targets. His own prejudices however led him to unjustified attacks on William Carey and other early missionaries abroad as well as evangelicals at home whom he described as fanatics. He became canon at St Pauls London which delivered him from his vicarage in the rural countryside which he loathed. 1797BOOS, MARTIN [17621825] German preacher involved in the Wiggenbach revival. Failing to find forgiveness through asceticism he adopted the doctrine of justification through faith which was very close to Lutheranism. His preaching resulted in revival and he was tried for unorthodoxy in 1797 but acquitted and fled to Austria where he remained until forced to leave in 1816. He spent the final years of his life as a parish priest in the Rhineland. His motto was Christ for us and in us. GREGORY V Patriarch of Constantinople [1797-1798, 1806-1808, 1818-1821]. He succeeded Gerasimus III [see 1794]. Gregory V was ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople over three periods. He was responsible for much restoration work to the Patriarchal Cathedral of St George, which had been badly damaged by fire in 1738. At the onset of theGreek War of Independence Gregory V was blamed byOttoman SultanMahmud IIfor his inability to suppress the Greek uprising. He was taken out of thepatriarchal cathedralonEaster Sunday, 1821, directly after celebrating the solemn Easter Liturgy, and hanged in full patriarchal vestments for three days from the main gate of the patriarchate compound by order of the Sultan. His body was then taken down and delivered to a squad of Jews, who dragged it through the streets and finally threw it into the Bosphorus. The body was later recovered by Greek sailors and was eventually enshrined in theMetropolitan Cathedral of Athens. He is commemorated by the Eastern Orthodox Church as a martyr. In his memory, the main gates of the patriarchate compound were welded shut in 1821 and have remained shut ever since. GRIFFITHS, ANN [1776-1805] Welsh hymn writer who joined the Methodist Society at Pontrobert in 1797 after experiencing evangelical conversion. She married John Griffiths of Meifod in 1804 and died the following year after the birth of a child. She was in the habit of composing hymns which she recited to her servant Ruth Evans, who later married Methodist minister John Hughes. Between them they preserved and published the hymns of Ann Griffiths which had a profound Christocentric mysticism. HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER [1768-1851] Scottish evangelist who became an orphan at the age of six. He studied at Edinburgh University then joined the Navy in 1785 quickly rising in command due to his character. After spiritual self-questioning he left the sea in 1794 and after conversion was an itinerant evangelist in every part of Scotland. In 1797 he founded the Society for Propagating the Gospel at Home, after discovering that the Church of Scotland had as little interest in home as in foreign missions. Haldane became the first Congregational minister in Scotland in 1799 and ministered in Edinburgh for almost 50 years. Like his brother Robert [see 1795], he adopted Baptist principles. He was an advocate of restoring the life and conditions of the apostolic church and developing up-and-coming ministers. MARKOS IX Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1797-1810] see 1770 and 1810. He became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Saint_Anthony" \o "Monastery of Saint Anthony" Monastery of Saint Anthony. During his papacy there were two major changes in the government of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt as at the beginning Egypt was ruled by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" \o "Ottoman Empire" Ottoman Empire then the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Invasion_of_Egypt" \o "French Invasion of Egypt" French Invasion of Egypt in 1798 which was followed by the return of the Ottomans in 1801. He inaugurated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Mark%27s_Coptic_Orthodox_Cathedral_(Azbakeya)" \o "Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral (Azbakeya)" Saint Marks Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Azbakeya in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo" \o "Cairo" Cairo and moved the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seat_of_the_Coptic_Orthodox_Pope" \o "Seat of the Coptic Orthodox Pope" Seat of the Coptic Pope to this HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral" \o "Cathedral" cathedral in 1800 from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Mary_Church_(Haret_Elroum)" \o "Saint Mary Church (Haret Elroum)" Saint Mary Church (Haret Elroum). MILNER, JOSEPH [1744-1797] Evangelical clergyman educated at Cambridge, ordained, and served in Yorkshire. In 1768 he became headmaster of Hull Grammar School where one of his pupils was William Wilberforce [see 1807]. He employed his brother Isaac [see 1775] at the school. In 1770 he became a keen Evangelical and his preaching was very popular among the poor but resented by others. In due course the opposition died out and in 1797 he was appointed vicar of Holy Trinity Church in Hull through the influence of Wilberforce but died before he could be installed. RIPLEY, DOROTHY [1767-1832] was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" English missionary and writer who spent thirty years in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States trying to secure better conditions for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" \o "History of slavery in the United States" slaves. Later in her life she became involved in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison_reform" \o "Prison reform" prison reform. She was the daughter of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodism" \o "Methodism" Methodist minister who had been expelled from his native home and had settled in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitby" \o "Whitby" Whitby. In 1797 she had a mystical experience during which she felt that HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" \o "God" God commanded her to leave her home in England and travel to the United States on a mission to help the African slaves. During the course of this mission, which she made her entire lifes work, she had occasion to meet with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" \o "Thomas Jefferson" Thomas Jefferson, then HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" \o "President of the United States" President of the United States, preach to congregations in various churches and meetings and write several books about her own life. According to one HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress" \o "Library of Congress" Library of Congress source, she was the first woman to preach before the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" \o "United States House of Representatives" House. She conducted a church service on January 12, 1806. Among those in attendance were Thomas Jefferson and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Burr" \o "Aaron Burr" Aaron Burr. SECOND GREAT AWAKENING This served as a corrective to the spiritual decline in the United States of America that set in during and following the Revolution. Deism and scepticism was popular among the educated especially the students. The rigorous life of the rapidly expanding frontier without benefit of church and society was demoralising. This revival in the East was centred in the colleges and towns along the coast. The revival in the West was filled with religious excitement and emotional outbursts. It apparently began in 1797 in the three Presbyterian churches that James McGready [see 1800] piscopa in Logan County Kentucky which climaxed in a large outdoor communion service during the summer of 1800. Barton Stone [see 1801] carried the revival to Cane Ridge Kentucky where a large interdenominational six-day camp meeting occurred the following year with 10 to 20,000 in attendance. Significant church growth, improvement of morals and national life, reduction of the spread of Deism, the emergence of new religious groups such as Cumberland Presbyterians [see 1810], home and foreign missionary outreach, abolition and social reform movements, the introduction of the camp meetings and the influence upon great men like Archibald Alexander [see 1812], Adoniram Judson [see 1812] and Samuel J. Mills, were all the results of the Awakening 1798METHODIST NEW CONNEXION The death of John Wesley in 1791 forced constitutional changes in Methodism. Alexander Kilham [see 1796] and others argued for a radical recognition of separation from the Church of England, and for lay participation in Methodist government. The Methodist New Connexion which was formed after Kilhams expulsion included these ideas. Its second conference in 1798 had 15 preaches and 17 laymen. The new body made slow headway and it was 25 years before it doubled its numbers. The problems in the 1840s saw the departure of a radical element associated with Joseph Barker. Barkers chief opponent William Cooke was perhaps the Connexions most considerable mid-century figure. By the end of the century there were some 30,000 members, with a strong movement in Ireland and missions in China. In 1907 the Methodist New Connexion joined the United Methodist Free Churches and the Bible Christians to form the United Methodist Church and their principles were eventually adopted by that group. 1799BUNTING, JABEZ [17791858] English Wesleyan Methodist who became a minister in 1799. Due to his great organisational skills he was, more than anyone else, responsible for the shaping of Wesleyan Methodism. Bunting was well known for his sincerity, eloquence, and prayer. The CHURCH MISSONIONARY SOCIETY is a group of evangelistic societies working with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Communion" \o "Anglican Communion" Anglican Communion and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant Christians around the world. Founded in 1799, CMS has attracted upwards of nine thousand men and women to serve as mission partners during its 210 year history. The Society for Missions to Africa and the East, as it was first called, was founded on 12 April 1799 at a meeting of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclectic_Society_(Christian)" \o "Eclectic Society (Christian)" Eclectic Society, supported by members of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clapham_Sect" \o "Clapham Sect" Clapham Sect, a group of activist evangelical Christians whose number included HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Thornton" \o "Henry Thornton" Henry Thornton and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wilberforce" \o "William Wilberforce" William Wilberforce. The first missionaries, who came from the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Wurttemberg, and had trained at the Berlin Seminary went out in 1804. In 1812 the Society was renamed The Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East, and the first English ministers to work as the Societys missionaries went out in 1815. From 1825 onward, the Society concentrated its Mediterranean resources on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" \o "Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria" Coptic Church and its daughter HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Church" \o "Ethiopian Church" Ethiopian Church, which included the creation of a translation of the Bible in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amharic_language" \o "Amharic language" Amharic at the instigation of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jowett" \o "William Jowett" William Jowett [see 1860] , as well as the posting of two missionaries to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Gobat" \o "Samuel Gobat" Samuel Gobat [see 1845] who was later the Anglican Bishop of Jerusalem and Christian Kugler, who arrived in that country in 1827. During the early twentieth century, the Societys theology moved in a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" \o "Liberal Christianity" liberal direction under the leadership of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eugene_Stock&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Eugene Stock (page does not exist)" Eugene Stock. There was considerable debate over the possible introduction of a doctrinal test for missionaries, which advocates claimed would restore the Societys original evangelical theology. In 1922, the Society split, with the liberal evangelicals remaining in control of CMS headquarters, whilst conservative evangelicals established the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_Churchmen%27s_Missionary_Society" \o "Bible Churchmen's Missionary Society" Bible Churchmens Missionary Society. The British-based Church Missionary Society began operations in Sydney Australia in 1825, with the intention of bringing the gospel to the aboriginal population. CMS Associations were set up around Australia, and the first CMS-sponsored Australian missionary, Helen Philips, sailed for Ceylon in 1888. Today CMS-Australia has 160 missionaries serving in 33 countries worldwide. The Church Missionary Society sent the first missionaries to settle in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand" \o "New Zealand" New Zealand. Its agent the Rev. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Marsden" \o "Samuel Marsden" Samuel Marsden performed the first full Christian service in that country on Christmas Day in 1814, at Oihi Bay in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Islands" \o "Bay of Islands" Bay of Islands. MARSHMAN, JOSHUA [1768-1837] Baptist missionary who had little education but read avidly while working with his weaver father. He married Hannah Shepherd in 1791 and they had 12 children. He became master of the Baptist school in Bristol in 1794 and offered for the Baptist Missionary Society. He sailed to India with William Ward to join William Carey [see 1793] in 1799. Forbidden to land by the East India Company they settled at Danish Serampore where Carey joined them. There they preached, taught, travelled, and translated. Joshua and Hannah opened boarding schools to help pay for printing the Scriptures. An able Orientalist, he published the works of Confucius, Chinese grammars, and a Chinese version of the Bible. The RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY was founded in 1799 and was a major British publisher of Christian literature intended initially for evangelism, and including literature aimed at children, women, and the poor. The founders were of the same type of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicals" \o "Evangelicals" evangelicals who founded the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" \o "London Missionary Society" London Missionary Society and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_and_Foreign_Bible_Society" \o "British and Foreign Bible Society" British and Foreign Bible Society. The society started by publishing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tract_(literature)" \o "Tract (literature)" tracts, but rapidly expanded their work into the production of books and periodicals. Their books were mostly small but did include larger works such as the multi-volume Devotional Commentary and the massive HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s_Analytical_Concordance_to_the_Bible" \o "Young's Analytical Concordance to the Bible" Analytical Concordance to the Bible of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Young_(Biblical_scholar)" \o "Robert Young (Biblical scholar)" Robert Young. In 1935 the Society merged with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_Literature_Society_for_India_and_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Christian Literature Society for India and Africa (page does not exist)" Christian Literature Society for India and Africa to form the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Society_for_Christian_Literature&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "United Society for Christian Literature (page does not exist)" United Society for Christian Literature. The RHENISH MISSIONARY SOCIETY was one of the largest HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Missionary_society&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Missionary society (page does not exist)" missionary societies in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" Germany. Formed from smaller missions founded as far back as 1799, the Society was amalgamated on 3 September 1828, and its first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionaries were HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordination" \o "Ordination" ordained and sent off to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" \o "South Africa" South Africa by the end of the year. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" \o "London Missionary Society" London Missionary Society was already active in the area, and a closer working relationship was formed with them. The Society established its first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_(station)" \o "Mission (station)" mission station in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cederberg" \o "Cederberg" Cederberg in 1829, named HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wupperthal,_Western_Cape" \o "Wupperthal, Western Cape" Wupperthal, and predated the naming of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuppertal" \o "Wuppertal" German city by 100 years. Very soon, the missionaries started migrating north through the barren and inhospitable south-western Africa. Here they encountered various local tribes such as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herero" \o "Herero" Herero, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namaqua" \o "Namaqua" Nama and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damara_people" \o "Damara people" Damara, and were frequently in the middle of wars between them. The missionaries tried to broker peace deals between the tribes, and for this reason were later seen as political assets by the tribes. Around the same time, debate started in Germany regarding its colonial empire, with the activities of the RMS in distant Africa fanning imaginations. The unclaimed area to the north of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Colony" \o "Cape Colony" Cape Colony was proclaimed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_South_West_Africa" \o "German South West Africa" German South West Africa in 1880, but they quickly ran into numerous problems, since Germany was inexperienced at colonization. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herero_and_Namaqua_Genocide" \o "Herero and Namaqua Genocide" Herero and Namaqua Genocide during 1904-1907 proved to be the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir" \o "Nadir" nadir of their rule, and combined with the effects of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" \o "World War I" World War I, Germany was unable to maintain a foothold so far from home. South Africa annexed the area in 1915, renaming it HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_Africa" \o "South West Africa" South West Africa. During this time, missionaries reactions ranged from compassion and help for the local tribes, to patriotism and support of colonial interests. During the 20th century, the Society focused on its work in southern Africa. The Society ultimately amalgamated all of its mission stations in South Africa into the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" \o "Dutch Reformed Church" Dutch Reformed Church, except for Wupperthal which chose to join the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian_Church" \o "Moravian Church" Moravian Church. The mission stations in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia" \o "Namibia" Namibia became part of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Lutheran_Church" \o "Evangelical Lutheran Church" Evangelical Lutheran Church there. In 1971, the Rhenish Mission and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bethel_Mission&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bethel Mission (page does not exist)" Bethel Mission were combined into the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vereinigten_Evangelischen_Mission&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Vereinigten Evangelischen Mission (page does not exist)" Vereinigten Evangelischen Mission. VANDERKEMP, JOHANNES THEODORUS [1747-1811] Dutch missionary to South Africa. Born in Rotterdam he had an early career as an army officer and doctor. He was converted from Deism in 1791 shortly after the drowning of his wife and daughter and offered his services to the London Missionary Society in 1796. In 1799 he reached the Cape as leader of the pioneer London Missionary Society party. After an unsuccessful period among the Xhosa he began working with the Hottentots and established a missionary institution at Bethelsdorp in 1803. Conditions here were poor and discipline weak. This drew criticism from the colonists as did Vanderkemps simple manner of life and marriage to a Malagasy slave. However his chief offence in their eyes was his defence of the Hottentots interests in the face of widespread injustice. WARD, WILLIAM [1769-1823] The son of a carpenter and apprenticed to a printer and bookseller and printed newspapers. Early in life he became an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptist" \o "Anabaptist" Anabaptist and was educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ewood_Hall&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Ewood Hall (page does not exist)" Ewood Hall Theological Academy. In 1798, the Baptist Mission Committee visited Ewood, and Ward offered himself as a missionary, influenced by a remark made to him in 1793 by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Carey_(missionary)" \o "William Carey (missionary)" William Careyconcerning the need for a printer in the Indian mission field. He sailed to India in 1799 in company with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Marshman" \o "Joshua Marshman" Joshua Marshman [see above]. On arriving at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcutta" \o "Calcutta" Calcutta he was prevented from joining Carey by an order from the government, and proceeded to the Danish settlement of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serampore" \o "Serampore" Serampore, where he was then joined by Carey. In India, Wards time was chiefly occupied in overseeing the communitys printing press and in preaching the Gospel. In 1812 the printing office was destroyed by fire. It contained the types of all the scriptures that had been printed, to the value of at least ten thousand pounds. The moulds for casting fresh type, however, were recovered from the debris, and with the help of friends in Great Britain the loss was soon repaired. He returned to Europe in 1818 in poor health and was able to raise funds for a college at Serampore. He sailed for India in 1821 carrying the funds and as a result, Ward, Marshman and Carey became known as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serampore_trio" \o "Serampore trio" Serampore trio. He died of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera" \o "Cholera" choleraat Serampore. 1800JANICKE, JOHANNES [1748-1827] Founder of the first German missionary training school. A Bohemian-born weaver he was influenced by the Moravians and eventually became a pastor in Berlin. In 1800 Janicke opened a school to train young men for missionary service. It was a faith venture. He gave the instruction himself and received assistance from English missionary societies, individual German Christians, and even the Prussian king. Its 80 graduates, including Karl Rhenius [see 1814], and Karl Gutzlaff [see 1823], served under various societies in Africa and Asia. In 1805 Janicke formed a Bible Society and in 1811 a Tract Society which were forerunners of the later Prussian Bible [1814] and Tract [1816] societies. MCGREADY, JAMES [c.1758-1817] American Presbyterian revivalist who in 1788 was licensed to preach. His early ministry in North Carolina resulted in the conversion of some 12 young men who entered the ministry among them B.W. Stone [see 1801]. In 1796 McGready moved to pastor three churches in Kentucky. Revival began the following year and was climaxed during the summer of 1800 at a great outdoor camp meeting to celebrate Communion and admission of church members. The revival is known as the Second Great Awakening [see 1797]. Revival spread through the Western and Southern states. He is credited with originating the camp meeting [see 1801] at Gaspar River in 1800. He finished his life as a pioneer missionary in South Indiana. PIUS VII Pope [1800-1823]. He trained as a Benedictine and held the sees of Tivoli and Imola before becoming pope. He was immediately met by the demands of Napoleon who, in order to strengthen his hold on France wanted a new concordat. The pope remained immovable in regards to his spiritual authority while seeking to accommodate the church in the new forms of society. The Concordat of 1801 restored the church in France but as amended by the Organic Articles of 1802 left Napoleon in complete charge. Pius who was still conciliatory agreed to be present at Napoleons self coronation as emperor in Paris in December 1804. Pius was constantly complaining and he was seized in 1809 and deported to Savona near Genoa and finally to Fontainebleau in 1812. Napoleon never succeeded in dominating Pius and on his release the pope re-entered Rome in May 1814. His resistance to Napoleon provided an example of devotion for masses of the faithful. At the Congress of Vienna the negotiator for the papacy was able to get the re establishment of most of the Papal States. The church was effectively restored by concordats with Bavaria and Sardinia in 1817, Naples and Russia in 1818, and Prussia in 1821. Pius restored the Jesuits in 1814 and revitalised Catholic missions in Asia and Latin America. He succeeded Pius VI [see 1775] and was succeeded by Leo XII [see 1823]. UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST An America denomination organised in 1800 which developed out of the activities of P.W. Otterbein [see 1752] and Martin Boehm [see 1768] among German settlements chiefly in Pennsylvania. The new Methodist-type denomination was evangelical, Arminian, and perfectionist in doctrine, with an Episcopal government. The parent body were merged in 1946 with the Evangelical United Brethren which united with the Methodist Church in 1968 to create the United Methodist Church. 1801-1810 AD 1801CALLINICUS IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1801-06, 1808-09] who succeeded Neophytus VI [see 1789]. There is no additional information readily available. CAMP MEETINGS were a distinctive feature of religious life on the American frontier in the early decades of the 19th century. The meetings promoted vivid conversion experiences, emotional and even physical activities such as jerks, prostration and dancing. James McGready [see 1800] developed the technique in Logan County Kentucky in the summer of 1800 while the most famous camp meeting was in the following August at Cane Ridge Bourbon County Kentucky where the crowd was in excess of 10,000. CONCORDAT OF 1801 An agreement made between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII by which the Roman Catholic Church was formally restored in France. By its terms the French government recognised the Roman Catholic Church as the national faith. In 1802 these provisions were significantly modified by Napoleons Organic Articles in which Protestants were accorded full religious rights. The Concordat was to govern relations between France and the papacy until the separation of church and state in 1905. CONSALVI, ERCOLE [1757-1824] Italian statesman who, after the French invasion of the Papal States in 1798, was imprisoned and later exiled. Gaining his freedom he worked for the election of Pius VII [see 1800] who made him secretary of state. He was mainly responsible for the Concordat of 1801 [see above] with Napoleon. When Napoleon seized Rome in 1809 he was forced to go to Paris to lead the black cardinals but after Napoleons defeat he represented the pope at the Congress of Vienna securing the restoration of the Papal States. ICELAND [see also 1514] In 1801 due to rationalistic inroads and led by Magnus Stephensen, Holar and Skaholt were merged into one diocese located at Reykjavik. The Lutheran hymnal and service were altered to reflect the new thought. This liberalism has been perpetuated in the recent century by the churchs bishops and theological faculty. JEFFERSON, THOMAS [1743-1826] Third president of the United States and political philosopher who became president in 1801. His administration saw the Louisiana Purchase, the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and war with Algerian pirates. He was a founder of the Democratic Republican party and advocated democratic simplicity, agrarianism, state rights, and the separation of church and state. He was a Deist who deleted the miraculous from his edition of the gospels The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth. LEE, JESSE [1758-1816] The apostle of Methodism in New England. He was born in Virginia and was a pacifist during the Revolutionary War. He was appointed as the circuit preacher in 1789 and presiding elder of the South District of Virginia in 1801. He served three terms as chaplain in the House of Representatives and one in the Senate of the United States. PLAN OF UNION, THE [1801-1852] The scheme to prevent duplication of Presbyterian and Congregational work on the western American frontier fostered by the development of Presbyterianism more than Congregationalism there. The Plan united adherents of the two denominations in the West into congregations with local church government being that of the majority. The minister could be of either denomination. The Presbyterian General Assembly ended co-operation in 1837 and the Plan was finally ended by a Congregational convention in October 1852. SCOTT, THOMAS [1747-1821] Biblical commentator who was a son of a Lincolnshire grazier. Scott was employed for nine years in menial farm work which permanently ruined his health. Driven from home by his fathers cruelty he was ordained a deacon in 1772 by the bishop of Lincoln and in 1781 having held a number of curacies succeeded John Newton at Olney. He was chaplain at the Lock Hospital and lecturer at St Mildreds London and from 1801 to 1821 rector of Aston Sandford where he helped to train missionaries for the Church Missionary Society. He is chiefly famous for Force of Truth published in 1779 which is his spiritual autobiography and follows his development from early Unitarian beliefs to the adoption of evangelical Calvinism under the influence of Newton, and for his Commentary on the Bible which became immediately popular but brought its author not only no financial rewards and charges of Arminianism from extreme Calvinistic critics. STONE, BARTON WARREN [1772-1844] American frontier Presbyterian evangelist who crossed into Kentucky at the close the American Revolution. Essentially an Arminian revivalist he broke with the Presbyterian Church on the subject of unconditional election and limited atonement after the great Cane Ridge Meeting of 1801 in which he was a participant and recorder. He organised the Christian Church. His ecumenical outlook brought him into contact with many Christians of the Reformation of the 19th century including Alexander Campbell with whose Disciples many of the Christians merged in 1852. 1802CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE VICOMTE DE [1768-1848] French aristocrat, author, who originally supported the French Revolution but migrated to London during the Terror of 1793. He was converted and wrote a defence of Christianity in his 1802 book The Genie du Chistianisme. DE MAISTRE, JOSEPH MARIE [1754-1821] Catholic philosopher and one of the initial proponents of Ultramontanism [see 1814]. He experienced the French Revolution as terror and anarchy when the revolutionary armies invaded Savoy in 1792. He believed it is God who establishes authority by divine sovereignty which is then reflected in the sovereignty of the popes, who are infallible in spiritual things, and of monarchs, infallible in temporal things. De Maistres emphasis on faith, rather than rationalism, and on organic, rather than mechanistic view of history, found wide acceptance among Catholics in France. He formulated most of his ideas while serving as Savoys ambassador to Russia in 1802 to 1816. ORGANIC ARTICLES [1802] A French law unilaterally amending and implementing the Concordat of 1801 to which it was attached without papal agreement. On grounds of concern for public tranquillity Napoleon hereby succeeded in seizing total control of the French Church, tightly centralised under the state. The law contains 77 articles arranged in four main titles. Although condemned by Pius VII [see 1800] and later popes, the Organic Articles remained law with some parts disused until 1905. 1803EVANGELICAL CHURCH [Albright Brethren] An American Protestant denomination founded by Jacob Albright 1759-1808, a Pennsylvania tile maker and farmer. Following his conversion to evangelical Christianity in 1791, Albright, raised as a Lutheran, associated himself with a class meeting of the Methodist Episcopal Church and was licensed as a lay preacher. Stressing a personal and experiential relationship with God, the Evangelical Church held their first council in 1803. In 1891 controversies led to a schism and the birth of the United Evangelical Church in 1894. The two groups however were reunited in 1922 in the Evangelical Church. In 1968 this body merged with the Methodist Church to form the United Methodist Church, healing the division caused by the old language barrier and bringing together into one body the church of Francis Asbury and the church of Jacob Albright. 1804BRITISH and FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY formed in London. [See Thomas Charles 1784] KRUDENER, BARBARA JULIANA VON [1764-1824] Russian born Pietist who was unfaithful to her husband a Russian minister of state, and formed an attachment with a young French officer. A few months later in 1804 whilst in Riga she experienced a sudden conversion after which she held pietistic concepts. As a confidant of Tsar Alexander I she was regarded by some as a prime mover of the Holy Alliance with Prussia and Austria although Alexander contended that he had conceived of the alliance while in Vienna in 1815. She died during a visit to the Crimea. RENQVIST, HENRIK [1789-1866] Finnish pastor who experienced a personal revival while at school and was greatly influenced by a book on conversion by Arthur Dent the English Puritan. He came into contact with a movement which emphasised repentance and conversion called the Prayers. Another important influence on him was the Scot, John Patterson, who promoted the Bible Society which had been founded in Britain in 1804. Thereafter Renqvist was especially interested in the printing and spreading of inexpensive Bibles and Christian literature. He started writing and translating Christian books some 60 titles altogether. His own Christian outlook was a mystical one, and he pioneered temperance work and missions in Finland. SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH DANIEL ERNST [1768-1834] German theologian who rejected Pietism in his youth but in later life regarded himself as a Pietist and of a higher order. He studied at Halle and was ordained in 1794. He served as a minister to the Charity Hospital in Berlin then returned as the professor to Halle in 1804. His next years were overshadowed by the Napoleonic Wars and the revival of German nationalism. With the closure of Halle a new university was formed at Berlin where he was made a professor of theology and was instrumental in bringing Hegel [see 1818] to Berlin but their relationship became strained through differences in outlook. He stated that the basis of religion is neither activity nor knowledge but something which underlines them both, the continuous feeling of awareness which we call the self consciousness. The common factor of religious experience is the feeling or sense of absolute dependence. Sin he saw as essentially a wrongful desire for independence. Christ being a man in whom dependence was complete and his profound experience of God through his sense of dependence constitutes an existence of God in him. Jesus is therefore able to mediate a new redemptive awareness of God to humanity. The influence of Schleiermacher extended far beyond his disciples who made up the school of Mediating Theology in the mid 19th century. To Karl Barth [see 1921] he epitomised the liberal approach to religion which dwelt on man rather than God. 1805CLOWES, WILLIAM [1780-1851] Became an active Methodist in 1805 and co founded the Primitive Methodist Connexion. He participated in the first Mow Cop meeting in the county of Cheshire. Like Hugh Bourne [see 1811] he was expelled by the Methodists in 1810 through Methodist alarm at their association however many local Methodists supported him calling him as a fulltime preacher paid from their meagre wages. Clowes became a hard living travelling evangelist with many recording the remarkable power of his preaching. He worked until a couple of days before his decease. HARMONY SOCIETY A Protestant communal society established in 1805 north of Pittsburgh by 500 Pietist dissenters from Germany seeking religious freedom. Led by George Rapp [1757-1847] and his adopted son Frederick, the group moved to 30,000 acres at New Harmony Indiana in 1815. Practising first century Christian communal living, Harmonists laboured corporately as farmers, brewers, millers, and spinners, making their communities show pieces of economic growth and security. They pioneered prefabricated buildings, oil refinery, and underwriting railroad construction. In 1807 they adopted celibacy, a factor in the societys ultimate demise which occurred in 1916. MARTYN, HENRY [1781-1812] Anglican missionary to India who was born in Cornwall and educated at Cambridge. The sudden death of his father eventually led to a spiritual awakening and his ordination in 1803 as curate to Charles Simeon [see 1782] at Holy Trinity Church in Cambridge. He was the first Englishman to offer to the newly formed Church Missionary Society, but for reasons beyond his control he was not accepted. Further disappointment and intense unhappiness came when after a protracted period his proposal of marriage was not accepted. In 1805 Martyn sailed for India as a chaplain in the East India Company and arrived in Calcutta where he enjoyed fellowship with two other evangelical chaplains, Daniel Corrie and David Brown. Martyns outstanding linguistic gifts led to his great lifes work, the translation of the New Testament and the Book of Common Prayer into Hindustani. His forthright preaching to British contemporaries caused offence as did his constant attempts to make contact with native Indians both Hindus and Muslims. In 1809 the beginnings of tuberculosis and the intense summer heat almost caused his death. The following year he was advised to take a sea voyage and being anxious to complete an Arabic and Persian translation of the New Testament travelled to Shiraz where he talked and worked for long hours with Persian scholars gaining their respect and confidence in argument and debate and finishing his task in February 1812. He set out for home but the hard travelling and constant fever brought about his death in Armenia in October of that year. He was buried there. MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES Archbishop of Canterbury [1805-1828]. He was educated at Charterhouse and Cambridge. He married at age 23, probably eloped with his cousin Mary Thoroton. In 1785, Manners-Sutton was appointed to the family living at Averham with Kelham, in Nottinghamshire, and in 1791, became dean ofPeterborough. He was consecrated bishop of Norwich in 1792 and in 1805 he was chosen to succeed John Moore as archbishop of Canterbury. During his primacy the old archiepiscopal palace at Croydon was sold and the country palace of Addington bought with the proceeds. He presided over the first meeting which issued in the foundation of the National Society, and subsequently lent the scheme his strong support. He also exerted himself to promote the establishment of the Indian episcopate. As archbishop of Canterbury, Manners-Sutton appointed his cousin EvelynLevettSutton as one of six preachers of Canterbury Cathedral in 1811. His only published works are two sermons, one preached before the lords in London in 1794, the other before the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel three years later. His son Charles Manners-Suttonserved as speaker of the House of Commons and was created Viscount Canterbury in 1835. He succeeded John Moore [see 1783] and was succeeded by William Howley [see 1828]. THEOPHILUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1805-1825] see 1788 and 1825. 1806PLESSIS, JOSEPH OCTAVE [1762-1825] Roman Catholic archbishop of Quebec who was a son of a blacksmith and received a classical education in Montral College and then trained for the priesthood in Quebec. Completing the studies he taught for a time at Montral College and became secretary to Bishop Briand [see 1766]. Plessis was ordained as a priest in 1786 and in 1806 was made bishop of Quebec. Enmity between the French and the British increased and at the time of the outbreak of the War of 1812 he urged the French to be loyal to Canada thus winning the appreciation of the government. He was granted in 1814 a seat in the Legislative Council and was consecrated archbishop of Quebec in 1818. 1807ALBRIGHT, JACOB [17591808] American preacher of German origin who had been born into the Lutheran church and founded the Evangelical Church in 1807. The group was Arminian in doctrine but Methodist in policy. He was a prosperous brick maker but the unexpected death of several of his children resulted in his conversion in 1790. He joined a Methodist group and became a lay preacher. In 1968 this group combined to form the United Methodist Church. CAMPBELL, THOMAS [1763-1854] One of the founders of the Disciples of Christ who was a Scots Irish minister in the Secession church that had broken away from the Church of Scotland. He migrated to Pennsylvania in 1807 where he established a Christian Association for people from various professions. Later the group merged with a similar group organised by B. Stone [see 1801]. Becoming blind in later life he stayed with his son Alexander who wrote his biography The Memoirs of Elder Thomas Campbell seven years after his death. MORRISON, ROBERT [1782-1834] Missionary to China, born of Scottish Presbyterian artisan parents, he was converted when an apprentice at Newcastle. He educated himself and in 1802 entered into a Dissenting Academy near London and became a Congregationalist. Morrison offered to the London Missionary Society, then looking for someone to translate and distribute the Bible in the almost completely closed Chinese Empire. Morrison learned the rudiments of the language which was nearly unknown in England and was ordained in 1807. He sailed to Canton via the USA and Cape Horn because the controlling East India Company refused to transport missionaries. He could never get any further than the trading factories at Canton. He saw scarcely any converts and he could remain only because he learned Chinese so well that he swiftly became the official Company interpreter. However he completed a translation of the whole Bible by 1818. His dictionary published in 1821 was the standard work until long after China opened fully. He wrote tracts and hymns. When he obtained an assistant William Milne [see 1815] in 1813 Morrison sent him to found the Anglo-Chinese college in Malacca which proved to be an important element in the eventual growth of missions in China. He encouraged work among expatriate Chinese and dreamt of opening up Japan. Dying alone in Canton eight years before missionaries were admitted anywhere else this austere Scott is the Father of Protestant Missions in China. WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM [1759-1833] Slave trade abolitionist who was born in Hull and was educated at the grammar school where he came under the influence of Joseph Milner the headmaster [see 1797] and his brother Isaac [see 1775]. Isaac used to lift the small boy onto the table so that the other scholars could hear him read with his beautiful voice. At the age of 14 he wrote a letter to a York paper about the evils of the slave trade. He studied at Cambridge and went on a tour of Europe with Isaac Milner during which he was converted as they studied the New Testament together. In 1780 he was elected the member of Parliament for Hull after laying out a large amount of money on the election. He was in Parliament for many years. James Boswell records how the smallness of his stature was forgotten in the midst of his eloquence and that the shrimp grew and grew and became a whale. Wilberforce became associated with the Clapham Sect, a group of evangelicals who were active in public life. Through his friendship with John Newton [see 1779] and Thomas Clarkson [see 1787] on one hand, and William Pitt on the other, Wilberforce was persuaded to put most of his energies into the abolition of the slave trade. It was abolished in 1807 but the complete abolition of slavery was not achieved until just before his death in 1833. He helped with the formation of the Church Missionary Society [1799] and the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1804. 1808POLYCARP I Patriarch of Jerusalem [1808-1827] see 1788 and 1827. SPAIN [see also 1576] With the French occupation of Spain in 1808 political liberalism and anticlericalism were introduced into the country and these new forces confronted traditionalism in church and state and led to a century and a half of civil strife. With the revolution of 1931 Protestant activities could proceed unimpeded: churches were opened as well as schools including El Porvenir the one which was considered the finest secondary school in Spain. The Nationalists however denounced the Protestants as being in league with the Republicans and after 1939 persecution began again. The war of 1936-1939 resulted in victory for the Nationalists and the restoration of the Catholic Church, which had suffered severely during the period of the Republic [1931-1936]. Church and state were at one again and a notable concordat was concluded in 1953. Though Spain is regarded as the most devout of nations probably only about 20% of the people are practising Catholics. TYLER, BENNET [1783-1858] American Congregational theologian who graduated from Yale College in 1804. Tyler was ordained in 1808 and became president of Dartmouth College in 1822 and the pastor of the Second Church Portland Maine in 1828. This was the final period of the Second Great Awakening which had begun in 1799 with Charles Finney [see 1821] and other evangelists interpreting popularly the revivalist doctrines of Nathaniel W. Taylor [see 1812]. Orthodox Calvinists became increasingly alarmed by the concessions to Arminianism, in teaching human ability and choice, involved with the teachings coming out of Taylors New Haven Theology. Tyler, a Yale classmate of Taylor entered into discussions with him in 1829 which lasted several years and resulted in the founding of the Pastoral Union in 1833 and a theological institution in 1834, which eventually became Hartford Seminary, with the purpose of combating the New Haven Theology [see 1834]. Tyler was called to assume the presidency and remained to this position to 1857. WILLIAMS, WILLIAM [1781-1840] Welsh preacher who was the son of a carpenter and followed that trade in early life. He was educated at Wrexham Academy and ordained into the Congregational ministry near Wrexham in 1808. He moved to the Tabernacle, Crosshall Street Liverpool in 1836 but returned to Wern in 1839 and died there five months later. Tradition has it in Wales that Williams, John Elias [see 1811], and Christmas Evans [see 1789] were the three greatest names among the nations preachers. Unlike the two others, Williams preaching style was quiet and persuasive rather than tempestuous. His influence with many congregations throughout North Wales was that he brought a new evangelical and missionary enthusiasm into being just at the time when the great flood of the Methodist Revival was showing signs of waning. 1809CHURCHS MINISTRY AMONG JEWISH PEOPLE which was formerly the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews. This is an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary society founded in 1809.The society began in the early 19th century, when leading HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical" \o "Evangelical" evangelicals, including members of the influential HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clapham_Sect" \o "Clapham Sect" Clapham Sect such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wilberforce" \o "William Wilberforce" William Wilberforce, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Simeon" \o "Charles Simeon" Charles Simeon, decided that there was an unmet need to promote Christianity among the Jews. The original agenda of the society was: [i] Declaring the Messiahship of Jesus to the Jew first and also to the non-Jew. [ii] Endeavouring to teach the Church its Jewish roots, [iii] Encouraging the physical restoration of the Jewish people to the Land of Israel and [iv] Encouraging the Hebrew Christian/Messianic Jewish movement. The societys work began among the poor Jewish immigrants in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_End_of_London" \o "East End of London" East End of London and soon spread to Europe, South America, Africa and Palestine. In 1811, a five-acre field on the Cambridge Road in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethnal_Green" \o "Bethnal Green" Bethnal Green, east London, was leased as a centre for missionary operations. A school, training college and a church called the Episcopal Jews Chapel were built here. The complex was named Palestine Place. In 1813, a Hebrew-Christian congregation called Children of Abraham started meeting at the chapel in Palestine Place. This was the first recorded assembly of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Christians" \o "Jewish Christians" Jewish believers in Jesus and the forerunner of todays HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messianic_Judaism" \o "Messianic Judaism" Messianic Jewish congregations. The London Jews Society was the first such society to work on a global basis. In 1836, two missionaries were sent to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem" \o "Jerusalem" Jerusalem: Dr. Albert Gerstmann, a physician, and Melville Bergheim, a pharmacist, who opened a clinic that provided free medical services. By 1844, it had become a 24-bed hospital. In its heyday, the society had over 250 missionaries. It supported the creation of the post of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Bishop_in_Jerusalem" \o "Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem" Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem in 1841, and the first incumbent was one of its workers, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Solomon_Alexander" \o "Michael Solomon Alexander" Michael Solomon Alexander. The society was active in the establishment of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Jerusalem" \o "Christ Church, Jerusalem" Christ Church, Jerusalem, the oldest HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant church in the Middle East, completed in 1849. A hospital was established at Jerusalem in 1897. The organisation is one of the eleven official mission agencies of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England" \o "Church of England" Church of England. It currently has branches in the United Kingdom, Israel, Ireland, the USA, South Africa, and Australia. It has always supported the Jews which in recent years has caused criticism and tension within the society and resulted in 1992 in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carey" \o "George Carey" George Carey becoming the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" Archbishop of Canterbury in 150 years to decline to be the Patron of CMJ as he did not wish to endorse the organisations missionary work, which he felt was damaging to interfaith relations . HAYDN, FRANZ JOSEPH [1732-1809] Music composer, the son of a humble wheelwright in lower Austria, who rose to the dazzling princely court of Esterhaz in Hungary and became one of the most sought after composers in Europe. Although his greatest energies were spent in the realms of symphony and the string quartet he wrote at least a dozen masses which are considered by some critics as his crowning achievements. He also wrote his magnificent oratorio The Creation inspired by his experiences with George F. Handels music in England. His younger brother Michael was also a distinguished and voluminous composer of Catholic Church music in the classical vein. JEREMIAS IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1809-1813] succeeded Callinicus [see 1801]. There is no additional information readily available. OBOOKIAH, HENRY [1792-1818] Hawaiian Christian who inspired American missionary interest in what was then the Sandwich Islands. Born on the island of Hawaii, at 12 years of age he saw his parents slain in a local war and himself taken prisoner. Later he found refuge with an uncle, a priest, who trained him in the same occupation. He however was discontent and sailed to America arriving in New York in 1809. He inspired the sending of the first missionary party to Hawaii but he himself died of typhus before he could return with them. The SCOTTISH BIBLE SOCIETY was founded in 1809 as the Edinburgh Bible Society. It amalgamated in 1861 with the Glasgow Bible Society, which had been founded 1812, to form the National Bible Society of Scotland. It is a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" \o "Scotland" Scottish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charitable_organization" \o "Charitable organization" charity that exists to make the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible available throughout the world. The Scottish Bible Society arose as a separate organisation to the British & Foreign Bible Society over its desire to print Metrical Psalms as an additional book at the back of the Bible. At the time BFBS did not allow additional books to be added to the Bible. It also acted as a missionary society that was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. 1810The AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS was the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America" \o "United States of America" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian foreign mission agency. It was proposed in 1810 by recent graduates of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_College" \o "Williams College" Williams College Massachusetts. Its first missionaries were sent to India and Ceylon in 1812. In 1818 it appointed the first two missionaries to the Near East and the following year sent the first missionary group to Hawaii. In 1961 it merged with other societies to form the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Church_Board_for_World_Ministries&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "United Church Board for World Ministries (page does not exist)" United Church Board for World Ministries. The founding of the ABCFM is associated with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" \o "Second Great Awakening" Second Great Awakening. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_church" \o "Congregational church" Congregationalist in origin, the American Board supported missions by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian (18121870), HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_Church_in_America" \o "Reformed Church in America" Dutch-Reformed (18191857) and other denominational members. From 1812-1840 it became the leading HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary society in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States. During this period it also led the way in the fight against Indian removal under the Act of 1830. From the 1830s the Board sent many missionaries to China as well as to other places in the Far East. The Board was Orthodox, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinitarianism" \o "Trinitarianism" Trinitarian and evangelical in their HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" theology. Indigenous preachers associated with the Board proclaimed an orthodox message. However they modified their presentation drawing upon the positive and negative aspects of their own cultures. The native HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelism" \o "Evangelism" evangelists steeped their messages in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Biblical texts and themes with varied results. They also helped with Bible translations which took place in a variety of settings. A number of Board missionaries also received some medical training before leaving for the field. CLARKE, ADAM [1762-1832] Irish Methodist theologian who was appointed circuit preacher in Wiltshire in 1782. His scholarship was impressive and while theologically orthodox in most areas he denied Christs eternal sonship while maintaining His divinity and held that Judas had repented and had been saved. His great achievement was an eight volume commentary on the Bible commenced in 1810. CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH Emerged as a new denomination during the Second Great Awakening [see 1790] who maintained that ministers in the frontier regions of Kentucky and Tennessee did not necessarily need a formal education as a requirement for their religious vocations. In 1906 the attempted reunion with the Presbyterian Church met with only limited success. The denomination currently has some 90,000 members. PETROS VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1810-1854] see 1797 and 1854. He was born in Upper Egypt and became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk at St. Anthony Monastery on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea" \o "Red Sea" Red Sea. During his papacy, sensing intimations of pressure from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" \o "Roman Catholicism" Roman Catholicism, the Coptic Church intensified her teaching, her preaching, and her pastoral work, and the Coptic Pope himself intensified his writing on matters of faith and doctrine. During the period, many private and public patriarchal libraries were founded. When the Russian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czar" \o "Czar" Czarsent his delegates with an offer to put the Coptic Church under his protection, Pope Petros declined the proposal by asking, Does your Emperor live forever? When the envoy answered that he would die, like all humans, the Pope told him that he preferred the Protector of the Church who wouldnt die. Also during the papacy, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Sidhom_Bishay" \o "Saint Sidhom Bishay" Saint Sidhom Bishay was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyr" \o "Martyr" martyred at the hands of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims" \o "Muslims" Muslims in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damietta" \o "Damietta" Damietta. His martyrdom made possible the raising of the Cross openly during HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian funeral processions, a practice that was previously forbidden. 1811-1820 AD 1811BOURNE, HUGH [17721852] English born founder of the Primitive Methodist Church [see below]. Originally a Wesleyan Methodist for whom he built a chapel at his own expense, he organised from 1807 camp meetings, however he was eventually expelled from the denomination. He desired to have Methodism return to its primitive origins thus the Primitive Methodists were born. By 1852 there were 110,000 members and by 1902 there were a quarter of a million in Britain. The group joined the Methodist Church in 1932. Bourne worked as a carpenter and builder so as not to be an expense to the church. BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS [17661815] Scottish Anglican chaplain educated at Glasgow and Cambridge who while at Cambridge came under the influence of Charles Simeon [see 1782] and his circle. He was ordained in 1796 then went to India. He was in India for over 15 years during which he encouraged Scripture translation and native education even though being attached to the East India Company which prevented ministering to the natives. He wrote Christian Researches in India in 1811. On his return to England he helped to establish the first Indian bishopric. CALVINISTIC METHODIST CONNEXION Officially recognised as a body and regular ordinations commenced in 1811 [see Thomas Charles 1784]. In 1840 this group who until this time had supported the London Missionary Society commenced their own missionary work in France and India. FAWCETT, JOHN [1740-1817] English Baptist theologian who, after some time in secular occupations, he was moved by the preaching of George Whitefield and became a Baptist pastor. His ministry was spent entirely in the Halifax area of Yorkshire, where he also taught school for most of his active life. He was a vigorous preacher, zealous and much respected among his people and he might have held high office in his denomination had he been so inclined. He is known for his Devotional Commentary on the Holy Scriptures published in 1811. GESENIUS, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH WILHELM [1786-1842] German Orientalist and biblical scholar who studied at Gottingen and was professor of theology at Halle from 1811. He concentrated on problems of Semitic philology, becoming the most outstanding Hebrew expert of his generation. His work was the basis of the Hebrew lexicon of Brown, Driver and Briggs [1906]. He also produced his Hebrew Grammar in 1813. INDONESIA [also see 1522 and 1934] The evangelical movement in Europe transformed the picture with the first efforts to evangelise Java made separately by a planter Coolen [1770-1863], and watchmaker Emde [1774-1859] in the east of the island. Raffles, the British governor [1811-1815] was the first to instigate missionary work, and thereafter Dutch and German missionaries gave themselves to the Indies. The Dutch government prohibited working in politically sensitive areas such as Atjeh and Bali. L. Nommensen [see 1861] evangelised the animistic Bataks of Sumatra, Kam [1772 1833] earned by his labours in the nominally Christian eastern islands the title of Apostle of the Moluccas, and Bruckner [1783-1847] pioneered Central Java. These are only a few among many. Nowhere else in the world was so larger a church established in the midst of Islam. Most of the schools and hospitals were provided by the missions. The weakness however was that it was totally under missionary control and finance from Europe. Seeing this, Depok Seminary was opened in 1878 to train indigenous evangelists. 1812ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD [17721851] American Presbyterian who after conversion studied theology under William Graham was encouraged to preach. In 1812 he became the first professor at Princeton Theological Seminary having been minister at Pine Street Church, Philadelphia from 1807. JUDSON, ADONIRAM [17881850] American missionary, lexicographer and Bible translator who graduated from Brown University in 1807. He was a leader in the founding of the American Board of Commissions for Foreign Missions [see 1810]. In 1812 he was ordained and he and his wife embarked for Burma as Congregational missionaries. During that voyage they re-examined their views on baptism and both were baptised in Calcutta which cut off their support but this was taken over by the Baptist Triennial Convention, organised in 1814. Reaching Rangoon, Judson learned Burmese in order to preach and translate the Bible and worked on an English-Burmese dictionary. The war with England in 1824 brought him 17 months imprisonment but peace saw him work as an interpreter. He continued missionary work at Ava but by 1826 he had lost his wife and two children. His second wife died in 1845, and he remarried again. He died at sea. MANZONI, ALESSANDRO [1785-1873] Romantic poet and Italian novelist. He came into contact with the Jansenist circle in Paris and returned to the Christian faith and thereafter his writings show a desire to proclaim Christianity. Between 1812 and 1832 he published sacred lyrics in which he exalts great events in Christendom and their significant influence on humanity. Though Manzonis conversion took place in Jansenist circles it is difficult to assess to what extent he adhered to their doctrines. RICE, LUTHER [1783-1836] American missionary to India and promoter of missionary interest among Baptist churches. He was one of a group of students who sparked the formation of the first American foreign mission society. When the American Board appointed its first four missionary couples in 1812, Rices name was added few days before sailing on condition that he was to secure his own support. Ordained a Congregational minister, after reaching India he experienced the same change of mind on the subject of baptism as did Adoniram Judson [see above] and became a Baptist. To stimulate missionary interest among Baptists they decided to return temporarily to the USA. He helped start the Baptist Foreign Mission Society and was so effective in gaining support for it that he never return to the Orient. TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM [1786-1858] American theologian and educator who studied theology under Timothy Dwight [see 1795]. After graduating from Yale, Taylor was ordained in the pastorate in the First Church of New Haven where he served from 1812 to 1822. He was appointed the first professor of theology at Yale Divinity School and remained there for the rest of life. His main thesis concerned the problem of moral depravity, and although he taught that sin was inevitable, each person was nevertheless responsible for his own moral choice, a position consistent with revivalist preaching. His views created such controversy among Congregationalists that a more orthodox and Calvinistic seminary was formed at Hartford in 1834. WATSON, RICHARD [1781-1833] Wesleyan minister apprentice to a Lincoln joiner but received his first appointment as a Methodist preacher when only 16 years of age. An enquiring mind brought him under suspicion of heresy in his circuit and he resigned in 1801 becoming later a preacher with the Methodist New Connexion [see 1798] and secretary of their conference. In 1807 shattered health induced his resignation. He became editor of a Liverpool newspaper and in 1812 he returned to the Wesleyan Ministry and became, with Jabez Bunting [see 1799], one of the most outstanding figures. He was a leading advocate for the abolition of slavery and his most important written work was the first major Methodist systematic theology. 1813CYRIL VI Patriarch of Constantinople [1813-1818] who succeeded Jeremias IV [see 1809]. There is no additional information readily available. ENGLISH WESLEYAN MISSION was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" \o "United Kingdom" British HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodist missionary society that was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. The Wesleyan Missionary Society sent out Rev. W. R. Beach and Rev. J. Cox to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou" \o "Guangzhou" Guangzhou in 1852. It afterwards established itself in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hankou_District" \o "Hankou District" Hankow, and had its principal stations in that city and others of the province of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubei" \o "Hubei" Hupeh. Lay agency, under the direction of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hill_(missionary)" \o "David Hill (missionary)" Rev. David Hill, was a prominent feature in the Mission at Hankow, and this Society also tried the experiment of giving to some of its missionaries medical training, that they might combine preaching and healing gifts in their ministry. In 1884 it resolved to open a college or high school in connection with their Central Mission, and the Rev. W. T. A. Barber was appointed principal, and arrived at Hankow early in 1885. The object of the institution was to provide a liberal Western education for the sons of official and other wealthy Chinese. Attempts to purchase land for the erection of a suitable building were unsuccessful, but in 1887 a large house was rented in the main street of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuchang,_Hubei" \o "Wuchang, Hubei" Wuchang, and the work begun. A ladies auxiliary society also sent out female workers. In 1890 there were twenty-five missionaries at work. FRY, ELIZABETH [1780-1845] Quaker prison reformer. Daughter of a Quaker banker she married a London merchant in 1800 and had a large family. Because of her religious upbringing she was deeply concerned about social issues and founded a girls school at East Ham London. It was not until 1813 that she became interested in prison work and began her welfare work at Newgate Prison among the women prisoners, visiting them daily, teaching them to sew, and reading the Bible to them. In 1818 she gave evidence before a committee of the House of Commons on the subject of prisons and her views played a significant part in the design of the subsequent legislation. In 1839 realising the necessity of care and rehabilitation of discharged criminals she formed a society with that as its prime concern. She did much to the foster prison reform on the Continent by frequent visits. She sponsored the Nightly Shelter for the Homeless in London in 1820 as well as visiting societies in Brighton and other places. She also prepared a report on social conditions in Ireland. She secured the provision of libraries at coastguard stations in certain naval hospitals. GRELLET, STEPHEN [1773-1855] Quaker missionary who was born in France and educated at the College of Oratorians at Lyons but became sceptical of Roman Catholic dogmas. During the French Revolution he joined the Royal Army, but was taken prisoner. Escaping to Amsterdam he sailed to Guyana in South America and in 1795 went to New York. By this time he was a disciple of Voltaire and was moved by William Penns book No cross, no crown. He joined the Friends or Quakers in 1796 and in England in 1813 he visited Newgate Prison and introduced Elizabeth Fry [see 1813] to her lifes work among prisoners. NEANDER, JOHANN AUGUST WILHELM [1789-1850] German Protestant church historian who changed his name from David Mendel on his conversion to Christianity in 1806. He was professor of church history at Berlin for nearly four decades from 1813. There he was a determined opponent of the rationalistic views on F.C. Baur [see 1845], D.F. Strauss [see 1835] and others. Neander wrote many volumes on the history of the church including a multivolume church history [1826 -1852] concentrating on personalities rather than institutions. ROSENMULLER, ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL [1768-1835] German biblical scholar who was the son of an evangelical Lutheran pastor. Educated at Leipzig he taught there from 1792 becoming professor of oriental languages in 1813. He prepared in 16 parts Scholia for the Old Testament [1788-1817], drawing together the insights from the writings of rabbis, Church Fathers, and mediaeval and Reformation scholars, and published a handbook on the natural history of the biblical world in 1823. SERAPHIM Patriarch of Antioch [1813-1823] see also 1792 and 1843. STRACHAN, JOHN [1778-1867] Educator and bishop who was born in Scotland and educated there. In 1799 he migrated to Canada where he taught school at Kingston until 1803 when he was ordained in the Church of England and became curate in Cornwall. Strachan was rector of St James Church Toronto [1813-1867] during which period he also served many years as a member of both the executive council and legislative council of Upper Canada. He upheld the sole right of the Anglican Church to income from the Clergy Reserves [see 1791]. 1814AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION which is also known as the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society or American Baptist International Ministries is an international HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_missionary" \o "Christian missionary" Christian missionary society founded in 1814 in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States. The Society initially sponsored two American missionaries in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma" \o "Burma" Burma, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoniram_Judson" \o "Adoniram Judson" Adoniram Judson [see 1812] and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Hasseltine_Judson" \o "Ann Hasseltine Judson" Ann Hasseltine Judson. The Union is the oldest HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist missionary organisation based in North America. The Society was involved in sending workers to many different countries including HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. BURMA British Baptists, including William Careys eldest son Felix, entered Burma first from India but the most important initial work was by the American Baptists begun in 1814 by Adoniram Judson and his wife Ann [see 1812] who were one of the first groups sent out by the American Board [see 1810]. There, in spite of intense suffering he laid the foundation of a flourishing Baptist work. Judson worked primarily with the Burmese who have never responded greatly to the gospel and it was seven years before the first converts were baptised. However when George Dana Boardman was sent to Tavoy he helped begin a great movement among the Karen tribes that soon spread to other areas. Later, other tribes such as the Chins, Kachins, and Shans were also effectively reached. After independence the Burmese government restricted missionary activity and in 1966 resulted in the exclusion of all foreign missionaries in Burma. LAMBRUSCHINI, RAFFAELLO [1788-1873] Italian educational, social, and religious reformer. He was ordained a Roman Catholic priest and because he opposed Napoleonic policies he was imprisoned and sent to Corsica. Freed in 1814 he withdrew to Florence and devoted him self to improving social conditions by means of schools, educational publications, political journals, and other treatises. He was in close touch with the leading men of Tuscan and Swiss evangelism. He opposed the temporal power of the pope and advocated reform of the Roman Catholic Church from within, based on a deepening of the spiritual life of the individual and a return to the simplicity of the Gospel. LIANG A-FAH [1789-1855] First ordained Chinese Protestant evangelist. When Robert Morrison could not gain access to China he established a base in 1814 among the 4000 strong Chinese community in Malacca. This is where his colleague William Milne [see 1815] set up a printing press. Among Milnes converts and assistants was Laing A-fah who became a Bible Society colporteur and wrote a long treatise on Christianity entitled Good Words Exhorting the Age which he eventually distributed among the civil service examinees in Canton. One of these books fell into the hands of Hung Hsiu-chuan and sparked the Taiping Rebellion. NEW ZEALAND Christianity was found in New Zealand by 19th century European missionaries and settlers with some American influence. Anglican missions in 1814 followed by Wesleyans in 1822 and the Roman Catholics in 1838 made slow progress. Missionaries were frequently used by chiefs to further their own political aims. The King Movement inspired by W. Tamihana [1802-1866] combined Christian and Maori ideas, but aroused deep official suspicions. Bitter land wars and unjust confiscations gave the missions a severe setback and by 1900 there were few Maori clergy. The healer, T.W. Ratana [1870-1939] inspired a significant independent church combining Maori beliefs and Christianity which had by 1931 linked with the Labour Party. Numerical European dominance hampered the development of indigenous Maori Christianity although there were significant leaders. After World War II migrants from Samoa and the Cook Islands introduced a vigorous Polynesian Christianity. European Christianity was dominated by Anglicans, Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, and Methodists. Shortage of clergy, isolation, and egalitarianism all contributed to greater lay participation in the church than in Britain, notably among Anglicans. Apart from some notable secondary schools like Christs College [1851], Protestants have worked within the state system. In Dunedin and Christchurch, churchmen were active in foundation of universities but no faculty of theology emerged until 1945 at Otago. Theological colleges such as St Johns College [1844], the Theological Hall [1876], Holy Cross College [1900], and Knox College [1909] have been the main Christian contributors to tertiary education. New Zealanders such as J. Dickie, H. Ranston, J.A. Allan, and E.M. Blaiklock have been more than of local importance. Radicals have been rare. RHENIUS, KARL [1790-1838] Missionary in South India who attended Janickes [see 1800] mission school in Berlin and went to India under the Church Missionary Society in 1814. After serving briefly in Madras [Chennai] he moved to Tinnevelly where he proved to be a competent scholar, effective teacher, and outstanding organiser. He prepared a Tamil grammar and New Testament, and introduced a system linking the village church and the school where the schoolmaster had responsibility for worship and religious instruction. The work was self-supporting and self propagating and so many lower class people were converted that the British authorities feared social unrest. Having never received Anglican orders, Rhenius ordained Indian ministers himself but the Church Missionary Society forbade the practice. In 1835 he challenged this and was discharged. Because many of the Tinnevelly congregations remained loyal to him he formed a separate church and the schism was not healed until after his death. ULTRAMONTANISM The movement of Catholic revival, especially after the French Revolution, which rediscovered and hoped to re-implement the unity and independence of the Roman Church under the papacy. The name given was used derisively as it implied attachment to Rome i.e. beyond the mountains. The movement was shaped by the resistance of Pius VII to Napoleon, by the support of subsequent popes and public figures and by the re-establishment of the Jesuits in 1814 and the establishment of new orders but especially by the marked devotion of countless parish clergy and laity. 1815BASEL MISSION was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary society active from 1815 to 2007, when it was merged into HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mission_21&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Mission 21 (page does not exist)" Mission 21. Members of the society came from many different HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism" \o "Protestantism" Protestant HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_denomination" \o "Christian denomination" denominations. The mission was founded as the German Missionary Society in 1815. The mission later changed its name to the Basel Evangelical Missionary Society, and finally the Basel Mission. The society built a school to train Dutch and British missionaries in 1816. Since this time, the mission has worked in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" \o "Russia" Russia and had ministry the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_Colony)" \o "Gold Coast (British Colony)" Gold Coast [Ghana] since 1828, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India 1834, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China 1847, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon" \o "Cameroon" Cameroon 1886, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo" \o "Borneo" Borneo 1921, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria" \o "Nigeria" Nigeria 1951, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America" \o "Latin America" Latin America and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan" \o "Sudan" Sudan in 1972 and 1973. On 18 December 1828, the Basel Mission Society sent its first missionaries, Johannes Phillip Henke, Gottlieb Holzwarth, Carl Friedrich Salbach and Johannes Gottlieb Schmid, to take up work in the Danish protectorate at Christianborg, Gold Coast. On 21 March 1832, a second group of missionaries including Andreas Riis, Peter Peterson Jger, and Christian Heinze, the first mission doctor, arrived on the Gold Coast only to discover that Henke had died four months earlier. Since HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" \o "World War II" World War II, the mission has operated abroad via local church congregations. As of November 2002, the major countries or regions of operation were HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivia" \o "Bolivia" Bolivia, Cameroon, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile" \o "Chile" Chile, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong" \o "Hong Kong" Hong Kong, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" \o "Democratic Republic of the Congo" Democratic Republic of the Congo, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" \o "Indonesia" Indonesia, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia" \o "Malaysia" Malaysia, Nigeria, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru" \o "Peru" Peru, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore" \o "Singapore" Singapore, Sudan, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan" \o "Taiwan" Taiwan. A major focus for the Basel Mission was to create employment opportunities for the people of the area where each mission was located. To this end the society taught HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing" \o "Printing" printing, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile" \o "Tile" tile manufacturing, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving" \o "Weaving" weaving, and employed people in these fields. BIBLE CHRISTIANS Methodist body formed in Devon stemming from the preaching of William OBryan. The first conference was held at Launceston in 1819. Bible Christians were sometimes called Methodist Quakers. They flourished during the 19th century before joining the United Methodist Church in 1907. CHALMERS, THOMAS [1780-1847] Scottish minister who was converted in 1811. In 1815 he was inducted to Glasgows Tron Church. The citys social needs were staggering and he created a new parish, St Johns, with 10,000 of the poorest people in the city. He divided the parish into 25 areas each with an elder for spiritual guidance and a deacon for social needs. Day and Sunday schools were provided. This pastoral experimentation made evangelicalism a force to be reckoned with. In the 1830s he built 216 churches and after the disruption [see 1843] became moderator of the Free Church. HOLY ALLIANCE The declaration in treaty form signed on 26 September 1815 in Paris by the Orthodox Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Catholic Emperor Francis I of Austria, and Protestant King Frederick William III of Prussia after the final Allied victory over Napoleon. It proclaimed that international relations would henceforth be based on the sublime truths which the Holy Religion teaches and that the rulers of Europe would abide by the principle that they were brothers and wherever necessary would lend each other aid and assistance. They would recognise no other sovereign than God our Divine Saviour, Jesus Christ. Only the British government, the Sultan, and the pope refused to accede to it. Although it had no practical binding power, for the liberals and revolutionaries the term Holy Alliance took on a sinister connotation as a conspiracy of reactionary powers to maintain the status quo in Eastern Europe. MILNE, WILLIAM [1785-1822] Missionary to China who studied at the London Missionary Societys college where he was ordained in 1812. In the following year he joined Robert Morrison [see 1807] in Macao, but having been ordered out, he distributed literature in Canton and the East Indies and then made his base in Malacca where he assisted Morrison in the translation and printing of the Chinese Bible. In 1815 he cut the first fonts of Chinese type made by a European, and wrote Christian pamphlets. He ordained his convert Liang A-fah [see 1814] and became principal of the Anglo-Chinese College in Malacca founded by Morrison in 1818. His son later served in China. MOHR, JOSEPH [1792-1848] Parish priest and composer of Silent Night who was born in Salzburg and was a chorister in the cathedral there. Mohr was ordained into the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1815 and held several parish posts near Salzburg. His Silent Night was composed in 1818 for a Christmas Eve service in Oberndorf near Salzburg and set for guitar accompaniment by the organist and schoolmaster Franz Gruber [1787-1863]. This carol became popular before publication when sung by wandering Tyrolese singers. NUNCIO AND LEGATE, PAPAL A nuncio is an official permanent papal representative from the Holy See to both the state and the church of a given area. Usually a titular bishop or archbishop, as papal envoy to the state, he has duties which are diplomatic in character not unlike an ambassador, and his ambassadorial status was recognised by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. As papal envoy to the church his duties are ecclesiastical. A legate was the papal representative during the era of the 17th century and earlier. Four types are at times distinguishable: Legate nati the principal resident bishop who held special authority from the pope; Legate missi sent by the pope on special purpose missions; Legate a latere the highest rank of special papal envoy, reserved today for ceremonial functions; there was a fourth area Nuncii et piscopal who were financial officials charged with gathering papal funds. The modern nuncio gradually replaced and absorbed duties drawn from all such earlier legates as the structures and states became more distinct. 1816AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY was formed in 1816 to return freed slaves to Africa establishing the country of Liberia. Started by minister Robert Finley with government help it hoped that Christian freedmen might evangelise Africa. Even some slave holders supported the scheme. Disease almost wiped out the first group of 114 settlers during 1820-21 but a group of 53 under Jehudi Ashmun made a permanent settlement near Monrovia. By 1867 about 10,000 freedmen had been transported to the colony. AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY founded. EDMESTON, JAMES [1791- 1867] Hymn Writer. His maternal grandfather was the Rev. Samuel Brewer who for 50 years was the pastor of an Independent congregation at Stepney. He was an architect and surveyor from 1816 until his death in 1867. Although an Independent by descent he joined the Established Church at a comparatively early age, and subsequently held various offices, including that of churchwarden, in the Church of St. Barnabas, Homerton. His hymns number nearly 2000. The best known is Lead us, Heavenly Father, lead us. Many of his hymns were written for children, and from their simplicity are admirably adapted to the purpose. For many years he contributed hymns to the Evangelical Magazine ELLIS, WILLIAM [17941872] was an English HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author" \o "Author" author. He travelled through the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_Islands" \o "Society Islands" Society Islands, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" \o "Hawaiian Islands" Hawaiian Islands and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" \o "Madagascar" Madagascar, and wrote several books describing his experiences. He was from a working class background and as a youth became a gardener. He was accepted by the London Missionary Society and with his wife was posted to the South Sea Islands arriving in the area in 1816. Here they joined John Orsmond and John Williams and their wives at Huahine in 1818 before going to Hawaii. Here he learnt the local language, Romanized it and set up a printing press as well as founding churches. In 1824 he returned to England due to his wifes poor health and became Chief Foreign Secretary of the LMS. His wife died in 1835. His writings of the experiences of his ministry encouraged investors into supporting missionaries. Having remarried he went as a missionary to Madagascar where he made progress after being hindered by the French. Three years after he left Madagascar a Christian queen was enthroned there in 1868. He and his second wife died within a week of each other in 1872. MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 1653] Through the initiative of the British authorities in South India and partly because of the findings of Claudius Buchanan [see 1811] work among the Syrians was begun by the Church Missionary Society in 1816. The purpose was not to make Anglicans of the Syrians but to see the renewal of the ancient church. Unhappily after two decades the mission was unacceptable to the Syrian authorities and missionaries turned to other work in Kerala. Some of the Syrians at this point seceded and became Anglicans, the outcome causing the diocese of the churches seen today. MARISTS [Society of Mary] Founded in 1816 by Jean Claude Courveille and Jean Claude Marie Colin. The order held that Mary desired to aid the church through a namesake congregation. Rome approved it in 1836. Comprising priests and lay brothers the society sent missionaries to Oceania and spread rapidly to Europe, North America, and the Antipodes. Based on the Jesuit Rule, the Marists did parish work, taught school and seminary, and held home missions and chaplaincies. MILMAN, HENRY HART [1791-1868] Anglican historian who was educated at Oxford and ordained a priest in 1816 leading him to becoming a canon of Westminster and dean of St Pauls. He achieved acclaim as a poet and translator from the Sanskrit. A member of the Broad Church school, Milman was never as extreme as Dean Stanley [see 1839], shunned public controversy, and deplored the writings of the more radical German critics, particularly Strauss. He wrote a life of Gibbon [see 1766] whose Decline and Fall he had also edited. In 1855 he published his History of Latin Christianity. Milman wrote the hymn Ride on, ride on, in majesty! which is often sung on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_Sunday" \o "Palm Sunday" Palm Sunday. MOFFAT, ROBERT [1795-1883] Scottish missionary to Africa. After conversion he was accepted by the London Missionary Society for work in Africa. There he went in 1816 and in 1825 settled at Kuruman in Bechuanaland which became his headquarters for all his activities for the next 45 years. Moffat saw his work as fourfold [1] evangelism, [2] exploration, [3] literature and, [4] civilisation. Consecration, perfect disinterestedness, shrewdness, simplistic character, and unwavering faith in the power of the gospel were some of the qualities which made Moffat a man of God and an outstanding Christian leader. Failing health forced him to leave Africa in 1870. David Livingstone [see 1841] was his son-in-law who undertook a tremendous amount of exploration. When Moffat left in 1870 a whole region had been Christianised and civilised with many African Christian congregations ministered to by trained African ministers. He translated the Bible into Sechuana, composed hymns and provided the Bechuanaland Africans with a basis of education, tools for worship and study, and the beginnings of literature. He introduced irrigation and the use of natural fertilisers, forest preservation and new crops. 1817ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ [1769-1860] German hymn writer and historian who fled to Sweden because of his anti Napoleonic writings. After doubts caused by contemporary philosophy he adopted, from 1817, a more Christian position. Of his 83 hymns 14 have been translated into English though none are in common use today. When hope of a Catholic Protestant union foundered he became a staunch Protestant. DUBIGNE, JEAN HENRI MERLE [1794 -1872] Protestant historian born near Geneva who was a son of French Protestant refugees. He had initial studies in Geneva where he was influenced by Robert Haldane [see 1795] and the current evangelical awakening. Later he studied in Berlin and became a friend of J.A.W. Neander [see 1813]. He was ordained in 1817, and in 1823 appointed court preacher at Brussels, but after the revolution of 1830 he declined the post of tutor to the Prince of Orange and returned to Geneva. Here he deeply involved himself in the work of the Evangelical Society of Geneva and was appointed to the professorship in its theological school. His primary interest was church history. He was also a founder of the Evangelical Church of Switzerland. GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON [1776-1848] German Roman Catholic publicist and lay theologian. He had an initial enthusiasm for the French Revolution but became increasingly disillusioned and moved in the direction of Catholic mysticism and German romanticism. During the Napoleonic Wars Gorres was a vocal supporter of German nationalism. In 1814 he started the first important German newspaper. Although suppressed by the Prussian government in 1816 it established his reputation as a founder of modern political journalism. He accepted a professorship at Munich University in 1817 and dominated a circle of noted scholars who promoted a Catholic renewal emphasising Romanticism and mysticism. HALLBECK, HANS PETER [1784-1840] Moravian missionary to South Africa. Born in Sweden, he studied theology at Lund before joining the Moravian Brethren [see 1722]. From 1817 until his death he was superintendent of their mission in the Cape Colony. This was a period of consolidation and expansion. Five new missions were established, two of them among Africans and pastoral work was extended from the closed settlements to neighbouring farms. Hallbeck laid stress upon Christian education and established a training school at Genadendal to provide indigenous helpers for the mission in 1838. After 1838 many emancipated slaves were successfully integrated into the communities. MALAN, CESAR HENRI ABRAHAM [1787-1860] Swiss preacher who studied theology at Geneva and was ordained into the Reformed Church. He was converted in 1817 and this brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical power in Geneva and he was forbidden to preach on original sin, election, and related doctrines. When Malan disregarded this order he was expelled from the pulpit. After 1830 he engaged in missionary tours to other parts of Switzerland, Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland. Although he may have never formally left the established church he gathered a group first in his own home and may have joined the Scottish Church. MARIANISTS Founded in 1817 in Bordeaux by William Joseph Chaminade [1761-1859] as the Society of Mary and distinguished from the Marists [see1816]. The Marianist Order introduced an original note in that the priests and lay members have equal rights and privileges, except those relating to administration of the sacraments. Members consecrate themselves irreversibly to the Blessed Virgin and wear a gold ring on the right hand as a token of fact. The order was recognised by the pope in 1865. PECK, JOHN MASON [1789-1858] Pioneer Baptist missionary in Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. He was ordained in the Baptist Church in 1813 and ministered for several years before hearing the missionary challenge through Luther Rice [see 1812]. In 1817 he and James E. Welch were appointed by the Foreign Mission Board to start work in the Mississippi Valley. Three years later the board dropped the mission but Peck stayed on, the Massachusetts Baptist Missionary Society assuming partial support. He founded the Rock Spring Seminary which became Shurtleff College and helped start the American Baptist Home Mission Society and was connected with the Baptist Publication Society. SMITH, JOHN [1790-1824] Missionary to the West Indies who received his early education at Sunday school, and trained to be a baker, after which he applied to be a missionary. He married Jane Godden. Smith arrived in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demerara" \o "Demerara" Demerara under the auspices of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" \o "London Missionary Society" London Missionary Society in March, 1817. He lived at the Le Resouvenir plantation, where he preached at Bethel Chapel, primarily attended by African slaves. In the morning of 18 August 1823, in what is known as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demerara_rebellion_of_1823" \o "Demerara rebellion of 1823" Demerara rebellion of 1823, about ten to twelve thousand slaves drawn from plantations on the East Coast of the Demerara colony rebelled, under the belief that their masters were concealing news of the slaves emancipation. Smith was subsequently charged with promoting discontent and dissatisfaction in the minds of the African slaves, exciting the slaves to rebel, and failing to notify the authorities that the slaves intended to rebel. John Smith was arraigned in court-martial and was found guilty of the principal charges, and was given the death sentence. He died in prison before the sentence could be carried out. Out of fear of stirring up slave sentiment, the colonists interred him at four a.m., without marking his grave. His death was a major step forward in the campaign to abolish slavery. News of his death was published in British newspapers, provoked enormous outrage resulting in 200 petitions to Parliament. STALLYBRASS EDWARD [1794-1884] Congregational Missionary to Siberia who in 1817 was sent out by the London Missionary Society [see 1795] to Russia to start a mission among the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buryat" \o "Buryat" Buryat people of Siberia. The mission received the blessing of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" \o "Alexander I of Russia" Alexander I of Russia, but was suppressed in 1840 under his successor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_I_of_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Nicolas I of Russia (page does not exist)" Nicolas I of Russia following great opposition from the Russian Orthodox Church. The mission was later re-opened in 1870 with Scottish missionary James Gilmour [see 1870] but was now based in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" \o "Beijing" Beijing. Alongside Stallybrass worked HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cornelius_Rahm&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Cornelius Rahm (page does not exist)" Cornelius Rahm of Sweden, William Swan and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Yuille&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Robert Yuille (page does not exist)" Robert Yuille of Scotland. Arriving in Irkutsk, they soon found the area unsuitable; Stallybrass visited various places before setting up a mission station in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenginsk" \o "Selenginsk" Selenginsk in 1819. Stallybrass and his company moved their mission to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khodon&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Khodon (page does not exist)" Khodon in 1828, where Sarah his wife died and was buried in 1833. In 1835 Stallybrass returned to England via Denmark. In HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen" \o "Copenhagen" Copenhagen he married Charlotte Ellah. Afterward, they returned to Siberia, where Charlotte died in 1839. Work at the mission consisted of preaching, tract distribution, schools work and the translation of the Scriptures into the Buryat language. Stallybrass returned to England in 1841 and left the LMS and became a pastor and school headmaster. THRELKELD, LANCELOT EDWARD [1788-1859) Threlkeld was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" English HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary who was accepted by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" \o "London Missionary Society" London Missionary Society as a missionary to the heathen in 1814. In the following year he was ordained as a missionary and sailed for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahiti" \o "Tahiti" Tahiti, but the illness and subsequent death of his child detained Threlkeld for a year at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" \o "Rio de Janeiro" Rio de Janeiro, where he started a Protestant church. He arrived at Sydney in 1817 and after a short stay went to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sea_Islands" \o "South Sea Islands" South Sea Islands. A missionary station was formed at Raiatea and Threlkeld worked there for nearly seven years. His wife died, and being left with four children he returned to Sydney in 1824. A mission to the aborigines was founded at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Macquarie" \o "Lake Macquarie" Lake Macquarie and Threlkeld was appointed missionary. He went to live with the aborigines on their reservation. In 1828 he came in conflict with the London Missionary Society which objected to his incurring unauthorised expenses in connection with the mission. Threlkeld in reply published a pamphlet which the treasurer of the society described as virulent. The connection with the Missionary Society was severed and it was decided that Threlkeld should be allowed to continue his work with a salary of 150 a year from the colonial government. He was also allowed four convict servants with rations. He published a number of books to assist the Aborigines and translation of the New Testament. He had little success and in 1842 he became a Congregational minister WESSENBERG, IGNAZ HEINRICH KARL VON [1774-1860] Radical Roman Catholic churchman who was recruited by Bishop Dalberg for the dioceses of Constance. After Dalbergs death in 1817 he was chosen unanimously by the cathedral chapter to fill the vacancy but the Roman Curia refused to approve it. Wessenberg served as bishop-elect for ten years before retiring to private life. A great deal of the conflict with the curia was that he wished to expand the education of priests, wanted more elementary schools, the conversion of monasteries into hospitals and schools, the suspension of clerical celibacy, permission for mixed marriage with Protestants, and the vernacular Mass. It is not surprising that he didnt receive the confidence of the Roman Curia. WILLIAMS, JOHN [1796-1839] Protestant missionary known as the Apostle of Polynesia. Williams and his wife were sent out by the London Missionary Society in 1817 to one of the Society Islands near Tahiti. In 1823 he discovered Rarotonga and founded the mission there. He later translated parts of the Bible and other books into Rarotongan and founded a training school to augment the missionary force carrying the Gospel to other islands and built a vessel The Messenger of Peace to be used in evangelising the South Seas Islands. By 1834 no island of importance within 2000 miles of Tahiti had been left unvisited. He returned to Britain to conduct speaking tours from 1834 to 1838 to encourage people to work in Polynesia. Returning in November 1839 he landed in the New Hebrides and was met by savages, killed and eaten in return for cruelties previously inflicted by British sailors. Thousands of converts mourned his martyrdom and a new burst of enthusiasm for missions was generated and a succession of ships bearing the name John Williams was employed to evangelise the area for many years. 1818 CURE DARS, THE [1786-1859] French priest who had little formal education and was unable to be ordained due to his lack of knowledge of Latin. Dismissed from two seminaries he was eventually ordained in 1815 and commenced his famous ministry at Ars en Dombes a village with 230 inhabitants where the religious tone was transformed. He became so famous as a confessor that towards the end of his life thousands would come to the confessional where it is said he spent sixteen to eighteen hours a day. HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH [1770-1831] The dominant figure in German idealism, and one of the great philosopher system builders. He studied at Tubingen and after holding teaching positions at various universities including Jena and Bern was professor of philosophy at Berlin from 1818 to 1830. Hegel rejected both realism and subjective idealism because in his view they involved unavoidable contradictions. Hegel is important in any account of the development of Christian thought, with which his philosophy is fundamentally incompatible. Religion to Hegel was simply an imaginative pictorial way of representing philosophical truth. Hegels system was the inspiration behind the destructive biblical criticism of D. F. Strauss [see 1835], and in a more complicated way Hegel influenced both Feuerbach and Karl Marx. PROVENCHER, JOSEPH NORBERT [1787-1853] Roman Catholic bishop in Canada who was educated in Montral and ordained in 1811. In 1818 he was sent to Winnipeg to minister to the people of the Red River. He later became assistant to the bishop of Quebec for the Northwest. He was responsible for the Roman Catholic policy in the West and sought to weld together a new nation of Metis, French, and Germans in order to preserve the French culture and Roman Catholic religion in the West. He laboured over 30 years among the Metis, Indians, and Eskimos in the north-west. In 1847 he became bishop of the new diocese of the Northwest. 1819AMERICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary society founded in 1819. The Mission was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. In 1847, the American Methodist Episcopal Society (North) entered the field of China, and soon surpassed all others in the number of its agents and members. Its pioneer was Rev. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judson_Dwight_Collins" \o "Judson Dwight Collins" Judson Dwight Collins, who passionately asked the society to enter China. When he was told that no money was available for the purpose, he wrote Engage me a passage before the mast in the first vessel going to China. My own strong arm can pull me to China and can support me when I arrive there. Such enthusiasm was irresistible, and Collins was sent to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzhou" \o "Fuzhou" Fuzhou, where, after ten years weary preparation, a work broke out, which spread itself over six large districts, and comprised sixty stations. A printing press was kept busily employed, which, in the year 1888 alone, issued 14,000 pages of Christian literature. A large college was also in use. The mission wound along the banks of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze" \o "Yangtze" Yangtze for three hundred miles, and had stations in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiujiang" \o "Jiujiang" Jiujiang and other large cities. Northwards it has churches in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" \o "Beijing" Beijing, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianjin" \o "Tianjin" Tianjin and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isunhua&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Isunhua (page does not exist)" Isunhua, with full accompaniments of schools and hospitals, and it extended westward to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chongqing" \o "Chongqing" Chongqing, 1,400 miles from the sea. GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG [1792-1854] German Protestant church historian who was educated at Halle and became professor of theology at the University of Bonn in 1819 where he became a colleague of K.I. Nitzsch [see 1847]. In 1831 he was appointed professor of church history and doctrine at the University of Gottingen. He was noted as a writer. HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL [1780-1862] Librarian and Protestant biblical commentator. He became a clerk to a barrister undertaking literary work in his spare time. At first a Wesleyan, he was ordained in the Church of England in 1819 later joining the staff of the British Museum where he worked on the compilation of the catalogue for many years. He wrote a number of books on Christian apologetics and bibliography. He is remembered chiefly for his Critical Study of the Holy Scriptures in 3 volumes published in 1818 which was widely used for half a century by students. KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM [1796-1868] German Reformed pastor educated at Halle and Jena. He became a pastor at Frankfurt in 1819 and in 1853 was appointed court chaplain at Potsdam. He was a powerful preacher who strenuously opposed rationalism and was an influential leader of the Evangelical Alliance in Germany. RUSSIAN BIBLE SOCIETY Founded in 1819. VINET, ALEXANDRE RUDOLPHE [1797-1847] French-speaking Swiss theologian often called the Schleiermacher of French Protestantism who studied theology at Lausanne and taught French at Basle for over 20 years. He returned to Lausanne as professor of practical theology. Ordained in 1819 he tended to decry traditional doctrines unless they had been confirmed by personal experience and he put great stress on a good conscience and right conduct. He advocated separation of the church and state. 1820BUCHANITES which was the most bizarre of the Scottish Sects. It was founded by Elspeth Buchan who claimed to be the third person of the Trinity and the woman clothed with the sun in the Book of the Revelation. She led a mixed multitude including the town clerk and a popular young minister Hugh White on a weird pilgrimage to the south of Scotland where at a succession of sites over many years a steadily dwindling band of followers waited for their translation to heaven. ELIAS, JOHN [1774-1841] He is regarded by many as the greatest of all Welsh preachers. His only formal education was at a private school and he was ordained as a Calvinistic Methodist minister in 1811. Elias had an overwhelming conviction of the truth of the Gospel as a means of salvation, and of the inerrancy of Scripture. There was an intense seriousness in his preaching, and never a suggestion of humour. In theology he was an unreserved Calvinist and opposed with great determination that tendency to flirt with modern Calvinism still less with Arminianism. After the death of Thomas Jones [see 1783] he was the unchallenged leader of the Calvinistic Methodists. He was energetic in his promotion of moral virtue and social betterment. UNITED SECESSION CHURCH Formed in Scotland in 1820, it was a union of the New Light segments from Burghers [see 1733] and Anti-burghers, which latter groups were children of the 1733 secession under Ebenezer Erskine [see 1740] and his brother Ralph. In 1847 it united with the Relief Church [see 1761] to form of the United Presbyterian Church. WEST, JOHN [1775-1845] Anglican missionary who was educated at Oxford, ordained in 1804 and appointed chaplain to the Hudson Bay Company in 1819, and arrived at the Red River settlement in 1820. His three years under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society were filled with extensive travels on foot and by canoe. Publicity of his letters and journal established his reputation as a pioneer churchman. He again travelled between 1825 and 1827 in Nova Scotia and undertook a mission to the Mohawks. On his return to England he took up ministry at Chettle and was involved in social reform including the establishment of a school for the education and industrial training of gypsies in that town. 1821-1830 AD 1821EUGENIUS II HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1821-1822] succeeded Gregory V [see 1797]. There is no additional information readily available. FINNEY, CHARLES GRANDISON [1792-1875] American revivalist who entered a law office in New York and was later admitted to the bar. He started attending church services conducted by a friend, George Gale. Although at first critical of religious dogmas, Finney after studying the Bible himself was converted in 1821. Turning from the law he began to preach and in 1824 received Presbyterian ordination. For the next eight years he conducted revivals in the eastern states with notable results. In 1835 he became professor of theology at a new college in Ohio. During the remainder of his life he was linked with the school and served as president from 1851-1866. In general he was a New School Calvinist, but laid heavy stress on mans ability to repent. KENRICK, FRANCIS PATRICK [1796-1863] Roman Catholic archbishop and educator who was born in Dublin and educated in Rome where he was ordained in 1821. Moving to America he taught in Kentucky for 10 years before being consecrated bishop of Philadelphia in 1831. He became archbishop of Baltimore in 1851 which post he held until his death. He published several books on biblical, theological, and apologetic topics. SCUDDER, JOHN [1793-1855] American Dutch Reformed missionary to India who was a graduate of the College of New Jersey in 1811 and New York College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1813. He was attracted to missions by the reading of a tract. In 1819 he with his wife left for Ceylon under the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Following ordination in 1821 Scudder founded a hospital and several schools and later established a printing press and mission at Madras [Chennai]. Failing health caused him to go to South Africa where he died. Seven of his sons became medical missionaries and pastors in India. SOUTH AFRICA MISSIONS Mission opportunities in a healthy climate and relatively safe conditions attracted numerous societies. They included the Glasgow Mission [Ciskei 1821], the Rhenish Mission [Cape and South West Africa in 1829], the Paris Evangelical Mission [Lesotho 1834], the American Board [Natal 1835], South African General Mission [1889], the Berlin Mission [Cape 1834], and the Hermannsburg Mission [Natal 1854]. ULLMANN, KARL [1796-1865] German Lutheran theologian who was deeply influenced by Schleiermacher [see 1804] and Neander [see 1813] and served as professor of theology at Heidelberg University from 1821 with the exception of a seven-year period at Halle [1829-1836]. He stressed the significance of salvation through Jesus. Ullmann also occupied several posts in the Baden church where he was eventually overthrown by the Liberals. 1822ANTHIMUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1822-1824] who succeeded Eugenius [see 1821]. There is no additional material readily available on him BROWN, JOHN of Edinburgh [17841858] Scottish Presbyterian minister who was ordained at Biggar in 1806 and translated to Edinburgh in 1822 and soon became one of the most influential ministers of any denomination in the Scottish capital. He was appointed Scotlands first professor of exegetical theology. He became involved in prolonged controversy and indicted on twelve counts for liberal theological viewpoints on the Atonement and other important doctrines but was cleared before a United Presbyterian synod. DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBRECHT [1780-1849] German biblical scholar and one of the most influential theologians of the 19th century. He taught at the University of Heidelberg 1807-10, Berlin 1810-19, and Basle 1822-1849. He wrote many books including Old Testament and New Testament introductions and a monumental work on Christian ethics as well as numerous commentaries on historical works and a translation of the Bible. HEBER, REGINALD [1783 1826] Bishop of Calcutta and Hymn writer. Heber was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheshire" \o "Cheshire" Cheshire and showed remarkable promise. In 1800 he entered HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasenose_College,_Oxford" \o "Brasenose College, Oxford" Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a distinguished student, carrying off prizes in both Latin and English. After completing his university career, he went on a long tour of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" \o "Europe" Europe. He was ordained in 1807 and took up the family living of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodnet" \o "Hodnet" Hodnet in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shropshire" \o "Shropshire" Shropshire. In 1809 he married HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amelia_Shipley&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Amelia Shipley (page does not exist)" Amelia Shipley, daughter of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_of_St_Asaph" \o "Dean of St Asaph" Dean of St Asaph. After a number of appointments he was made HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Calcutta" \o "Bishop of Calcutta" Bishop of Calcutta in 1822. In India, Bishop Heber laboured indefatigably, not only for the good of his own diocese, but for the spread of Christianity throughout the East. He toured the country, consecrating churches, founding schools and discharging other Christian duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told severely on his health. At HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichinopoly" \o "Trichinopoly" Trichy he was seized with an apoplectic fit when in his bath, and died. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_Heber_College" \o "Bishop Heber College" Bishop Heber College at Trichy is named after him and is famous for education and sports. His fame rests mainly on his hymns. These include From Greenlands icy mountains, Holy Holy Holy, and The Son of God goes forth to war. IRVING, EDWARD [1792-1834] Scottish minister who was educated at Edinburgh and became assistant to Thomas Chalmers [see 1815] at St Johns Glasgow. In 1822 he went to the Caledonian Chapel London and because of the hundreds who wanted to hear him speak a new church was built in Regent Square. Gradually however many people were alienated because of his treatment of prophecy, eschatology, the high view of the sacraments, and his encouragement of speaking in tongues during public worship. A sad process of deterioration set in. He wrote a number of books including one that led to his arraignment before the London presbytery, charged with holding the sinfulness of Christs humanity. He claimed his words had been misunderstood but he was excommunicated and in 1833 deposed from the Church of Scotland ministry. NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM [1805-1897] English scholar and younger brother of John Cardinal Newman [see 1845]. He was converted to the evangelical faith at 14 and in 1822 went to Oxford where John was already established as a don. He soon came to doubt the relevance of infant baptism and so declined to take his MA degree. He associated with the early Brethren and joined A.N. Groves [see 1833] in a mission to Baghdad where he was stoned by Muslims and just escaped martyrdom. Returning to England in 1833 to collect funds for the mission he suffered intensely as a result of rumours of his unsoundness which culminated in attack by J.N. Darby [see 1845] and exclusion from Brethren circles. Spiritually isolated for many years though earnestly longing for Christian fellowship he eventually lost his faith and though remaining a theist became for a time the foremost anti-Christian writer in the country. He became professor of classics at University College London, his knowledge was encyclopaedic. He became renowned as a defender of lost causes. 1823ELLIOT, CHARLOTTE [1789-1871] Hymn Writer. Charlotte, was the daughter of Charles Elliott, of Clapham and Brighton, and granddaughter of the Rev. Henry Venn, of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clapham_Sect" \o "Clapham Sect" Clapham Sect. The first 32 years of her life were spent mostly at Clapham. In 1823 she moved to Brighton, and died there in 1871. To her acquaintance with Dr. C. Malan, of Geneva, is attributed much of the deep spiritual mindedness which is so prominent in her hymns. She was an invalid and often a great sufferer however though weak and feeble in body, she possessed a strong imagination, and a well-cultured and intellectual mind. Her love of poetry and music was great, and is reflected in her verse. Her hymns number about 150. The finest and most widely known of these is Just as I am without one plea Her verse is characterised by tenderness of feeling, plaintive simplicity, deep devotion, and perfect rhythm. For those in sickness and sorrow she has sung as few others have done. Her hymns appeared in her brothers publication Psalms & Hymns GOODELL, WILLIAM [1792-1861] Pioneer American Congregational missionary to the Near East. He became one of a succession of notable scholarly missionaries in the Near East, serving there for 40 years. Appointed by the American board in 1823 he helped established the work in Beirut which became the centre of the Syrian Mission. In 1828 the mission was obliged to move to Malta, where for three years he supervised the press and worked on his Armeno-Turkish translation of the Bible from Hebrew and Greek which he eventually completed. Sent to Constantinople in 1831 he helped found the work in Turkey. GUTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST [1803-1851] Missionary to China who was sent by the Netherlands Missionary Society to Singapore in 1823. Some three years later he went on to Batavia where he met W.H. Medhurst [see 1843] and began to study Chinese. In the 1830s he travelled along the Chinese coast distributing Christian literature before succeeding Robert Morrison [see 1807] as Chinese secretary to the East India Company at Canton. He helped negotiate the Treaty of Nanking, and in Hong Kong elaborated a plan for the evangelisation of China. He died in Hong Kong when he was 48 but not before inspiring others to form missions for Chinas evangelisation. The Chinese Evangelistic Society, under which J Hudson Taylor [see 1854] and Timothy Richard [see 1870] originally went to China, was one of which owed its beginnings to Gutzlaff. The INTERCONTINENTAL CHURCH SOCIETY is an organisation that provides a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_ministry" \o "Christian ministry" ministry to English speaking people through HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican churches around the world. The organisation was founded in 1823. There are 55 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaplains" \o "Chaplains" chaplains in 65 locations both on permanent and temporary bases. In the Paris area there are five ICS churches LEO XII Pope [1823-1829]. He was educated at Rome, where he was ordained priest in 1783. In 1792 Pope Pius VI made him his private secretary creating him titular archbishop of Tyre the following year. In 1794 he lived in Augsburg, Germany. During the dozen or more years he spent in Germany he was entrusted with several missions, which brought him into contact with the political leaders of the day including Napoleon. During this time however he was criticised for his private life and unaccountability of his finances. After the Napoleonic abolition of the Papal States in 1798 he was treated by the French as a state prisoner, and lived for some years at the abbey of Monticelli, busying himself with music and with bird-shooting (pastimes which he continued even after his election as pope). After being chosen to carry the popes congratulations to Louis XVIII of France upon his restoration he was elevated to the position of cardinal in 1816 and four years later became vicar general of Rome under Pius VII. In the conclave of 1823 he was elected pope with election being facilitated because he was thought to be at deaths door, but he unexpectedly rallied. Personally most frugal, Leo XII reduced taxes, made justice less costly, and was able to find money for certain public improvements, yet he left the Churchs finances more confused than he had found them, and even the elaborate jubilee of 1825 did not really mend financial matters. He succeeded Pius VII [see 1800] and was succeeded by Pius VIII [see 1829]. LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS [1793 1847]. Lyte was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican minister and hymn-writer. He was born near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelso,_Scotland" \o "Kelso, Scotland" Kelso, Scotland but his father deserted the family shortly after making arrangements for his two oldest sons to attend HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portora_Royal_School" \o "Portora Royal School" Portora Royal School in Ireland. The headmaster at Portora, Dr. Burrowes, recognized Henry Lytes ability, paid the boys fees, and welcomed him into his own family during the holidays. Lyte was effectively an adopted son, and he never forgot Burrowes generosity and compassion. Lyte was educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Dublin" \o "Trinity College, Dublin" Trinity College, Dublin and was ordained in 1815. In Dublin and underwent a great spiritual change after attending a friends deathbed in 1817 and his whole outlook was altered and his preaching revitalised.For some time held a curacy in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taghmon" \o "Taghmon" Taghmon near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wexford" \o "Wexford" Wexford and in 1817 but because of bad health moved to England, and after several changes settled, in 1823, in the parish of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brixham" \o "Brixham" Lower Brixham, a fishing village in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devon" \o "Devon" Devon where he helped educate HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" \o "Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury" Lord Salisbury, later British prime minister. In poor health throughout his life, he developed tuberculosis. While in Brixham, Lyte wrote his most famous hymns including Praise, my soul, the King of heaven which is his version of Psalm 103. In 1844 Lytes health finally gave way. After his last service, he penned his most famous hymn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abide_With_Me_(hymn)" \o "Abide With Me (hymn)" Abide With Me after watching the sun set over HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torbay" \o "Torbay" Torbay. Lyte died just two weeks later in 1847 in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice" \o "Nice" Nice, southern HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France, and was buried there. SHAW, WILLIAM [1798-1872] Wesleyan Methodist missionary to South Africa who accompanied the 1820 settlers to South Africa. Although officially chaplain to one party he established Methodism throughout Albany and used this settlers church as a base for advance beyond the frontier. Between 1823 and 1830 he planted six missions in the Ciskei and Transkei, others being added later. Shaws high standing among the settlers and friendship with several African chiefs gave him unique breadth of outlook and sympathy. In 1856 he returned to England and did not return to the mission field. He is classified as the Father of South African Methodism. STOCKTON, BETSY [17981865] She was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American" \o "African American" African American educator and missionary who was born in slavery in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America" \o "United States of America" U.S.A. about the year 1798. While a child, her owner Robert Stockton gave her to his daughter upon her marriage to Reverend HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashbel_Green" \o "Ashbel Green" Ashbel Green, president of the College of New Jersey (now HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University" \o "Princeton University" Princeton University). In 1817 she was admitted as a member of the First HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian Church in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" \o "Princeton, New Jersey" Princeton, New Jersey, and formally freed at that time. She remained as a paid domestic servant with the family, learned from reading in their library and home schooling by Dr. Green, and expressed a desire to go as a missionary to Africa. She also did some teaching at this time. She learned of plans by Charles S. Stewart, a student at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_Theological_Seminary" \o "Princeton Theological Seminary" Princeton Theological Seminary and friend of the Green family, to go to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii" \o "Hawaii" Hawaii as a missionary. She expressed a desire to go with them. She was commissioned by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions" \o "American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions" American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions as a missionary, and became the first single American woman sent overseas as a missionary. Her contract with the Board and with the Stewarts said that she went neither as an equal nor as a servant, but as a humble Christian friend to the Stewarts, and stipulated that she was not to be more occupied with domestic duties than the other missionaries. They arrived in 1823 and she was the teacher of the first mission school opened to the common people of Hawaii. She also trained native Hawaiian teachers who took over from her upon her departure until the arrival of another missionary. She stayed with the Stewart household until at least 1830. She established a school for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboriginal_peoples_in_Canada" \o "Aboriginal peoples in Canada" Indians at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_Island" \o "Grape Island" Grape Island, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" \o "Canada" Canada, and then returned to Princeton in 1835 where she taught in its school for blacks until her death on October 24, 1865. 1824BACON, LEONARD [18021881] American Congregational pastor was ordained in 1824 as an evangelist to the Western frontier. He served as a pastor at New Haven for 41 years. Bacon was active in the slavery issue and was noted as a peacemaker within the Congregational Union. CARTWRIGHT, PETER [1785-1872] American Methodist pioneer who was converted in 1801 after intense spiritual struggle over his delight in horse racing, card playing and dancing. He was ordained a deacon in 1809 by Francis Ashbury [see 1784]. He served in circuits in Kentucky until, due to his distaste for slavery, he relocated in 1824 to Illinois where he served as president for 45 years. He was defeated by Abraham Lincoln in the 1846 race for Congress. CHRYSANTHUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1824-1826] who succeeded Anthimus III [see 1822]. There is no additional information readily available. KITTO, JOHN [1804-1854] English biblical scholar who at the age of 12 sustained an accident while assisting his father, a drunken stonemason, which left him permanently deaf. He was a workhouse inmate and then shoemakers apprentice before becoming converted in 1824. He was rescued by A.N. Groves [see 1833] who sent him to Islington Missionary College to train as a printer for the Church Missionary Society. However this body found his services both in London and Malta unsatisfactory and in 1829 he travelled to Muslim lands as one of Groves party of Brethren missionaries. In Baghdad he set up a missionary school which was destroyed in 1832 when he returned to England. He now broke with the Brethren and began to write for the wider evangelical world. He was honoured academically later but struggled against severe physical and monetary hardship until his death. KNIBB, WILLIAM [1803-1845] An early Baptist missionary in Jamaica who arrived on the island in 1824 to manage the Kingston school. In 1830 he went to minister to farmers near Montego Bay where he remained until his death. His ministry at Falmouth spans momentous years with the Slave Revolt of 1831-32, the persecution of evangelicals which followed it, emancipation, the shift of plantation to freehold residence, all crowd into the 15 years of Knibbs ministry. He was a tireless champion of the Negroes, in slavery, in apprenticeship, and in freedom, when he risked personal credit to settle the slaves on their own land. He was also a prime mover in the decision to declare the Jamaica churches independent of the Baptist Missionary Society, in the formation of the Calabar College for the training ministers, and in organising the first West Indian mission to Africa. SPITTA, KARL JOHANN PHILIPP [1801-1859] Lutheran hymn writer, born in Hanover and apprenticed to a watchmaker, Spitta eventually graduated in theology at Gottingen in 1824. As a result of his conversion about that time he stopped writing secular verse and after four years as a tutor became a Lutheran pastor. Some of his hymns have been translated into English. 1825BOWRING, SIR JOHN [17921872] English linguist, diplomat and hymn writer who after a period of Consul in Canton became the Governor of Hong Kong. Author of many poems and hymns he is generally remembered now for his hymn In the cross of Christ I glory which was made famous by John Stainer in his oratorio The Crucifixion [see 1887]. CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY [1780-1842] Unitarian leader and abolitionist who was ordained as pastor of a Congregational church in Boston 1803. Six years later he set forth the basis of Unitarianism with denial of the Trinity, the deity of Christ, total depravity and substitutionary atonement. He was a prime mover in the development of the American Unitarian Association in 1825. CHURCHES OF GOD which is a name designating about 200 various religious bodies in the USA. It was first used by a revival group within the German Reformed Church [American] in this year. The Churches of God are divided into five general categories, the Pentecostal, the Wesleyan, a Seventh Day group, Small independent churches, and H W Armstrongs Worldwide Church of God founded in 1947. DRUMMOND, HENRY [1786-1860] Politician, writer, and a founder of the Catholic Apostolic Church. Educated at Harrow and Oxford he entered the banking profession, was elected to Parliament in 1810 where his vote on major issues was uninfluenced by party considerations. He founded a chair of political economy at Oxford in 1825. Going to Switzerland he contended strongly against Socinian [see 1578] tendencies in Genevan Protestantism. Meetings of those in sympathy with the views of Edward Irvine [see 1822] were held for the study of prophecy at his home in Surrey. FREETHINKERS Those who refuse to submit reason to the control of authority in questions of religious belief. The term seems to have appeared first in 1692 and was used by Deists and other opponents of Orthodox Christianity in the 18th century in promoting reason above all else. It has been associated with a great number of movements. Modern secularism in its militant and the atheistic form claims that the term brings together many different strands of thought. Among these will be listed modern Unitarianism [1825] Mexican secularism [1833], the German free religious movement [1848], organised positivism [1854], New Zealand rationalism [1856], Australian secularism [1862], the Belgian league of the enlightenment [1864, the English religion society [1864]. Italian anticlericalism [1869], Voseys theistic church [1871], American free thought [1873], American ethical culture [1876], the Dutch dawn [1881], Argentinian secularism [1883], and Austrian secularism [1887] to which could legitimately be added the more radical groups within the major denominations and extend the list even to include political revolutionaries. GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN [1783-1872] Danish bishop and hymn writer who, except for short periods of service as a pastor, lived as an independent writer [1810-25] struggling for the reintroduction of an orthodox Lutheran Christianity. It was during a religious crisis in 1824 that he made his unique discovery. This he published in 1825 in a pamphlet called The Churchs Reply. This argued that the sure foundation of faith is not to be found in the Bible, but in the risen Christ himself, who lives and works in his congregation when it gathers around the sacraments. Around 1830 he visited England 3 times and was strongly impressed by the spirit of liberty and activity which he found characteristic of English society. From 1825 he was the leader of an ever increasing following. He was given the rank of bishop in 1861 by his denomination. HIEROTHEUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1825-1845] see 1805 and 1845. LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM [1793-1851] German philologist and founder of modern textural criticism. He joined the Prussian army in 1815 and became professor of philology at Berlin from 1825 until his death. His life was spent in the study of philology especially of Old and Middle High German and he was one of the finest classical scholars of the day. He was the first scholar to produce an addition of the Greek New Testament in which the Textus Receptus was abandoned in favour of older manuscripts. He gave impulse to later scholars such as Tischendorf, Westcott, and Hort. MULLER, JULIUS [1801-1878] German Protestant theologian who studied at Breslau and Gottingen changing from law to theology in 1821. He was ordained in Breslau in 1825 and served in a parish before accepting an appointment as university preacher at Gottingen [1831-35]. He supported the Prussian Evangelical Union of Lutheran and Reformed Churches and attempted to draw up a formula of consensus to serve as the doctrinal basis for the Evangelical Church of Prussia. RANKE, LEOPOLD VON [1795-1886] Lutheran historian who became a professor at the University of Berlin [1825 to 1871]. Rankes most significant work in church history is his History of the Popes in two volumes which covered the period from the Reformation to the Vatican Council of 1869-70. The Prussian state named him official historian in 1841 and granted him the aristocrats title von in 1865 for his efforts. REVEIL, LE Literally means The Awakening. It was an evangelical revival which began in French-speaking Switzerland in the early 19th century and spread to France and the Netherlands by 1825. It shook the state churches of Geneva and Vaud and spawned free churches in those two cantons. It also deeply touched the French and Dutch Reformed communities and complimented contemporary revivals in the British Isles and in the United States. Le Reveil was basically a reaction against the rationalism and materialism which the Enlightenment had brought to the established churches of the Continent. It had an able leadership of Caesar Malan [see 1817], Francois Gaussen [see 1831], and Merle dAubigne [see 1817] in Geneva; Alexandre Vinet [see 1819] in Vaud; Felix Neff [d 1829], Henri Pyt [d 1835], Adolphe [d.1856] and Frederdijk [d.1863] Monod in France; and Willem Bilderdijk [see 1795], and Isaak da Costa [see 1851] in the Netherlands. By the end of the century Le Reveil had won over a majority of the Venerable Company of Pastors of Geneva, permeated the French Reformed Church, and rejuvenated hundreds of Dutch congregations. SCHMUCKER, SAMUEL SIMON [1799-1873] Lutheran clergyman who was the dominant figure of American Lutheranism in his day. He was a founder of the Lutheran Theological Seminary in Gettysburg Pennsylvania in 1825 and the first of its professors. He was also the creator of the Pennsylvania College where he asserted that Lutheran Pietism was the best weapon against rationalism. 1826AGATHANGELUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1826-1830] who succeeded Chrysanthus I [see 1824]. There is no additional material readily available. DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON [1799-1890] Roman Catholic church historian and theologian who was ordained in 1822 and became a professor of church history in Munich from 1826. A friend of Gladstone [see 1832] and Lammenais [see 1830] he like the latter blended liberalism in theology and politics. He disliked the decree on Immaculate Conception [see 1854] and saw the Syllabus of Errors [see 1864] as an outright attack on the modern world and on some of his own positions. He was excommunicated in 1871 when he refused to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility, and shared in the founding of the Old Catholic Church [see 1889] taking part in its discussions with Anglicans and Orthodox out of concern for Christian reunion, but fell out with the Old Catholics when they discarded traditions such as celibacy of the clergy, and aural confession. MITCHELL, WILLIAM (1803 1870) He was an Anglican who was the first ordained person to provide religious services in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swan_Valley_(Western_Australia)" \o "Swan Valley (Western Australia)" Swan Valley area of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swan_River_Colony" \o "Swan River Colony" Swan River Colony later named Western Australia. He studied at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Dublin" \o "Trinity College, Dublin" Trinity College, Dublin before deciding to become a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary. In 1826 he left Ireland with his wife for a missionary position in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India under the Church Missionary Society but in 1830 due to the failing health of his wife, the family returned to England. She died in March 1831 and he remarried and returned to India but due to his own health returned to England in 1835. Leaving the Church Missionary Society Mitchell joined the Colonial and Continental Church Society and moved to Western Australia as a missionary priest the following year. PHILARET, DROZDOV [1782-1867] Metropolitan of Moscow, humanitarian, who was educated in Moscow and became a lecturer at the seminary in 1803. He was ordained in 1809 and later held the chair of philosophy at St Petersburg. After a series of appointments he became metropolitan of Moscow in 1826. Having earlier been exposed to and much appreciated Protestant thinking, he protested the Russian Churchs insinuation of heresy, even declaring that their official pronouncements were only private opinions, doctrinal decisions being invalid as long as there were no administrative canons. With the liberal reforms of Tsar Alexander II in 1861 he was honoured by the production of a manifesto whereby the peasants were released from serfdom. SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER Seventh Earl of [1801-1885] Evangelical social reformer who was educated at Oxford and entered Parliament in 1826 as a Tory though his growing concern with social issues and particularly his desire to improve working-class conditions which had been created by the Industrial Revolution made him more independent politically. In 1828 he became a member of the Metropolitan Lunacy Commission and began his work for the mentally ill. In 1845 he persuaded Parliament to establish a permanent Lunacy Commission for the whole country and was the chairman of it until he died. From 1833 to 1847 his main political concern was the factory question which after long battle resulted in the 10 Hours Act and the Factory Act of 1874. He championed the cause of the women and children working in mines and secured the setting up of a Royal Commission of Enquiry into childrens employment in general. In 1875 the Climbing Boys Act protected children being used as chimney sweeps. He also promoted legislation to protect milliners and dressmakers as well as being involved in social work in connection with slums and The Ragged School Union of which he was chairman and his own schemes in industrial schools and training ships. He was a leading evangelical in the mid century supporting Catholic Emancipation in 1829. As Lord Palmerstons stepson-in-law he advised him on ecclesiastical appointments during his premiership. He was president of the British and Foreign Bible Society and closely associated with the London City Mission, Church Missionary Society, YMCA, and the Church Pastoral-Aid Society. SMITH, ELI [1801-1857] American Congregational missionary and Orientalist who graduated from the Yale in 1821 and Andover Seminary in 1826. He engaged in mission work under the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in Malta and Syria. In 1830 with H.G. Dwight he explored Asia Minor, Armenia, Georgia, and Persia. The two explorers published a book dealing with their trip which led to the establishment of the American mission among Nestorian Christians. In 1838 Smith and Edward Robinson explored Sinai, Palestine, and southern Syria. The last 10 years of Smiths life was spent translating the Bible into Arabic. He died in Beirut. THOLUCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST GOTTREU [1799-1877] German Protestant theologian who concentrated on the study of oriental languages at the universities of Breslau and Berlin and was converted to Christ under Pietist influences and turned his study to theology. He was professor of theology at Halle for 49 years from 1826 where he exerted a powerful influence on students and on the churches. He was very influential in his day. TUBINGEN SCHOOL In the early 19th century there was a Tubingen School of conservative theology but the Tubingen School commonly referred to is that headed up by F.C. Baur [see 1845] who taught there from 1826 until his death in 1860. Baurs teaching was characterised by his anti-supernaturalistic attitude to history, tendency criticism in the interpretation of biblical writings, and the use of idealist philosophy in interpretation of history. He saw a fundamental conflict between the Jewish church led by Peter and the Hellenistic Gentile church led by Paul. The degree in which New Testament books exhibited tendencies of this conflict determined their authenticity. Baur assigned most of them to the second century. It is questionable however whether the school ever amounted to more than Baur and his immediate circle as despite the attention Baur attracted, 19th century German liberal theology tended to follow other paths. 1827ANDREWS, LORRIN (17951868) An early American Missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii" \o "Hawaii" Hawaii and judge who sailed to Hawaii in 1827. On arrival he first learnt the language. He opened the first post-secondary school for Hawaiians called HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahainaluna" \o "Lahainaluna" Lahainaluna Seminary and prepared a Hawaiian dictionary and several works on the literature and antiquities of the Hawaiians. His students published the first newspaper, and were involved in the first case of counterfeiting currency in Hawaii. He later served as a judge and became a member of Hawaiis first Supreme Court. ATHANASIUS V Patriarch of Jerusalem [1827-1845] see 1808 and 1845. BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN [17701827] German composer who became while still a boy relief organist at Bonn Cathedral. Here he was introduced to music by J S Bach [see 1723]. He moved to Vienna where he soon attained fame as a composer and pianist but before reaching thirty he started to lose his hearing. He wrote some outstanding sacred compositions including Christ on the Mount of Olives, Mass in C, and Missa Solemnis. BORROW, GEORGE HENRY [18031881] English author and linguist who from 1818 was a trainee to solicitors in Norwich. Moving to London in 1824 he was grossly underpaid for translations while learning languages in his spare time. He left London as a tramp. He commenced 23 years of wandering on foot in Europe and the East in 1827 working at times with newspapers in Spain and Russia and for the British and Foreign Bible Society [see 1804]. Borrow was in danger many times and was reconciled to the fact that he might be martyred. In his later years he was a missionary to the gypsies and published a complete Romany dictionary. DYER, SAMUEL [1804-1843] English Congregational Missionary to Malaysia. Dyer and his wife Maria arrived in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penang" \o "Penang" Penang in 1827. He was known as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typographer" \o "Typographer" typographer for creating a steel HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface" \o "Typeface" typeface of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters" \o "Chinese characters" Chinese characters for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing" \o "Printing" printing to replace traditional wood blocks. Dyers type was accurate, aesthetically pleasing, durable and practical. He was converted in 1820 in London and while at Cambridge he turned his thoughts to missionary service. He joined the London Missionary Society and studied not only theology but Chinese and the art of printing. After gaining some knowledge of the language in Penang Dyer faced the challenge of producing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_type" \o "Movable type" movable metallic types for the thousands of Chinese characters. He started with a systematic analysis of characters and strokes. At first, using wood reliefs to create the clay moulds from which HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typesetting" \o "Typesetting" type could be cast, he soon moved to steel punches and copper HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(printing)" \o "Matrix (printing)" matrixes. Dyers linguistic abilities, meticulous planning, and painstaking attention to detail resulted in Chinese fonts of high quality. They were later passed on to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Presbyterian_Mission" \o "American Presbyterian Mission" American Presbyterian Mission HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_Press" \o "Printing Press" Press in China and played a significant part in its development. By 1828 Samuel was preaching in Chinese only 5 months after their arrival. He grew committed to the production of Christian literature in Chinese, printing Bibles, tracts, and books with the moveable, metal-cast type with a controlled vocabulary that he developed. In 1835 they moved to Malacca and then to Singapore in 1841 where Samuel worked on a revision of the Chinese Bible. In 1843 he left with John Stronach for the LMS conference in Hong Kong where he was appointed Conference Secretary but he fell ill and died in Macau later that year. His type was known as Dyers Penang was the Chinese standard print until the 1860s EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON [1803-1875] German biblical Scholar who studied in Gottingen and therefore was put in touch with the first generation of modern critical studies of the Old Testament. Ewalds place in the history of biblical scholarship is fixed by his initiating role in two of its major dimensions: Semitic linguistics in a historical vein from 1827 and the history of the people of Israel from 1843. Political views forced him to leave Gottingen in 1837 and it was 10 years before he could return during which he taught at Tubingen. In later life he was deeply involved in political affairs. FARADAY, MICHAEL [1791-1867] English scientist who was the son of a blacksmith and became a laboratory assistant to Sir Humphrey Davy at the Royal institution in 1813 and later succeeded him as professor of chemistry in 1827. His discoveries include the first electric motor, the first dynamo, and the first transformer. His outlook on science was deeply influenced by Christianity; in his lectures he often used science as evidence of Gods power and wisdom. His life was devoted to Christian work in science; he was a brilliant lecturer who made science popular in his day. On Christian grounds he rejected wealth, and on retirement was very poor. However a government pension was granted to him in 1858 together with a house in Hampton Court which was provided for him by Queen Victoria. GURNEY, JOSEPH JOHN [1788-1847] Philanthropist and founder of the American Quaker group Gurneyites named after him. Born in England he became a Quaker minister in 1818. The Friends experienced a schism in 1827 when Elias Hicks of Long Island and his followers the Hicksters [see below] rebelled against a thoroughly evangelical statement of faith adopted by most of the Philadelphia Quakers. Between 1837 and 1840 Gurney toured America and the West Indies preaching widely, becoming a rallying point in conforming to the revivalist pattern and eventually giving his name to the movement. His followers in time took on the characteristics of normal Protestants using the sacraments and having a minister preach at worship services. On his return to England, Gurney helped his sister Elizabeth Fry [see 1813] in her work, and collaborated with Thomas Clarkson [see 1787] and others for the abolition of the slave trade. HICKSITES In 1827 a number of American Quakers followed the preaching of Elias Hicks [1748-1813] and withdrew from the orthodox Society of Friends and established their own yearly meetings. Hicks was an eloquent preacher and social crusader who had attacked such institutions as slavery, contended that man was capable of saving himself, and described the Bible and church dogma as functional but not authoritative. This group included those who had been influenced by Unitarianism, those who wished to resist the attempt by evangelical Quakers to unite all yearly meetings and create written doctrine, and those who believed inner experience was primary. In the 20th century they have co-operated with orthodox Quakers. LACORDAIRE, JEAN-BAPTISTE HENRI [1802-1861] Celebrated French Roman Catholic orator who was ordained in 1827 and immediately became a revolutionary. He attempted to open a progressive school in Paris after the Revolution of 1830 failed. In addition the pope condemned and terminated a periodical he edited. In a series of fiery sermons at Notre Dame he electrified Paris and succeeded in reviving the Dominican Order which had been banned since the Revolution. He experienced continuous conflicts with Rome over periodicals he launched to air Republican principles. SUMNER, CHARLES RICHARD [1790-1874] Bishop of Winchester, brother of J.B. Sumner archbishop of Canterbury [see 1848]. He was educated at Cambridge, ordained in 1814 and made a royal chaplain by George IV. In 1826 he was consecrated bishop of Llandaff and the following year was translated to Winchester. Although a convinced evangelical he voted for the 1829 Catholic Emancipation Bill against the kings wishes which he later regretted. In 1850 he strongly protested against the restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Sumner established new churches and poor schools in his diocese and improved the lot of agricultural labourers. WAYLAND, FRANCIS [1796-1865] Baptist pastor and social reformer who was born in New York and graduated from Union College in 1813. He went to medical school where he experienced a profound religious change which led him to the Andover Theological Seminary in 1816. After five years of teaching at Union College and five years as pastor of the First Baptist Society of Boston he was elected as the president of Brown University in 1827, a position which he held the next 28 years. He sponsored prison reform, emancipation of slaves, and free trade. Baptist historians have hailed him as one of the strongest defenders of religious freedom and toleration. 1828ARNOLD, THOMAS [17951842] Anglican teacher who in 1828 was ordained and appointed headmaster of Rugby School laying the foundation of the modern public school system in England with its emphasis on religious training, moral character and public service. He became Regius professor of modern history at Oxford in 1841 but opposed the Oxford Movement [see 1833]. The essence of Christianity to him was practical goodness. Arnold also emphasised the universal priesthood of all believers. HOWLEY, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1828-1848]. Howley was born in 1766 at Ropley, Hampshire, where his father was vicar. He was educated atWinchester School and in 1783 went to New College, Oxford. After some time working in Somerset as a private tutor he was appointed regius professor of divinity at Oxford University and canon of Christ Church, Oxford. He was an active EnglishFreemason, having joined the Royal York Lodge in Bristol in December 1791 and served the lodge regularly until his elevation to theepiscopate took him to London. In October 1813, at Lambeth Palace, he was consecrated bishop of London, a post he was to occupy until 1828, when he became archbishop of Canterbury. Howley was archbishop during the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts (1828), the Emancipation of the Catholics(1829) and the passing of theGreat Reform Act(1832.) The bench of bishops was generally opposed to all three measures. As archbishop, Howley was their spokesman and his heart-felt opposition to the Great Reform Act led to his carriage being attacked in the streets of Canterbury. Like very many other bishops at that time, Howley was an old high-churchman. These people inherited a tradition of high views of the sacraments from the Caroline Divines and their successors. They held Catholic beliefs but were consistently anti-Roman. Archbishop Howley presided over the coronation of William IV andQueen Adelaide in 1831. At 5 a.m. on 20th June 1837, accompanied by the lord chamberlain, the archbishop went to Kensington Palace to inform Princess Victoria that she was now queen of Great Britain and Ireland. William Howley was married on 29th August1805. The Howleys had two sons and three daughters; neither son reached adulthood. William Howley died in 1848 and was interred atAddingtonafter an elaborate funeral. He succeeded Charles Manners Sutton [see 1805] and was succeeded by John Bird Sumner [see 1848]. MOHLER, JOHANN ADAM [1796-1838] German scholar who studied at Tubingen and was ordained there in 1819. Mohler was professor of church history at Tubingen from 1828 and later at Munich from 1835. He became dean of Wrzburg Cathedral just before he died from cholera, pneumonia, and general exhaustion. His efforts to understand and be understood by Protestants demonstrated his deep ecumenical interest. PHILIP, JOHN [1775-1851] Scottish missionary to South Africa. He was a Congregational minister in Aberdeen before beginning his 30 years work as resident director of the London Missionary Society in South Africa. He made frequent tours and aimed to silence his critics by improving the quality of missionary work, and also assisted the Rhenish, Paris, and American Board missions to enter the field. He played a controversial role in colonial politics with his vigorous campaign on behalf the Hottentots and prepared the ground for Ordinance 50 of 1828 which extended civil rights to coloured people. Philip was also active in various areas to give the native population justice. He is often condemned as an ignorant negrophile and although his information and judgements were sometimes faulty, few men were better informed. He had an intolerant manner but this was outweighed by his passionate concern for justice and his acute understanding of the colonys true interests. PUSEY, EDWARD BOUVERIE [1800-1882] Leader of the Oxford Movement. He was educated at Oxford and graduated in 1819. From 1825 to 1827 he studied biblical criticism in Germany and in the process acquired a good knowledge of oriental languages. His works were strongly conservative the best known is his commentary on the Minor Prophets and on Daniel. In 1828 he was appointed pisc professor of Hebrew at Oriel where he was already acquainted with Keble and Newman and contributed to the Tracts of the Times which was edited by Newman. Two of them, one on baptism and the other on the Eucharist, were much longer than the previous tracts. In 1843 he was inhibited as a university preacher because of his sermon on the Eucharist. When in 1845 Newman seceded to the Roman Church, Pusey became the best-known figure in the Church of England. This encouraged others to remain in the Church of England. His own desire for reunion with the Roman Church led to him providing a paper in 1870 but he was disappointed with the response. In later years however he was more occupied with combating the growing strength of liberalism represented in Oxford by Benjamin Jowett [see 1860]. Pusey was a man of great personal devotion but his private life was haunted by tragedy. His wife to whom he was devoted died after 11 years of marriage and all but one of his children predeceased him. THAILAND The story Protestant Christian missionary work in this Buddhist land is one of repeated disappointments and frustrations although there were some outstanding missionaries. Karl Gutzlaff [see 1823] a German, was one of the first to arrive in 1828. In less than three years he saw the Bible completely though imperfectly translated into Thai and produced a grammar and dictionary. His wife and infant twin daughters died in 1831 and he himself had to leave the country apparently in a dying condition. In all 61 missionaries have died on this field. The American Board arrived in 1831 with David Abeel but in 1849 it officially withdrew. The American Missionary Association through Daniel Beach Bradley was basically a one-man work. Bradley made a greater impression on Thailand than any other missionary and was a good friend of King Mongkut yet he had few converts. After his death in 1873 the American Missionary Association also withdrew. The American Baptists came in 1833 with John Taylor Jones and the Chinese Baptist Church was organised in 1837. This was the first Protestant church in the Far East. The major continuing work was that of the American Presbyterians which began in 1840. In 1934 the Presbyterians formed the Church of Christ in Thailand and in 1957 the mission dissolved and turned over all the work to this national church. In 1929 the Christian and Missionary Alliance entered East Thailand but it was not until after World War II that there was a great influx by a number of new missions into the country. 1829AUBER, HARRIET [1773-1862] Hymn Writer and Poet. She was born in London but during the greater part of her quiet and secluded life lived at Broxbourne and finally Hoddesdon in Hertfordshire. She wrote devotional and other poetry, but only a portion of the former was published in her Spirit of the Psalms, in 1829. This collection is mainly her work, and from it some useful versions of the Psalms have been taken and included in modern hymn-books including about 20 appearing in Spurgeons Hymn Book. She is principally known through her exquisite hymn Our blest Redeemer, ere He breathed. BINNEY, THOMAS [17981874] Apprenticed to a bookseller before training for the Congregational ministry. After pastorates at Bedford and the Isle of Wight he became pastor of Weigh House Chapel, London [18291869]. His preaching style appealed to the youth for whom he wrote his most popular book Is it possible to make the best of both worlds?, which was published in 1853. He also promoted the use of more attractive music in his services. BLEEK, FRIEDRICH [17931859] German biblical scholar who studied in Berlin from 1814-1817 under W. de Wette [see 1822], Johan Neander [see 1813], and F Schleiermacher [see 1804]. He held a conservative viewpoint opposing the Tubingen School [see 1826], and defended the traditional authorship of the fourth gospel. He was professor of theology at Bonn [18291859], and also was elected as rector of the university. His major work was a three part commentary on Hebrews. BURTON, EDWARD [1794-1836] Scholar and church historian. He was educated at Oxford and studied on the continent for six years from 1818, and on his return to England gained a reputation as a precise and widely educated scholar. He was appointed regius professor of divinity at Oxford in 1829. He is chiefly remembered because of his untimely death which resulted in R D Hampden succeeding him and the consequent campaigning of the Oxford Movement [see 1833] against his successor. GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA [17731858]. German founder of the Gossner Missionary Society. In 1796 he was ordained as a priest and became an evangelical. He served in a number of congregations in Germany and then served a German congregation at St Petersburg Russia from 1822-1824 until doubts regarding the celibacy of the clergy forced him to resign. In 1826 he joined the Lutheran Church and was appointed in 1829 to the pastorate of the Bethlehem Church in Berlin where he remained for 17 years. Here he founded schools, asylums, and the missionary society bearing his name in 1836. Missionaries from the society served mainly in East India. After resigning from the Bethlehem Church in 1846 he devoted the remainder of his life to the hospital which he had founded. HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLPH VON [1806-1879] German Lutheran theologian who was influenced by F. Tholuck [see 1826] toward theology and particularly Luthers doctrine of justification. He was a professor of New Testament exegesis at Erlangen from 1829 to 1845 where he considerably raised the standard of theological teaching. He became president of the supreme consistory of Bavaria and reorganised the Lutheran state church giving them a new hymn book and a new order of service. He was one of the most influential representatives of Lutheran orthodoxy of his generation. MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM [1800-1873] German Protestant clergyman and New Testament scholar. His chief contribution to scholarship was a famous commentary series on the New Testament which he founded and commenced in 1829 and which has been revised over the years and is still a very important academic commentary on the New Testament. In introducing the work Meyer outlined the principles of historic grammatical exegesis as he understood it. PIUS VIII Pope [1829-1830]. He studied Canon law and, in 1800 became bishop of Montalto. After he refused to swear allegiance to Napoleon I of France (1804-14, 1815) he was taken to France. Following the defeat of France he was elevated to cardinal priest in 1816. He continued to live modestly, made no enemies, and although his own private life had always been irreproachable, he had shown no signs of judgement where others were concerned. He suffered from a very painful and distressing complaint, having perpetually weeping sores on his neck and body, and was too ill and feeble to do more than sign the documents presented to him by Giuseppe Cardinal Albani, who ruled the Papal States as autocratically as though he had himself worn the triple crown. Expressing concern on the debate on religious pluralism which was occurring in his own time he condemned the foul contrivance of the sophists of this age that would place Catholicism on par with any other religion. Regarding Bible translations, he wrote We must also be wary of those who publish the Bible with new interpretations contrary to the Churchs laws. They skilfully distort the meaning by their own interpretation. They print the Bibles in the vernacular and, absorbing an incredible expense, offer them free even to the uneducated. Furthermore, the Bibles are rarely without perverse little inserts to ensure that the reader imbibes their lethal poison instead of the saving water of salvation. In 1830 he condemned Masonic secret societies and modernist biblical translations. Pius VIII accepted the situation on mixed marriages between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but opposed liberalising tendencies in Ireland and Poland. He succeeded Leo XII [see 1823] and was succeeded by Gregory XVI [see 1831]. WILLIAMS, ISAAC [1802-1865] Welsh Tractarian, poet, and theologian who was educated at Harrow and Oxford and deeply influenced by John and Thomas Keble and by Richard Froude. Ordained in 1829 he was tutor and dean at Trinity by 1833. Williams was curate to J.H. Newman at St Marys. He produced many translation of hymns from Greek and Latin and was recognised to be the natural successor to John Keble for the professorship of poetry at Oxford in 1841. However his tract 80 raised great alarm and then antagonism in the Anglican Church cost him the chair so that he spent the rest of his life in semi-retirement writing hymns, poetry, sermons, and devotional works. 1830BARNES, ALBERT [1798-1870] American Presbyterian minister born in Rome New York into a Methodist family. Trained at Princeton Seminary he became a Presbyterian. He was a dynamic evangelical preacher who sought to challenge the human will to respond to Gods offer of salvation. In 1830 he was charged with doctrinal error by the Calvinist wing of the Presbytery but acquitted by the general assembly although admonished about what they saw as objectionable passages in a sermon. BICKERSTETH, EDWARD [1786-1850] English evangelical author and compiler of hymn books who worked in a post office and as a lawyer until he was converted in 1805. As a result he wrote the popular Help to Studying the Scriptures. Ordained in 1815 he went to Sierra Leone to report on the work of the Church Missionary Society. In 1830 he accepted a post at Watton but retained his connection with the CMS and soon after compiled his Christian Psalmody a collection of 900 hymns. He was active in the formation of the Evangelical Alliance and Irish Missions. BRAY, WILLIAM (Billy) [17941868] Cornish Methodist preacher who was a son of a mining convert from Wesleys visit. He worked in a mine early after his fathers death, was dismissed and led a dissolute life. Converted after reading Bunyan [see 1678] he became an itinerant preacher often sleeping outdoors and poorly dressed. He was famous in Cornwall for his native wit showing a great joy in Christ. BRIDGMAN, ELIJAH [18011861] First American missionary to China who after graduation in 1829 was appointed to China by the American Board. For a year he and David Abeel of the Seamans Friend Society were supported by D W Oliphant a China trader. Bridgman learned the Cantonese dialect and prepared a 730 page manual on it. After the First Opium War he started work in Shanghai and supervised the production of the Bible and was a pastor of a church. CAMPBELL, JOHN [18001872] Scottish Presbyterian minister convicted in 1830 of heresy for preaching the doctrine of universal atonement and pardon through the death of Christ, and that assurance is of the essence of faith and necessary for salvation. He was deposed in 1831 and became a minister to an independent congregation in Glasgow. His views were later incorporated in The Nature of the Atonement, published in 1856 which is regarded as a substantial contribution in the development of Scottish theology. CONSTANTIUS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1830-1834] who succeeded Agathangelus I [see 1826]. There is no additional information readily available. DUFF, ALEXANDER [1806-1878] Scottish missionary to India who was educated at St Andrews University and became the first Church of Scotland missionary to go to India. He and his wife were twice shipwrecked en route to Calcutta. Realising the value of a strong educational policy, he opened an English school in which the Bible was the central textbook, but which offered a range of subjects to university standard. There was some opposition from both Hindus and fellow missionaries, but he had a powerful ally in the British governor general and the school developed notably. Poor health compelled his return home in 1834 but he recovered sufficiently to see India again in 1840. In 1851 he was moderator of his churchs general assembly and three years later he impressed his concern for missions on American and Canadian listeners. A further spell in India 1856-1864 was concerned with the advancement of higher education in the country specifically with the foundation of the University of Calcutta. Through ill health he was forced to leave India but he laboured in his missionary cause until his death. From 1867 he occupied the first chair of evangelical theology at New College in Edinburgh. KHOMYAKOV, ALEKSEI STEPANOVICH [1804-1860] Russian philosopher and theologian who was a member of the landed gentry and graduated from the University of Moscow in 1822 after which he served in the army during the Russo-Turkish War. In 1830 he retired to his estates where he tried to improve the conditions of his serfs and eventually advocated the abolition of serfdom. His writings cover a wide range of subjects from tragedy and poetry to philosophy and theology. Although a layman he was well read in theology and believed the Orthodox Church as a mystical body was the guiding light of true Christianity. He criticised both Roman Catholicism and Protestantism for destroying the unity of Christianity. He saw the Russian peasant commune as that which preserved Christianity in its pure form and would lead the nations into a new Christian era. KING, JONAS [17921869] American Congregational author and missionary to Greece. Educated at Williams College and Andover Seminary he was ordained in 1819 then went to Palestine under the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions from 1822 to 1825. He married a Greek and was assigned to Greece in 1830 where he began a career of distinguished missionary and consular service. Besides founding a Greek Protestant church, King also started a school and wrote Christian literature in several languages. His Farewell Letters [1825] discuss his reasons for not becoming a Roman Catholic. It was translated into several languages. LAMENNAIS, FELICITE ROBERT DE [1782-1854] French Roman Catholic writer whose personally epitomised the spiritual conflict between Catholic faith and the new democratic ideal. From a budding rationalist he converted to the Catholic faith and became a priest in 1816 and by 1830 founded newspaper to promote liberty for the church from the state. Even though he did not then accept the secularist basis of liberalism, his ideas were condemned by Gregory XVI. Gradually he left the church to advocate the new liberal democratic ideal and to extol out the common man, not the church, as the hope for social regeneration. Liberal Catholicism counts him among its founders. MIGNE, JACQUES PAUL [1800-1875] French Roman Catholic publisher who because of his controversy with the bishop concerning the revolution of 1830 left his diocese and went to Paris. He turned to journalism and decided to publish a universal library for the clergy. In 2000 volumes he hoped to publish at a moderate price all the Catholic literature to his own day. His press employed 300 people and he showed himself expert at managing the enterprise. Among other works he published editions of the Latin Fathers in 221 volumes and the Greek Fathers in 162 volumes. His work remains valuable as despite errors it is still one of the most uniform collections of Church Fathers to ever approach completion. MORMONISM On 6 April 1830 the Church of the Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was organised at Fayette, New York. They moved soon afterwards to Ohio and from there under the leadership of Joseph Smith [see below] the community moved to Jackson County Missouri. Because of opposition encountered there the group went to Illinois and after Smith was killed by a mob most of the Mormon community followed Brigham Young [see 1850] the new leader and settled in what is now Salt Lake City Utah where this church still has its headquarters. The Mormon Church uses in addition to the King James Version of the Bible the following books as its main sources of authority The Book of Mormon; Doctrine and Covenants; and The Pearl of Great Price. It also believes that the president of the church may receive revelation that guides the church as a whole. By adding to the Bible their own additional sacred books, Mormons have placed themselves outside historic Christianity, which recognises the Bible alone as the final source authority. Though Christ is called divine in Mormon teaching his divinity is not unique, since it is the same as that which any man can attain. Christs incarnation too is not unique for all the gods after having first existed as spirits came to earth to receive bodies before they advanced to godhood. Mormons reject the doctrine of salvation by faith alone. SMITH, JOSEPH [1805-1844] Mormon prophet and founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Born in poor family circumstances he moved in 1816 to New York and experienced conversion during a religious revival in 1820. Subsequently he claimed to have received a direct revelation from God engraved upon golden plates. The contents he translated and published as the Book of Mormon in 1830 with the assistance of Sidney Rigdon former Campbellite minister. The Book of Commandments [1833] provided the basis of Mormon theology. He practised polygamy and his continued mismanagement of the community affairs led to his downfall. Smith was arrested with his brother by non Mormon neighbours and confined them to gaol in nearby Carthage where they were murdered by a mob in 1844. WINEBRENNER, JOHN [1797-1860] German Reformed pastor, born in Maryland and was a pastor of the German Reformed Church [1820-1825] at Harrisburg Pennsylvania. He was censored for his evangelistic preaching and withdrew from the German Reformed Church and in 1830 formed the General Eldership of the Church of God, stating his opposition to all creeds, forms, and non-biblical names. The only creed was to be the Bible since man-made creeds had led to sectarianism. The doctrines he used were Arminian in character, and the ordinances of baptism, the Lords Table, and foot washing became obligatory. 1831-1840 AD 1831ABOLITIONISM was the movement which opposed slavery and the slave trade in North America prior to the American Civil War. Although Christian groups opposed slavery it was supported by the vast majority of churches up to the end of the first decade of the nineteenth century on the basis of Scripture, tradition which was based on the theory of the racial inferiority of the Negro, and economic necessity. The movement was spread by a host of people including William Garrison, C G Finney [see 1821], T D Weld [see 1835], and Harriet Beecher Stowe [see 1851]. FROUDE, RICHARD HURRELL [1803-1836] He was educated Oxford and served as a tutor before being ordained priest in 1829. In 1831 first signs of tuberculosis appeared and he travelled widely in search of healthier climates. On one of these journeys to Italy he was accompanied by John Newman [see 1845] whom he influenced greatly, being responsible for bringing Newman and John Keble [see 1833] together, hence he is sometimes known as the third man in the Oxford movement. His friends published his memoirs after his death in 1836 which revealed that beneath the debonair and cavalier exterior was a melancholy, self torturing, and a somewhat schizophrenic personality. He bitterly hated the Reformation and he was devoted to clerical celibacy and the cult of the virgin. GAUSSEN, FRANCOIS SAMUEL LOUIS [1790-1863] Swiss Reformed pastor who while studying theology in Geneva found personal faith through the student group who had be influenced by the orthodox Scot Robert Haldane [see 1795]. Gaussen helped found the Evangelical Society of Geneva in 1831. He is best remembered for his widely circulated Theopneustia, a statement of verbal biblical inspiration which drew fierce attacks. GREGORY XVI Pope [1831-1846]. He became a monk in 1783 and rose to vicar general of the Camaldolese Order in 1823 and to cardinal three years later. He devoted his reign to the consolidation of the papacy as the focus of authority in the church and the definer of religious principles for society. The Revolution of 1831 at Rome confronted him immediately with revolutionary principles faced and he called in Austrian troops to put it down. He determined to implement his previously published ideas that claimed that the church was divinely ordained with an independent and unchanging mandate with the pope, the infallible head with the Papal States giving spiritual independence from all states. In numerous publications he tried to pinpoint the religious errors of groups which were against him or at least unsympathetic with his own religious and cultural ideal. He condemned liberalism and separation of church and state. He stimulated massive missionary activity especially in Asia and Latin America naming 200 missionary bishops during his pontificate consolidating all missions under the papacy. He succeeded Pius VIII [see 1829] and was succeeded by Pius IX [see 1846]. LOEHE, JOHANNES KONRAD WILHELM [1808-1872] Educated in Erlangen and Berlin, he was ordained a Lutheran pastor in 1831. He spent his life in pastoral situations finally becoming the pastor at Neuendettelsau in 1837. Loehe sponsored foreign missions. He was responsible for sending missionaries to North America. Some of them were instrumental in founding the Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod. He also supported mission work in New Guinea. He was a strong supporter of the Innere Mission [see 1848] movement and founded a deaconess home in Neuendettelsau. PLYMOUTH BRETHREN Originating in Dublin they were so named because the first congregation was formed in Plymouth in 1831. The beginnings were essentially informal with many showing a desire to return to the simplicity of apostolic days in worship and to break down the walls that divided Christians. The movement was a protest against the prevailing conditions of spiritual deadness, formalism, and sectarianism marking the earlier years of the 19th century church. A group which included medical student Edward Cronin, Anthony Groves [see 1833], John Vesey Parnell, John Gifford Bellett, and John Darby [see 1845], formed an association. Their studies confirmed them in their belief that they could observe the Lords Supper without an ordained clergyman. They broke bread simply and recognised the Lord, who was present, would guide by His Spirit as to audible participation in the gathering. Darby was the outstanding teacher of the group. The gatherings were marked by deep devotion to Christ, zeal for evangelism, and a strong leaning toward prophetic studies. Among the men who came under Darbys influence was Francis Newman [see 1822] and Benjamin Newton [see 1847]. Newton began a ministry in Plymouth with others and the group grew to be large and influential. Disagreeing on prophetical interpretations John Darby, who had been away on the Continent, initiated a breakaway on his return. There was also a more serious division affecting all the churches regarding Newmans teaching on Christs humanity. Two members of the Plymouth church applied for fellowship at Bethesda Chapel Bristol where George Muller [see 1834] and Henry Craik were joint pastors. A few demanded that they should be refused as unsound because they had sat under Newtons teaching. Again there was a schism and from that time the Brethren became two distinct groups, the mainstream of the movement or Open Brethren maintaining its original principles, whilst the Darby group or Exclusive Brethren became increasingly centralised in government and separatist in relation to other Christians. Missionary concerns marked the Brethren from the first. Groves, his wife, and some friends journeyed to Baghdad, and later to India in the cause of the Gospel. From that small beginning has grown a missionary outreach with a missionary body of about 1200. The Brethren have exercised influence among evangelical Christians out of all proportion to their numbers and they can be found in most parts of the world today. The TRINITARIAN BIBLE SOCIETY was founded in 1831 to promote the Glory of God and the salvation of men by circulating, both at home and abroad, in dependence on the Divine blessing, the Holy Scriptures, which are given by inspiration of God and are able to make men wise unto salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus. The Trinitarian Bible Society members separated from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_and_Foreign_Bible_Society" \o "British and Foreign Bible Society" British and Foreign Bible Society [see 1804] due to two controversies: [i] Inclusion of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" \o "Biblical apocrypha" Biblical Apocrypha in some Bibles published in Europe and [ii] Inclusion of adherents of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarianism" \o "Unitarianism" Unitarianism as officers in the Society, and refusal of the Society to open meetings with prayer. The arguments came into the open during the Annual Meeting in May 1831 of the Society. The membership voted six to one to retain the ecumenical status quo. On December 7, 1831, over two thousand people gathered in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter_Hall" \o "Exeter Hall" Exeter Hall in London to form the Trinitarian Bible Society, explicitly endorsing the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity" \o "Trinity" Trinitarian position, and rejecting the apocryphal books. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._W._Bullinger" \o "E. W. Bullinger" E. W. Bullinger, the noted dispensationalist, was clerical secretary of the Society from 1867 until his death in 1913. Accomplishments of TBS during his secretariat include: [i] Completion of a Hebrew version of the New Testament under a TBS contract with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_David_Ginsburg" \o "Christian David Ginsburg" Christian David Ginsburg after the demise of Isaac Salkinson with the first edition publication was in 1885.[ii] Publication of Ginsburgs first edition of the Old Testament along with his Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible in 1897 [iii] Formation of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittany" \o "Brittany" Brittany Evangelical Mission Society under HYPERLINK "http://www.gospelmagazine.org.uk/february1957.pdf" Pasteur Le Coat and translation of the Bible into the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_language" \o "Breton language" Breton language.[iv] First-ever Protestant HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language" \o "Portuguese language" Portuguese Reference Bible and distribution of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language" \o "Spanish language" Spanish language Bibles in Spain after the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_(Spain)" \o "Glorious Revolution (Spain)" Spanish Revolution of 1868. Their primary function is to translate and disseminate worldwide Bibles in languages other than English. The translation of Bibles into non-English languages is based on the Hebrew HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoretic_Text" \o "Masoretic Text" Masoretic Text and Greek HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textus_Receptus" \o "Textus Receptus" Textus Receptus which underlie the Authorised (King James) Version of the Bible and other Reformation-era Bibles. Some, owing to the Trinitarian Bible Societys support of the King James Version of the Bible, have assumed that the Society is a part of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King-James-Only_Movement" \o "King-James-Only Movement" King-James-Only Movement. However, as the Society has publicly stated, The Trinitarian Bible Society does not believe the Authorised Version to be a perfect translation, only that it is the best available translation in the English language. WHATELEY, RICHARD [1786-1863] Archbishop of Dublin who was educated at Oxford graduating in 1808 and subsequently appointed a fellow in 1811. Fellow students of Whateley included Robert Peel, John Keble, and John Henry Newman. He ministered in Norfolk and in 1831 amid controversy was appointed archbishop of Dublin. He was a poor preacher but a leader in education at a time when four university colleges were established in Ireland. Whateley was a stern disciplinarian who made many enemies but he did much to raise the standard of theological education and was a prolific author. 1832BEECHER, LYMAN [17751863] American Presbyterian educator who graduated from Yale in 1797 and was ordained two years later. In 1832 he became professor and president of the Lane Theological Seminary. He was liberal in theology, and a founder of the American Bible Society. Beecher was an eloquent preacher whose emphasis on revival brought conversions. He had a large family and among his thirteen children were Henry W Beecher [see1847] and Harriet Beecher Stowe [see 1851]. CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER [17881866] Son of Thomas Campbell [see 1807]. Scottish born American minister who with his brother Thomas [17631854] founded the Disciples of Christ and the Churches of Christ [see below] for groups which split from the Baptists. They founded Bethany College, West Virginia in 1840 to educate the clergy, with Alexander being its director [18401866]. CHURCHES OF CHRIST was made a denomination in the United States in 1832, and was organised into a denomination in Great Britain with fifty congregations and 1300 members ten years later, although the first known church was at Dungannon Ireland in 1804. GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART [1809-1898] British prime minister, educated at Oxford where he distinguished himself in classics and mathematics. His father was a member of Parliament and planned a political career for his son. He entered Parliament in 1832 and continued a member with one brief interruption until 1895. He supported Catholic Emancipation, not because of religious indifference, but from principle. He knew his Bible and called one of his books The Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture. He was also known to visit hospitals on Sundays to give the gospel to patients. LOVEJOY, ELIJAH PARISH [1802-1837] American Presbyterian editor and abolitionist born in Maine. He was educated at Waterville College and converted in 1832 through the ministry of Presbyterian abolitionist preacher David Nelson. He attended Princeton Seminary, edited the Presbyterian weekly St Louis Observer, and gradually adopted abolitionist views. He staunchly defended the freedom of speech, the press, and petition. He became the focus of controversy in St Louis which was proslavery, where his establishment was assaulted because he had denounced the lynching of a black man. Moving to Illinois and protesting the 1836 Presbyterian General Assemblys failure to endorse abolition he continued to distribute abolitionist papers and he was eventually shot to death at the printing press that he was protecting after already having two destroyed. LOW COUNTRIES [see also 1609] The era of religious apathy was not to last as after the French Revolution, revolutionary troops set up revolutionary regimes in the Low Countries and took away the privileges of Catholic priests in Belgium and the Reformed ministers in Holland. After the defeat of Napoleon the revolutionary allies planned to set up a strong state on the North borders of France. The Low Countries were briefly united as a kingdom under the Dutch leader William I. This however was an unstable situation and in 1832 Belgium was declared a separate country. In the Netherlands the Reformed Church was the major recognised religious body but there were splits there as well. The main emphasis of the Reformed Church as stressed by the Groningen School [see 1835] was on way of life rather than on dogma. A split also occurred under A Kuyper [see 1886]. MAITLAND, SAMUEL ROFFEY [1792-1866] Anglican historian and writer educated at Cambridge but left without a degree. He first intended to pursue a legal career but in 1821 his religious views having changed Maitland was ordained deacon in the Church of England. He made significant contributions to the study of contemporary Judaism and in 1832 produced a masterly account of the Albigenses and Waldenses. Associated with the Clapton sect of High Churchmen he contributed notable historical essays to the British Magazine which he later edited. James MARTINEAU [1805 1900]. English Unitarian minister and teacher who in 1832 became minister of a church in Liverpool and simultaneously professor of philosophy in Manchester New College. He became principal there in 1869. He began his career as a follower of Joseph Priestley [see 1767] holding the characteristic doctrines of Unitarianism because of their alleged biblical character. He became a popular figure in his attempts to harmonise religion and the modern thought of the Victorian era. He was also active in the temperance movement. MONOD, FREDERIC [1794-1863] French Protestant pastor and brother of Adolphe [see 1847]. He contributed heavily to the success of the French Protestant publication Reveil [see 1825] as editor, pastor and leader. His own faith was kindled under the teaching of Robert Haldane [see 1795] while a theological student at Geneva. He became pastor of the Oratoire Church in 1832. He was editor for 43 years of a Christian periodical. He fought against church subservience to the state and demanded a conservative Reformed creed. In 1849 Monod led dissident Reformed congregations into a union of free churches, based on strict orthodoxy, which still exist. WINER, JOHANN GEORG BENEDIKT [1789-1858] Protestant New Testament scholar who was born and educated in Leipzig where he became professor of theology from 1832 to 1858. Winer fixed the rules of grammatical interpretation of the New Testament. 1833 AMERICAN ANTI SLAVERY SOCIETY was established in Philadelphia in 1833 after the abolitionist movement began to organise and spread quickly as a religious and humanitarian crusade under William Lloyd Garrison. The abolition of slavery by the British Government in this year gave it further impetus. Influential evangelical supporters of the society were philanthropists Arthur and Lewis Tappan and Theodore Weld [see 1835]. Weld from Lane Seminary was successful in training effective anti slave agitators who converted whole communities to an awareness of the sinfulness of slavery and the need to abolish it. However splits between Garrison and others brought its effectiveness to an end by 1840. FLEIDNER, THEODOR [1800-1864] Founder of the deaconess organisation of the German Lutheran Church. As a young pastor he became acquainted with the Mennonite practice of appointing deaconesses, and in 1833 he established a home for ex-convicts which he placed in the charge of a woman. In 1835 he set up a school for children which also trained women teachers, and a hospital in 1836 which gave nursing instruction. By reviving the office of deaconess, Fleidner provided opportunities to unmarried women to be active in public life. He later introduced the idea also to the United States and Palestine. GIOBERTI, VINCENZO [1801-1852] Italian philosopher and statesman. He was ordained as a priest at the age of 24 and was soon known for his great scholarship, leading to his appointment as professor at the theological school of Turin University. Suspected and hated for his liberal ideas he was imprisoned and exiled to Paris in 1833. In exile he published works which praised Italy and its civilisation, and at the same time exhorted Italians to strive for unity and join in a confederation under papal leadership. The impact and success of his writings was great, and Pius IXs liberal policies seemed to confirm Giobertis expectations. He returned to Italy and became a member of Parliament and prime minister of Piedmont during the first war of independence. GROVES, ANTHONY NORRIS [1795-1853] Plymouth Brethren leader who after studying chemistry, dentistry, and surgery in London, settled in dental practice first in Plymouth and then in Exeter. In 1826 he entered Trinity College Dublin to prepare for ordination but came to see that ordination of any kind to preach the gospel is no requirement of Scripture. In Dublin he associated with a group that included J.G. Bellett and J.N. Darby [see 1845], influencing the former to the view that the principle of union among Christians was the love of Jesus instead of oneness of judgement in minor things. Groves sailed with his party to Baghdad in 1829 and remained there for three years during which time his first wife died of the plague. After this for 19 years from 1833 he laboured in India, during which time he remarried. Watching with concern Darbys tendency for domination he wrote a letter to Darby in 1836 regarding setting more store on correctness than love. Unwell in 1852 he returned to England and died in George Muellers house in Bristol. Groves strongly influenced early Brethren and was a pioneer of simpler, apostolic missionary principles. HEFELE, KARL JOSEF [1809-1893] Roman Catholic bishop and historian. He was ordained a priest in 1833 and after serving in minor academic posts was called in 1840 to succeed his own teacher J. Mohler [see 1828] as professor of church history at Tubingen. He was one of the most important Roman Catholic scholars of his day. He was appointed a consultant to the preparatory commission for Vatican Council I in 1868 and was consecrated bishop of Rottenburg the following year. He was a leader of the minority who opposed to the doctrine of papal infallibility, though he submitted eventually to that decision of the council. KEBLE, JOHN [1792-1866] Hymn writer and Tractarian. Educated at Oxford he became vicar of Hursley in Hampshire for life. Here he wrote a number of hymns including Blessed are the pure in heart In 1833 Keble preached his Oxford Assize sermon in which he denounced the contemporary way in which the state could interfere in church matters as national apostasy. Newman regarded this as the start of the Oxford Movement [Tractarianism] [see below]. Keble is remembered less for his many books than for his hymns and his life as a devoted Anglican vicar. In 1870 Keble College Oxford was founded in his memory. KEIL, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH [1807-1888] Lutheran scholar and exegete who was professor of Old and New Testament exegesis and oriental languages at Dorpat from 1833 to 1858. Keil helped to shape Lutheran ministerial thought in the Baltic provinces for 25 years. Vigorous advocate of conservative theology, he rejected the rationalistic, critical views of Scripture. He wrote a number of books including a biblical commentary on the Old Testament, and some New Testament books. MILLER, WILLIAM [1782-1849] Founder of the Adventist movement. Born in Massachusetts he educated himself and was a former deputy sheriff and justice of the peace. He gained the rank of captain in the War of 1812 and was converted from Deism in 1816 and after 14 years of Bible study decided that Christ would return in 1843. In 1833 he was licensed as a Baptist preacher. Disenchanted after the Lord not returning he dropped out of the Adventist movement in 1845. OXFORD MOVEMENT The title given to the movement within the Church of England which opposed the growth of liberalism in the mid-19th century. It had its roots in the High Church party of the 17th century. It was influenced by the Romantic Revival in its veneration of the mediaeval. Its leaders such as J.H. Newman [see 1845], J. Keble [see 1833], and E.B. Pusey [see 1828], some of whom came from evangelical families, were all members of Oriel College Oxford in the 1820s. The movement began with an attack on the English governments bill to reduce the number of bishoprics of the Church of Ireland. In their efforts to revive the church, the leaders of the movement published the first of the Tracts for the Times in 1833. The name Tractarianism was soon attached to the movement. The movement created wide hostility as it became clear that its teaching ran counter to the spirit of the Reformation. From 1840 onwards part of the movement led by Newman moved in a Roman Catholic direction. In 1841 Newman published tract 90 in which he argued for a Roman Catholic interpretation of the 39 Articles. While the other leaders of the movement approved the Tract they were startled by the instant storm of opposition. The defection of Newman to Roman Catholicism marked the end of the dominance of Oxford in the movement. While Pusey, an Oxford professor remained prominent, the titles Anglo-Catholic and Ritualist marked a new phase of the movement. OZANAM, ANTOINE FREDERIC [1813-1853] French Catholic literary historian founder of the Society of St Vincent de Paul in 1833 to work among the poor. The society formed at first by students of the Sorbonne in Paris and composed exclusively of non-clergy, was more than mere charity as it was an instrument to implement genuine social regeneration according to the Catholic faith. Ozanam became professor of law at Lyons and by the time of his death the society had nearly 3000 chapters in Europe, Africa, the Near East, and North America. As a literary historian he won a professorship in foreign literature at the Sorbonne in 1844. He also received doctorates in law and literature. ROSE, HUGH JAMES [1795-1838] Anglican high churchman who was educated at Cambridge and ordained a priest in 1819. Rose served in several parishes, was made professor of divinity at Durham in 1833, and principal of Kings College in 1836. He was a member of the Clapham Sect or Hackney Phalanx and in 1824 travelled to Germany and wrote a book exposing the dangerous trends of German radical criticism for which he was unexpectedly criticised by Pusey [see 1828]. A meeting at Roses Hadleigh Rectory in 1833 marked the beginning of the Tractarian Movement. Though critical of some of this groups tendencies he managed to hold the Oxford and Clapham schools together until his death. TRACTARIANISM The name given to that stage of the Oxford Movement [see above] when the Tracts for the Times were being issued. The first three tracts were four-page leaflets published anonymously in 1833. In the first, J.H. Newman [see 1845] sounded a clarion call to the clergy of the Church of England to exalt their office because of its Apostolical Descent. The Tracts were distributed widely up and down the country vicarages by disciples of the Tract writers. The Tracts began to change in character when E.B. Pusey [see 1828] began to write in 1834 as he produced longer theological documents. The Tracts came to a sudden end in 1841 with Tract 90 by J.H. Newman when he attempted to interpret the 39 Articles in a Catholic direction and brought a storm of protest, forcing the closure of the series. A wide range of notable writers contributed to the Tracts. WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF [1807-1892] American Quaker poet and abolitionist who had little formal education but read extensively. His first book of poems was published in 1831 and in 1833 he entered politics as an abolitionist and was an important writer in the antislavery movement. He supported Lincoln for the US presidency. After the Civil War his main interest was poetry and late in life he turned to religious verse which included writing the hymn Dear Lord and Father of mankind. WILLIAMS, SAMUEL WELLS [1812-1884] Early American missionary, diplomat and authority in China who having trained as a printer was sent by the American Board to Canton in 1833 where he co-operated with Elijah Bridgman [see 1830] in editing and printing The Chinese Repository and other literary works. Unsettled conditions caused him to move the press to Macau in 1835. He learned Japanese from some shipwrecked sailors and in 1837 was part of the expedition that tried to return to Japan. After 1853 he became involved with diplomatic affairs, as interpreter on Commodore Perrys visit to Japan, and then acted for 20 years as secretary and interpreter to the American legation in China. Williams was professor of Chinese language and literature at Yale from 1877 to 1884 as well as president of the American Bible Society, and president of the American Oriental Society. WILSON, DANIEL [1778-1858] Anglican bishop of Calcutta who was the son of a rich London silk manufacturer. He had intended a business career but experienced evangelical conversion and decided to enter the ministry. Wilson studied at Oxford and exercised several highly successful ministries one of which was at St Marys Islington from 1824 to 1830. Through the influence of Charles Grant he was made bishop of Calcutta where he vigorously reorganised the diocese establishing his influence over chaplains and missionaries alike. He waged war on the caste system, built Calcutta Cathedral and many new churches, and secured in 1833 freedom of missionary activity from the control of the East India Company and created two new bishoprics at Madras and Bombay which gave him metropolitan status over the whole of India. He was in Serampore during the Mutiny and died in Calcutta. 1834ALEXANDER, JOSEPH [18091860] American linguist, who entered the junior class of Princeton College at the age of 15 and graduated with highest honour at 17. In 1834 he became professor at Princeton Seminary in biblical literature and history, and after 1851, in biblical and ecclesiastical history producing a number of biblical commentaries which established his reputation in Europe as well as in America. BULL, GEORGE STRINGER [17991865] Evangelical churchman who resigned from missionary school teaching due to ill health and became a clergyman in Yorkshire. He worked for temperance, emancipation of slaves and factory children and opposed the 1834 Poor Law legislation as injurious to workers. CONSTANTIUS II Patriarch of Constantinople [1834-1835] who succeeded Constantius I [see 1830]. There is no additional information readily available. GRANT, SIR ROBERT [1779-1838] Hymn Writer. He was the second son of Charles Grant, sometime Member of Parliament for Inverness, and a Director of the East India Company. He was educated at Cambridge, where he graduated in 1806. Called to the English Bar in 1807, he became Member of Parliament for Inverness in 1826; a Privy Councillor in 1831; and Governor of Bombay, 1834. He died at Dapoorie, in Western India, July 9, 1838. As a hymn writer of great merit he was well and favourably known. His hymn O worship the King is widely used in all English-speaking countries. HEBICH, SAMUEL [1803-1868] A founder of the Basel mission work in India. He went to Mangalore in 1834 and later moved south to Malabar. He had a remarkable ministry to British soldiers, making converts despite his poor English and eccentric manners. One regiment was termed Hebichs Own. At the same time he was truly a missionary to the people of India. He left India in poor health in 1859 and died at Stuttgart. HEDBERG, FREDRIK GABRIEL [1811-1893] Finish pastor and founder of the Evangelical Movement. As a schoolboy he experienced spiritual revival through influence from Herrnhut groups. In 1834 he was ordained as pastor of the Church of Finland, at which time he was a convinced theologian of the Enlightenment and mainly tried to improve peoples ability to read. He soon found this foundation inadequate for it had nothing to offer souls in need. He came into contact with Pietism [see 1674] and this influenced him decisively. He eventually founded and became leader of the Evangelical Movement, based on the writings of Luther. In the centre are the grace and forgiveness of God, the redemption of Christ, and the appropriation of it through the means of grace. MOTE, EDWARD [1797-1874] Edward Mote was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastor" \o "Pastor" pastor and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymn writer. His parents managed a public house and often left Edward to his own devices playing in the street. He was trained as a cabinet maker and worked in London for many years. Later he entered the ministry and was pastor at Rehoboth HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_(building)" \o "Church (building)" Church in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsham" \o "Horsham" Horsham, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Sussex" \o "West Sussex" West Sussex for 26 years. He was well liked by the congregation in Horsham and they offered him the church building as a gift. Mote replied I do not want the chapel, I only want the pulpit; and when I cease to preach Christ, then turn me out of that. He is remembered for his hymn My hope is built on nothing less MULLER, GEORGE [1805-1898] Pastor, philanthropist, and leader of the Christian Brethren movement. Born in Prussia, he trained for the Lutheran ministry. After a dissolute early life he was converted in 1825 at a prayer meeting in a private house. He came to London in 1829 to train for missionary service among the Jews. During a period of convalescence in Tynemouth he met Henry Craik who had been tutor to the children of A.N. Groves [see 1833] and through him heard many points of Groves teachings. As a result he amicably severed his connection with the Jews Society and accepted a call to minister at Ebenezer Chapel Tynemouth. Here he married Groves sister Mary. In 1832 Muller and Craik began a united ministry first at Gideon Chapel and then at Bethesda Chapel Bristol where he was to remain until his death. In 1834 he formed The Scriptural Knowledge Institution for Home and Abroad to stimulate education upon scriptural principles, to circulate Bibles, and help missionary work. Early in his life he had observed the orphan work of Auguste Francke [see 1687] in Halle and in 1835 he began in Bristol the orphanage for which he is chiefly remembered. This grew from a rented house to a great complex of buildings on Ashley Down Bristol. In later years he travelled widely with others. He was a leading representative of the more moderate tendencies of the Brethren movement which grew into what is now known as the Open Brethren. This was in contrast with the views of J.N. Darby [see 1845] which developed into the Exclusive Brethren. In his early ministry Muller adopted believers baptism, the weekly celebration of the Lords Supper, and the principle of freedom to speak at meetings of the church. He renounced a regular salary and refused throughout the rest of his life to make any request for financial support either for himself or his philanthropic projects even though sometimes he was penniless. He can justly be claimed as the architect of the growth of independent Brethren. MYNSTER, JAKOB PIER [1775-1854] Danish bishop from a Pietistic background who turned his back on them in his youth adopting the theological and political radicalism of the so-called Enlightenment. Afterwards the influence of Kant [see 1770] and German Romanticism made him sceptical of rationalism. In 1803 he had a spiritual experience that led to personal conversion and his acceptance of the Christian faith. He developed into an eminent preacher and after holding certain positions became bishop of Zealand from 1834 to his death. By most of his contemporaries Mynster was regarded as the great central figure in Danish church life standing between rationalists on one side and revivalist on the other. He with H.L. Martensen [see 1854] and the national church as a whole was later attacked fiercely by S. Kierkegaard [see 1848]. NEW HAVEN THEOLOGY An American theological position associated with N.W. Taylor [see 1812], his students, and Yale Divinity School in New Haven Connecticut. The New Haven Theology was developed at the time when the Unitarian controversy was dividing many New England churches. Taylor and his followers attempted to use a system that defended Trinitarianism and supported experiential religious conversion. There was reaction against New Haven Theology in 1834 and it led to the formation of Hartford Theological Seminary. NOYES, JOHN HUMPHREY [1811-1886] American religious and social reformer who was born in the Vermont, graduated from Dartmouth College, and after conversion studied at Andover and Yale. He developed perfectionist and Adventist views and was ousted from Yale and the ministry when he pronounced himself sinless in 1834. Noyes established two communes in which to practice and propagate his ideas of perfectionism, biblical communism, complex marriage, population control, mutual criticism, and education. Under public pressure he migrated to Canada where he died. REUSS, EDWARD [1804-1891] Biblical scholar who spent most of his life in Strasbourg and taught at the Protestant seminary there from 1834. When the seminary was incorporated in the theological faculty of the new German university in 1872 Reuss was the first dean. TEN YEARS CONFLICT [1834-1843] The Ten Year Conflict was the confrontation between the Evangelicals and Moderates [see 1733] in the Church of Scotland. Both parties believed in ecclesiastical establishment, but patronage was divisive, as it involved the presentation of a minister to a congregation upon the nomination of a patron in spite of the opposition of the congregation. The Moderates promoted this procedure and it was often enforced by a civil magistrate if the congregation showed any unwillingness to accept the minister. During the heyday of Moderatism the Church of Scotland lost almost 20% of their membership to secession groups. In 1834 the Evangelical party wanted to make the congregations consent essential to the issuing of a call, and by passing the Veto Act gave the congregations the right to refuse the patrons nominee. In 1843 the Disruption took place and the Ten Year Conflict ended with the birth of the Free Church of Scotland. 1835AMERICAN PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL MISSION was founded in 1835 to increase work in the western frontier. Jackson Kemper was consecrated at convention as the first missionary bishop, and through his constant travels he laid the foundations of the Church in Missouri, Indiana, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska and Kansas. The first missionary bishop with a non-US jurisdiction was William Boone, elected in 1844 to be bishop of Amoy and Other Parts of China, where Episcopal missionaries had first arrived in 1835. Liberia received a missionary bishop in 1851 and its first African American missionary bishop, Samuel Ferguson, in 1884. In Japan, the third major area of 19th-century Episcopal mission, the three Episcopal missionaries who arrived in 1859 were the first non-Roman Christian missionaries in that countrys history, and Channing Moore Williams became missionary bishop in 1866. An extraordinary missionary bishop was Joseph Shereschewsky [see 1877] whose efforts in China were outstanding. In China boarding and day schools were established, a medical hospital opened, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Isaac_Joseph_Schereschewsky" \o "Samuel Isaac Joseph Schereschewsky" Samuel Schereschewsky was set apart to prepare a new version of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible, in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_dialect" \o "Mandarin dialect" Mandarin dialect, which he completed in 1875. There was also in Shanghai a medical school for the training of native physicians, surgeons and nurses, and a college for the training of native missionaries. DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENT AUGUST VON [1773-1845] Archbishop of Cologne who was ordained into the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1798 and was elected archbishop of Cologne in 1835 at the suggestion of the Prussian government. Soon he came into conflict with the government by refusing to sanction the teachings of the Bonn professor, George Hermes, which had been condemned by Gregory XVI in 1835. When he further refused to approve the Prussian policy on mixed marriages between Protestants and Catholics he was imprisoned by Frederick William III in the Fortress of Minden in 1837, then restored to his former honour in 1838 but the administration of the diocese was given to a co-bishop who was more favourable to the crown. GREGORY VI HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1835-1840 1867-1871] succeeded Constantius II [see 1834]. There is no additional information readily available. GRONINGEN SCHOOL A theological movement which flourished in the Dutch Reformed Church in the middle third of the 19th century. After 1835, when the synod refused to censure them for their rejection of traditional Calvinism, their influence steadily widened. In its heyday around the mid century, the Groningen School was perhaps the dominant influence in the church. Its teachings emphasise living the Christian life rather than dogma and that God has revealed himself in Christ, who has taught us that our spiritual nature is fulfilled in love. The Trinity for example, is interpreted as a valuable symbolic insight rather than a statement of fact. LINDLEY, DANIEL [1801-1880] American missionary to South Africa who was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1832 and reached South Africa as an American Board Missionary in 1835. A mission to the Matabele was abandoned after a Boer attack in 1837 and he joined colleagues among the Zulu in Natal. From 1840 to 1846 he served as a minister to the Boers believing that this would ultimately benefit the Zulu mission. In 1847 he returned to mission work in the Inanda Location northwest of Durban where he remained until his retirement in 1873. His attitude towards tribal custom mellowed with the years and he welcomed the ordination of native pastors from 1869, in which respect he proved more liberal than his younger colleagues. PERKINS, JUSTIN [1805-1869] American Congregational missionary to Persia who was educated at Andover Theological Seminary and was ordained in 1833. He went to Persia under the American Board and laboured among the Nestorian Christians. In 1835 he established his mission in Urumiah and founded several schools and a mission press from which he issued many of his works, notably Missionary Life in Persia in 1861. A noted scholar Perkins translated the Bible into Syriac and was the first to reduce the Nestorian vernacular into writing. STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH [1808-1874] German theologian who studied under F.C. Baur [see 1845] at Tubingen. He achieved instant notoriety with his Life of Jesus Critically Examined [1835-36]. This publication destroyed any prospect of a career in theological teaching. The study consisted largely of the detailed examination of the events the Gospels making extensive use of the concept of myth already known to German theology. He said that the miracles of Jesus were virtually predetermined by popular expectation of how the Messiah should act. Strauss followed this by another book arguing that biblical teaching cannot be harmonised with modern knowledge and proposing a mixture of Platonic and Hegelian philosophy in its place. In his day Strauss had more influence on some freethinkers like George Eliot than on the mainstream of theology. WELD, THEODORE DWIGHT [1803-1895] American abolitionist who grew up in New York where he was profoundly influenced by Capt Charles Stewart principal of Utica Academy. Converted under C.G. Finneys [see 1821] preaching he spent 2 years preaching then became deeply concerned about the abolition of slavery. He enlisted New York philanthropists Arthur and Lewis Tappan in the financing of Lane Seminary Cincinnati where Weld and some of Finneys converts studied under the presidency of Lyman Beecher [see 1832]. When abolitionist activities were banned, Weld and his followers transferred to Oberlin College. After 1835 Weld was employed by the American Anti-slavery Society [see 1833] that he helped to found. After 1836 he focused his energies on the societys publicity and lobbying in Washington DC. He wrote The Bible Against Slavery in 1837 and American Slavery As It Is in 1839 which provided a stimulus for H.B. Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin in 1852. 1836AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION was a missionary society operated by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" \o "Presbyterian Church in the United States of America" Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, that was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty and to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India in nineteenth century. The American Presbyterian Mission was opened at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahabad" \o "Allahabad" Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, in 1836. The Presbyterian Board of America transferred two of their missionaries from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore" \o "Singapore" Singapore to China in 1843. It had four great centres. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou" \o "Guangzhou" Guangzhou was entered in 1845, but it was sixteen years before they were able to baptise the first convert to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" \o "Christianity" Christianity. A medical hospital was a very important factor in the work of the Mission. Missions in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau" \o "Macau" Macau and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan" \o "Hainan" Hainan were sustained from this centre. Hospital work had been a prominent feature in this Mission. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Parker_(physician)" \o "Peter Parker (physician)" Dr. Peter Parker commenced a hospital in 1835, which was transferred to this society in 1854, and placed under the care of Dr HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glasgow_Kerr" \o "John Glasgow Kerr" John G. Kerr. The Central Mission had five main centres which branched out in many directions. These included HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningbo" \o "Ningbo" Ningbo, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai" \o "Shanghai" Shanghai, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangzhou" \o "Hangzhou" Hangzhou, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzhou" \o "Fuzhou" Fuzhou, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anqing" \o "Anqing" Anqing. At Shanghai the extensive printing operations of the Society were carried on. These comprised not only several presses which were constantly at work, but a foundry where seven sizes of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters" \o "Chinese characters" Chinese type, besides HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" \o "English language" English, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language" \o "Korean language" Korean, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu" \o "Manchu" Manchu, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language" \o "Japanese language" Japanese, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew" \o "Hebrew" Hebrew, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet" \o "Greek alphabet" Greek and others, were cast. Much translation work had been done by this Society, and handbooks of Christian history and doctrine prepared by it were in use on most of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant missions in China. The Shantung Mission extends from the capital city, Chi-nan-foo, northwards to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yantai" \o "Yantai" Yantai, and had many stations which reported about three thousand members in 1890. Also the Allahabad Christian College in India, managed by the American Presbyterian Mission, was opened in 1902 and had 70 pupils in 1904. BECK, JOHANN [18041878] German theologian who was ordained in 1827 and taught systematic theology at Basle [18361843] then at Tubingen. He was a great Christian personality developing the work of Johann Bengel [see 1734]. He saw the Bible as the history of the work of the Spirit working towards the salvation of man and the revelation of the kingdom of God as a supernatural reality in history. BROUGHTON, WILLIAM [17881853] who was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1818. Ten years later he was appointed second archdeacon of New South Wales and became the first Australian bishop appointed in 1836. Although he was a high churchman he was accepted by the evangelicals as non hostile. In 1850 he initiated discussions about self government for the Church of England in Australia. The COLONIAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY was formed in May 1836 as a distinct society for the Colonies following the report of a deputation to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" \o "Canada" Canada by representatives of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational" \o "Congregational" Congregational churches from Britain. Its principal mission effort was directed towards promoting HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregationalist" \o "Congregationalist" Congregationalist forms of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" \o "Christianity" Christianity among British or other European settlers rather than indigenous peoples. At first it functioned as part of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_Union" \o "Congregational Union" Congregational Union, which Andrew Reed, an early honorary secretary, described as a crippled and dependent existence. In time it became an independent body. Radical changes in the way HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain" \o "Great Britain" Great Britain related to its former colonies after HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" \o "World War II" World War II, coupled with the growth of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical_movement" \o "Ecumenical movement" ecumenical movement led to changes in the societys identity during the mid 20th century. KAISERSWERTH A Rhineland town where Theodor Fliedner [see 1833] was pastor of a small Protestant community, and founded an institution in 1836 to train deaconesses for nursing, educational, and social work. Fliedners work was helped by Frederick William IV of Prussia and was linked with the Innere Mission [see 1848]. Florence Nightingale trained there. By the middle of the last century Kaiserswerth had become the mother house of an association of about 28,000 sisters in 72 houses. LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH [1807-1882] American poet who became the most popular American poet of his day. On his return, after study and travel abroad, he was appointed Smith professor of literature at Harvard University in 1836. The tragic death of his second wife Fanny in a fire in 1861 encouraged him to undertake as a source of solace one of his greatest works, a translation of the Divine Comedy. Longfellows poetry reflects the optimistic sentiment and humanitarianism of the day. MCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY [1813-1843] Church of Scotland minister educated at Edinburgh University and was moved by the death of an elder brother to seek a brother who cannot die. In 1836 he was ordained to the charge of St Peters Dundee where the fruitfulness of his ministry and his own spiritual growth were the outcome of a strict daily programme of Bible study, prayer, meditation, visiting his people, and preparation of sermons despite his frequent illnesses. His missionary interest involved a visit to Europe and Palestine in 1839 to study the possibility of a mission to the Jews, the beginning of a notable Church of Scotland work. Dying at only 30 years of age he nevertheless had a great influence on Christianity in Scotland. REES, THOMAS [1815-1885] Welsh religious historian who only had three months of elementary school as his education. He became a coal miner in 1835 but soon gave it up and opened a school. He was ordained in 1836 as minister of the Congregational church in Merthyr Tydfil and supplemented his stipend of ten shillings a month which he received from the 12 members of his church by opening a shop. This proved to be a failure and he suffered imprisonment as a debtor. His fortunes revived however and his subsequent career as a minister was a distinguished one. He was a prolific writer with his best-known to English readers being his History of Protestant Nonconformity in Wales in 1861 and one he also co-authored on the history of the Welsh Congregational churches which considering his lack of formal education his work as a historian was outstanding. Rees possessed a winsome personality and was in great demand as a preacher. TRANSCENDENTALISTS The American Unitarian Association was formed in 1825 but by 1836 the Boston churches were torn again as rebellious young preachers, members of the Transcendental Club abandoned Unitarianism feeling it to be complacent and sterile in its rationalism. They tried to introduce a strong note of mysticism and contemporary Romanticisms view of individual intuition and flashes of insight into truth as the highest form of knowledge. They saw every creative thing as possessing deep religious meanings. 1837AUBURN DECLARATION which gave the Presbyterian New School case for its Calvinism in the U.S.A. which relied on a combination of free will and Divine will. The Old School believed that the New School had departed from the Calvinistic theology of the Westminster Confession and were too tolerant of the New Haven Theology [see 1834] which placed a greater stress on human initiative in the process of salvation than did orthodox Calvinism. The Auburn Declaration eventually brought the New and Old Schools back into unity in 1869. BALA TRAINING COLLEGE founded for the Calvinistic Methodists. EDWARDS, LEWIS [1809-1887] Welsh Calvinistic Methodist minister. He had a patchy education in local schools, engaged in teaching himself, and went to Edinburgh University in 1833. In 1837 he and his brother-in-law David Charles [1812-1878] opened a school at Bala which was eventually adopted by the Calvinistic Methodists as the institution for training ministers. He spent the remaining 50 years of his life as principal there. He had a powerful personality and became the undisputed leader of his denomination, particularly in intellectual matters. He wrote books on the person of Christ and the doctrine of the atonement as well as a brief history of theology. As a theologian he sought to evade controversy while maintaining a somewhat moderate Calvinism. His son Thomas Charles Edwards was the first principal of University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. FELLER, HENRIETTA [1800-1868] Swiss missionary and educator. A Protestant, she arrived at St Johns Quebec in 1835 and began spreading the gospel from house to house. In Grand Ligne she and her colleague Louis Roussy found a home to receive them, and she began a school in the attic for local children. During the rebellion of 1837 the two missionaries and their 63 converts were persecuted for being Protestants and forced to flee to New York. When peace was restored they returned and in 1840 they erected the first buildings of what was to be Feller College. Henrietta Feller also founded the first Canadian French Baptist Church in 1836. FREEMAN, THOMAS BURCH [1809-1890] First Wesleyan Methodist missionary to Ghana to survive for more than a short period. He worked as a gardener and botanist before offering for overseas service in 1837. He arrived at Cape Coast at the beginning of the following year and started work single-handed after the death of all his predecessors. His interests extended to architecture, botany, agriculture, and education, but his dominant concern was the geographical expansion of Christianity. He visited Kumasi, the capital of Ashanti in 1839 and Badagry and Abeokuta now sited in Nigeria in 1841-42, calling at the capital of Dahomey during his return journey. By 1856 he had built up a strong church and an educational system which included 35 schools, four of which were in Nigeria and Dahomey. GUTHRIE, THOMAS [1803-1873] Scottish minister and social reformer who was educated at Edinburgh, then refusing to renounce Evangelical principles in order to obtain a parish, studied medicine and social conditions in Paris. In 1837 he became the collegiate minister of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh. He felt that the 1843 disruption was an inevitable response to the law that enslaved the church of Christ, and became a minister of Free St Johns until 1864. His social reform proposals were numerous and he championed especially the cause of Ragged Schools. He was one of the earliest supporters of the Evangelical Alliance [see 1846]. Guthries funeral in Edinburgh brought out some 30,000 mourners. HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR [1798-1875] Dean of Chichester who was educated at Oxford. He served in Birmingham and Coventry and was from 1837 to 1859 a remarkably successful vicar of Leeds, frustrating Dissenters, increasing the number of parish churches in his see from 15 to 36, befriending the poor, and adapting Anglicanism to the challenge of the new urban areas. A High Churchmen, Hook helped attract the Tractarian [see 1833] party to consecrate St Saviours in Leeds in 1845 but later quarrelled with them over the ritualism practised there. He was so energetic that he was compared to Dr Samuel Johnson. JASPER, JOHN [1812-1901] American Negro Baptist preacher. Born into slavery on a plantation in Virginia he was employed as a slave in the Richmond tobacco factory of a prominent Baptist layman where he experienced a dramatic conversion in 1837. At his masters urging he began preaching and after learning to read immersed himself in the Bible. After emancipation he took over regular congregations. Not a sensationalist he was known for his simple biblical faith, remarkable eloquence, and ability to relate tenderly to his parishioners. PARKER, THEODORE [1810-1860] American Congregational minister who was ordained in 1837 and three years later in a sermon denied biblical authority and the deity of Christ. He moved from Unitarianism to transcendental ideas that Christianity rested on universal truths gained by intuition transcending revelation or Christ. Religion was essentially morality growing out of moral oneness with God. ROWNTREE, JOSEPH [1801-1859] Quaker social reformer. Born in Yorkshire he left school at age thirteen and later became a grocer and a member of the Merchants Company, and had a lifelong interest in education. He was founder of the York Quarterly Meeting Boys and Girls Schools in 1828 1830. A founding trustee of the Flounders Institute in Ackworth for training teachers, he with Samuel Tuke helped to establish the Friends Educational Society in 1837 and served on the committee of the Friends Retreat for the insane at York. He wrote pamphlets on colonial slavery and on education, and helped to reform the marriage regulations of the Society of Friends so that marriage to a non-Quaker would no longer mean disownment. WALTHER, CARL FERDINAND [1811-1878] American Lutheran theologian was born in Germany and educated at Leipzig and ordained into the Lutheran ministry in 1837. He was profoundly influenced by Martin Stephan, a pastor in Dresden, and came into the newly awakened Lutheran confessional movement. He joined the migrants under Stephan, arriving in Missouri early in 1839 and was made a pastor there. Walther was the first president of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and Other States, founded in 1847, and first president of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America founded in 1872. His chief theological writings were on the question of church and ministry. Walther is regarded as the outstanding Lutheran theologian in America in the 19th century. ZILLERTHAL EVANGELICALS Protestant residents of Zillerthal, one of the Tyrol valleys, who seceded from the Roman Catholic Church and migrated to Prussia in 1830. They had been subject to the archbishop of Salzburg for centuries. A Baptist movement had been totally suppressed early in the 17th century but a strong Lutheran group would not yield to the Catholic pressures. Two brothers named Stainer preached evangelical doctrine in the Ziller valley with such effect that the Catholic hierarchy were alarmed. Over a period of several generations they attempted by various means including both teaching and harassment to regain the peoples loyalty but their efforts never fully succeeded. When a Prussian court preacher named Strauss visited there he was so favourably impressed that he arranged for them to migrate to Prussia. In 1837 they set out in six wagons arriving in Prussia in October of that year, establishing a colony at Erdmannsdorf. 1838ATTWOOD, THOMAS [17651838] English composer who trained with Mozart and produced a number of anthems. Organist of Chapel Royal and St Pauls Cathedral he was influential in introducing the music of J.S. Bach to England. DORNER, ISAAC AUGUST [1809-1884] German Lutheran theologian who was the son of a pastor and educated at Tubingen and became professor of theology there in 1838. He became successively professors at a number of institutions in Germany between 1829 and 1862. Heavily influenced by Schleiermacher, Hegel, and Kant, he brought these philosophic insights to the study of doctrine, which he interpreted in an evangelical and historical sense. He is among the most distinguished of German Christological scholars whose work is still significant. EMERSON, RALPH WALDO [1803-1882] American Transcendentalists minister. Descended from nine successive generations of ministers, he graduated from Harvard College and attended the Divinity School there before accepting a pastorate in 1829 in Boston. He struggled with fears over his faith and his vocation. In 1832 he resigned from the pastorate but it was his address before the Harvard Divinity School in 1838 which clearly drew the lines of the Unitarian controversy. Emersons Christ was strictly human; he advocated a faith in man not in Christ, but like Christs. The battle over Christology and miracles was in the open. Emersons religious thought was essentially pantheistic and advocated a religion of self. Despite his reformist philosophy he kept aloof from the slavery controversy until the 1850s. GOODRICH, CHAUNCEY ALLEN [1790 1860]. American Congregational clergyman educator and lexicographer. Graduated from Yale where he was a student of Timothy Dwight [see 1795]. He published The Elements of Greek Grammar in 1814, the year he was ordained. Three years later became professor of Rhetoric at the Yale helping to establish the theological department in 1822. He was professor of preaching and pastoral work from 1838 until his death. HUPFELD, HERMANN CHRISTIAN KARL FRIEDRICH [1796-1866] German Old Testament scholar educated at Halle under H.F.W. Gesenius [see 1811], staying on as instructor before going back to Marburg as professor of theology in 1825. In 1838 he returned to Halle and remained there until his death. His four volume work on the Psalms was the first modern commentary on that book. In contrast with the rationalist of his day he preserved more of the sense of revelation in the Old Testament. MCCULLOCH, THOMAS [1777-1843] Presbyterian minister in Nova Scotia. Educated at Glasgow University he was ordained and migrated to Pictou, Nova Scotia where he founded a church and Pictou Academy in 1808 which was incorporated in 1816 with McCulloch as principal. In 1838 he became president of Dalhousie College in Halifax a post he held to his death. He laboured in Nova Scotia to break the Anglican monopoly of higher education and thus access to the professions. MAURICE, FREDERICK DENISON [1805-1872] Christian socialist who was the son of a Unitarian minister. He entered Trinity College Cambridge in 1823 but as a Nonconformist was unable to take a degree. Influenced by Coleridges writings he accepted Anglicanism and decided to be ordained and went to Exeter College Oxford where he was attracted to Tractarianism [see 1833]. He was ordained in 1834 and in 1838 published his most important work The Kingdom of Christ in which most of his fundamental beliefs were expressed. He believed that Christ was the head of every man and universal fellowship and unity being possible in Christ alone. In 1840 was appointed professor of English literature and history at Kings College London. He was later appointed to the chair of theology but his orthodoxy was being questioned and as a result of a publication in which he attacked the popular view of eternal punishment he was expelled from the college. In 1854 he started the first Working Mens College in London. Throughout his ordained life he was unwilling to attach himself to any church party. He is considered to be one of the greatest thinkers of the 19th century. PARKER, PETER [1804-1888] First medical missionary to China who was born in Massachusetts where he studied both medicine and theology. The American Board sent him out in 1834 and in the following year he opened an eye hospital in Canton, the first Christian hospital in the Far East. In 1838 he helped organise the Medical Missionary Society in China and opened a hospital and in Macao. Parker helped negotiate the first treaty between China and the USA in 1844. After spending the next decade in China ill health forced him to return to Washington and he was elected regent of the Smithsonian Institution and interested himself in Christian enterprises such as the American Evangelical Alliance. PECULIAR PEOPLE The term first appeared in Tyndales translation of the New Testament in 1526 and was so applied to themselves by the Quakers in the 17th century. The Tractarians applied this term in a derogatory manner to the evangelicals in the following century. Peculiar People or Plumstead Peculiars were a small sect of evangelical faith-healers founded by William Bridges in London in 1838 and they were largely confined to south-east England. The Society of Dependents of West Sussex is an offshoot of the Peculiars, founded by John Sirgood. 1839BINGHAM, HIRAM SR. [1789 1869] American pioneer missionary who was a native of Vermont and sent to Hawaii, known then as the Sandwich Islands, by the American Board in 1820. He helped to create a written language for the natives and with others completed a translation of the Bible in 1839. He built the first church in Honolulu in 1821. He had to return to the United States in 1841 due to health problems of his wife. LEGGE, JAMES [1815-1897] Missionary and Chinese scholar who was born in Scotland and educated at Aberdeen. In 1839 he went to Malacca under the London Missionary Society to become principal of the Anglo-Chinese College, and three years later he founded a theological college in Hong Kong where he also revised part of the New Testament. He returned to England in 1873 and two years later became the first professor of Chinese at Oxford University translating a large amount of classical Chinese literature. PRATT, GEORGE [1817 -1894] was a Missionary to Samoa who was sent by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" \o "London Missionary Society" London Missionary Society and lived in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoa" \o "Samoa" Samoa for forty years from 1839 1879, mostly on the island of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savai%27i" \o "Savai'i" Savaii. He also served in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niue" \o "Niue" Niue, the Loyalty Islands and New Guinea. In Samoa, Pratt lived at a mission station in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matautu" \o "Matautu" Matautu on the north coast of Savaii island. Pratt is particularly notable for being the first person to document the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoan_language" \o "Samoan language" Samoan language. He authored the first grammar and dictionary of the language A Grammar and Dictionary of the Samoan Language with English and Samoan Vocabulary which was first printed in 1862 at the Samoa Mission Press. He also collected Samoan songs and myths and translated them into a publication Some Folk-songs and Myths from Samoa, published in 1891. In this work is a section Samoan Custom: Analogous to those of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelites" \o "Israelites" Israelites, where he wrote about cultural similarities including the importance of the number 7, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalming" \o "Embalming" embalming, natural eloquence, rod or staff of office, heads cut off in war, the use of slings and stones in war, possessions by evil spirits, the near sacred relationships between brothers and sisters, calling the name of the chief who is to drink during ceremony, the giving of names and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision" \o "Circumcision" circumcision. Pratts valuable Samoan work records many old words of special interest, specialist terminology, archaic words and names in Samoan tradition. SECRETAN, CHARLES [1815-1895] Swiss Protestant philosopher and theologian who studied in Munich which led him into a speculative mystic view of religion. From 1839 he held professorships at Lausanne, Neuchatel, and Lausanne again. With A.R. Vinet [see 1819] he was the leader of the liberal Swiss Protestant thought. SIMPSON, SIR JAMES YOUNG [1811-1870] Discoverer of the anaesthetic effect of chloroform. He was the son of a village baker in Scotland and qualified in medicine at Edinburgh University becoming professor of medicine and midwifery there in 1840. Ether was used in an operation in 1846 and Simpson experimented on himself and looked for more suitable compounds for use and discovered in 1847 the effect of chloroform. Violent controversy died out after 1853 when Queen Victoria was given chloroform at the birth of Prince Leopold. In his latter days Simpson was famous worldwide. As a student Simpson shown little interest in the church but he was converted soon after his marriage in 1839 and made good use of his detailed knowledge of the Bible which he had received from his home. In one of his books he argues that God himself used anaesthetic to prevent pain in Genesis 2:21. STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN [1815-1881] Dean of Westminster who was educated at Rugby and Oxford where he came into touch with Pusey and the Tractarians. Stanley was ordained in 1839 and became professor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford. After he became dean of Westminster in 1863 he invited Keble, Liddon, and Pusey to preach; all refused, feeling that to do so would compromise them in view of Stanleys sympathy with German liberalism. He was a member of the New Testament revision committee in 1870, was widely travelled, and a prolific author. VEUILLOT, LOUIS [1813-1883] French Roman Catholic writer who was a self taught son of a cooper. Veuillot experienced a return to a living Catholic faith during a visit to Rome in 1839. Thereafter he devoted his exceptional journalistic skills to the defence of the Ultramontane [see 1814] cause in France. He became editor of the most powerful Catholic journal of the time and his influence was especially great among the conservative lower rural clergy. Residing in Rome during Vatican I he gave energetic support to the cause of the definition of papal infallibility 1840ANTHIMUS IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1840-41, 1848-52] who succeeded Gregory VI [see 1835]. There is no additional material readily available. CALVERT, JAMES [18131892] English Wesleyan missionary to Fiji where he spent 25 years [18401865] arriving with John Hunt [see 1845] and Thomas Jaggar. He later went to the South African diamond mines as a missionary and in 1886 was able to return to Fiji to see what 50 years of work had accomplished in the Cannibal [Fiji] islands. EVANS, JAMES [1801-1846] Missionary and linguist who entered Canada as a Methodist missionary from England in 1823 and five years later began teaching at the Rice Lake Indian Mission School in Upper Canada. Ordained as a Methodist minister in 1833 he went to the Ojibwa Indians and four years later published a grammar and translated Biblical extracts and some hymns into their language. In 1840 he became general secretary of all the Wesleyan Missionary Societys Indian Missions in the Northwest. Extensive travel made him realise the need for a written Cree language. He invented a Cree syllabic alphabet in 1840, organised a group of translators and by 1861 they had translated the Bible into Cree. Opposition from the Hudsons Bay Company and false charges led to his recall to England and death in 1846. HAMLIN, CYRUS [1811-1900] American Congregational missionary who went to Turkey under the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. In 1840 he founded a seminary at Bebek. Hamlin resigned from the American board and in 1863 opened Robert College, later moving it to Constantinople. Roberts, the school benefactor, was persuaded because of a misunderstanding to dismiss Hamlin as college president in 1877. He returned to America and lectured until his retirement in 1885. HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM [1802-1869] Lutheran scholar who studied at Bonn and taught at Berlin. During his early years at Berlin he was associated with an evangelicals such as August Neander and Frederick Strauss but after 1840 developed into an outstanding spokesman on Lutheran orthodoxy. HOLINESS MOVEMENT, AMERICAN A religious movement dating from the mid-19th century that tried to preserve the original thrust of the Methodist teaching on entire sanctification and Christian perfection as taught by John Wesley. This teaching expects that entire sanctification normally takes place instantaneously in an emotional experience similar to conversion. At this point one is cleansed from inbred sin and then one is able to live without conscious or deliberate sin. The 20th century has produced other holiness groups. Many of these denominations developed in the wake of the revival movement associated with Charles Finney [see 1821] with whose Oberlin Theology [a moderate form of Christian perfectionism] holiness theology has many affinities. Another parallel movement in the mid-19th century was the British Keswick movement [see 1875] whose teachings on the victorious life are distinguished from holiness thought primarily by their context in Reformed theology. Many interpreters fail to distinguish between the holiness movement and Pentecostalism. In the late 19th century holiness writers began to speak of entire sanctification as a baptism of the Holy Spirit on the model of Pentecost. It was from this that the Pentecostalism was born in America. The IRISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION was a missionary society that was founded in 1840 and involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. MERCERSBURG THEOLOGY This was the creation of Philip Schaff the historian [see 1870] and J.W. Nevin the theologian [see below] while professors at the small Mercersburg Theological Seminary in Pennsylvannia, a German Reformed Church seminary. Both men praised the sacramentalism of tradition, and found satisfaction in the centrality of the Eucharist, for only it, not the Bible or individual experience, gave the believer true spiritual knowledge. In the celebration of the Lords Supper the believer received the spiritual real presence, and this united the believer with a historical and organic church, and kept the church from being a mere aggregate of individuals. The Mercersburg Theology had little influence in its day and was strongest from 1840 until the departure of Nevin and Schaff. NEVIN, JOHN WILLIAMSON [1803-1886] German Reformed theologian, descendant of wealthy Scottish Irish farmers, Nevin prepared for Presbyterian ministry under Charles Hodge [see 1841]. While teaching at Western Theological Seminary he developed an interest in church history, particularly through the writings of J. Neander [see 1813]. In 1840 he was called to teach at the German Reformed Seminary at Mercersburg Pennsylvania. With Philip Schaff [see 1870], another convert to the German Reformed Church, he created the Mercersburg Theology [see above]. Plagued with illness he retired in 1853 and later taught at his church college where he was president [1866-1876]. SWAN WILLIAM [1791-1866] Missionary to Siberia was born in Scotland and ministered with Edward Stallybrass [see 1817] under the London Missionary Society [see 1795] to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buryat" \o "Buryat" Buryat people. Translating scripture into the local languages was an important task for the LMS missionaries. From 1836 to 1840, they worked on translating scripture and publishing it at a mission press. In 1838, William Swan reported that the work on these translations was progressing. In 1840, the Mongolian translation of the Old Testament was published, and in 1846, Stallybrass republished his and Swans Mongolian translation of the New Testament, a revision of an 1824 translation, in London. 1841-1850 AD 1841ALEXANDER, MICHAEL [17991845] The first Anglican archbishop of Jerusalem. A German Jew who became a rabbi but lost that status when he was converted to Christianity in 1825. He was ordained in the Anglican Church in 1827 and for three years served as a missionary to the Jews in Danzig. He became Professor of Hebrew at Cambridge. He became Archbishop in Jerusalem in 1841 amid some controversy and died in Egypt in 1845 while on his way back to England. ANTHIMUS V Patriarch of Constantinople [1841-1842] who succeeded Anthimus IV [see 1840]. There is no additional material readily available. BODE, JOHN ERNEST [1816-1874].- Anglican minister and Hymn Writer. He attended Eton, the Charter House, and Christ Church, Oxford University, where he won the Hertford Scholarship in 1835, and graduated with his B.A. in 1837 (followed by his M.A.). He was ordained in 1841; and became rector of Westwell, Oxfordshire in 1847; then of Castle Camps, Cambridgeshire, in 1860. He delivered his Bampton Lectures in 1855, and was for a time tutor and Classical Examiner at his college. He is remembered for his hymn O Jesus I have promised BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS VON [17911860] Prussian theologian and diplomat who was appointed as Prussian minister in London [18411854]. Here Bunsen enthusiastically worked with the Anglican church to establish the Anglo Prussian Jerusalem bishopric in 1841. None of his theological or historical work has had permanent value. DE LA CRUZ, APOLINARIO [1815-1841] Filipino religious leader who went to Manila to join a monastic order but was rejected because he was a Filipino native. In 1840 he returned to Quezon and found a religious brotherhood for Filipinos. The movement grew widely among the masses, but was refused recognition by both ecclesiastical and colonial authorities. In 1841 he proclaimed war in the name of religious freedom. During skirmishes, a provincial government official was killed. De la Cruz was later captured, executed, and quartered, and the brotherhood was disbanded. Hes now honoured as the first martyr to the cause of religious liberty and Filipino priestly equality. HODGE, CHARLES [1797-1878] A leading American theologian of the 19th century and father of A. A. Hodge [see 1877]. Educated at Princeton, he graduated there in 1815. His theological studies under Archibald Alexander [see 1812] determined his life work. He was professor of Oriental and Biblical literature [1822-1840] then professor of theology. His own theology was mainly that of the Westminster Confession with obvious traces of scholastic Calvinism. His thought was governed by a high view of verbal inspiration and infallibility. Hodge unswervingly defended the supernaturally inspired Bible and thereby placed his stamp upon what came to be called Princeton theology. His writings carried his influence beyond the 3000 students whom he taught during a half-century. He held a commanding position in the Presbyterian Church. He was a prominent member of the missionary and educational boards of the Presbyterians. KELLY, WILLIAM [1821-1906] Plymouth Brethren and biblical Critic. Educated in Dublin he was converted in 1841 to the principles of the Brethren and began to write extensively on behalf of the Darby section of that body. He edited two periodicals The Prospect [1848 to 1850] and the Bible Treasury from 1856 until his death. He wrote a long series of devotional works and commentaries as well as editing the collected works of J. Darby [see 1845]. In 1879 the excommunication of Dr Edward Cronin led to the Kelly schism in the Exclusive Brethren, Kelly heading the more moderate and understanding faction of that group until his death. LIVINGSTONE, DAVID [1813-1873] Scottish missionary and explorer who left school at ten years old and worked incredibly long hours in the mill but kept a book beside him while he worked. He was converted at about 17 years of age and dedicated his life to spread the gospel in other lands. He saved in order to study medicine and theology in Glasgow and heard the call to go to Africa through Robert Moffat [see 1816] who had laboured there for 23 years under the London Missionary Society and whose daughter Mary he was later to marry. Arriving in 1841 he soon moved north from Kuruman into unexplored and un-evangelised territory, thus beginning the travels which were to take him some 48,000 kilometres over the African continent. His first great discovery was Lake Ngami in 1849. Four years later he began the great journey of exploration from Cape Town to the Zambezi River, then west to the Atlantic Ocean and right across the continent to the Indian Ocean. In the course of this journey he found and named Victoria Falls. He returned home to find himself famous in 1856 and the following year published Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa. During his subsequent journeyings after returning to Africa he dropped out of sight and the New York Herald sent H.M. Stanley to find him which he did in 1871. Livingstone refused to return home and he died about the beginning of May 1873 and was subsequently buried in Westminster Abbey. Largely due to his reports, it was not long before slavery was made illegal throughout the civilised world. PHILIPPINES [see also 1521] In 1841 Apolinario de la Cruz [see above] became the first martyr being executed as a subversive. The revolution of 1868 and subsequent short lived republic in Spain resulted in a brief spell of liberalism in the colony but with the restoration of the monarchy in 1870, censorship was revived, the Filipinisation of the church was reversed and demand for political reform was declared treasonable and punishable by death. In 1872 three priests were executed for demanding Filipino leadership in the church. However with the increasing communications with the opening of the Suez Canal and the advent of the telegraph, the control was freed up. In 1898 the revolutionary government expelled the friars, confiscated their lands, and appointed Gregorio Aglipay [see 1902] as head of the Philippine Church. In 1902 the US Congress paid the friars $7 million compensation for loss of their lands. Until the middle of the 20th century the religious orders with the exception of the Jesuits were still dominated by foreigners. The first Protestant missionary to settle in the Philippines was James Rodgers an American Presbyterian who arrived in 1899. The Protestants agreed on a policy of dividing the missions in the country, the Episcopalians were unwilling to evangelise Roman Catholics and went only to the Muslims in the south, the Chinese, the Caucasians, and the animistic tribes. The only non American arrival was the British and Foreign Bible Society who had started translation into local languages commencing in the 1880s. SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS [1809-1878] First Church of England bishop of New Zealand who was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1833. He gained parish experience in Windsor and Eton and was consecrated bishop of New Zealand in 1841 reaching Auckland the following year. Through an error of latitude in his letters patents he claimed his diocese took in much of the Pacific. He made frequent trips to Melanesia and founded a college in New Zealand to train young men from the islands for the proposed mission. In 1861 he was instrumental in making Melanesia a separate diocese under J.C. Patteson [see 1856]. By 1859 when the first general synod met, there were four other bishoprics. Selwyn was a pioneering in the concept of the independence of the Church of England in the colonies. He also supported evangelisation of the Maoris even in the difficult days of the Maori wars. Selwyn was appointed bishop of Lichfield and did much to pioneer industrial chaplaincy work there until his death VAUGHAN, CHARLES JOHN [1816-1897] Dean of Llandaff Wales who studied at Cambridge where he was elected a fellow in 1839. Vaughan was ordained in 1841 and became headmaster of Harrow which flourished as it was well organised under his control. When vicar of Doncaster [1860-1869] he began training young men for the ministry who were known as Vaughans doves continuing this work after he became master of the Temple [1869-1894]. Among his 450 pupils was the future archbishop of Canterbury Randall Davidson [see 1903]. Vaughan was hostile to High Church practices and to the contemporary German critical views of the Bible. He left strict instructions that no biography of him should be written. His Nonconformist sympathies brought him close links with the founding in 1883 of University College, Cardiff. VENN, HENRY [1796-1873] Missionary secretary. He was eldest child of John Venn [see 1783] he became a fellow at Queens College Cambridge and was presented by Wilberforce with the living of Drypool in 1827 before becoming vicar at St Johns Holloway from 1834 to 1846. His greatest work was as secretary of the Church Missionary Society from 1841 until shortly before his death. Venn saw in Matthew 28:19 the emergence of national churches, with marked national characteristics, throughout the world. He believed that missionary policy should thus aim at the quiet death of a mission through the stimulation of self-governing, self-supporting and self propagating churches. His time as secretary of the Church Missionary Society witnessed a vast increase in the number of native clergy and sometimes against missionary opposition in the responsibilities they carried and the beginning of the indigenisation of the episcopate. After his death these policies were drastically modified but never formally abandoned. 1842BAEUR, BRUNO [18091882] German radical scholar who became one of the greatest critics of Christianity arguing that the gospels were the inventions of their authors and that Christianity was the invention of the 2nd century GraecoRoman civilisation. His work received more attention after comments by Albert Schweitzer. GERHART, EMANUEL VOGEL [1817-1904] American Reformed theologian. Ordained in 1842 he served in Pennsylvania and Ohio. He was elected president of Heidelberg College and professor of systematic theology at the Reformed Seminary in Tiffin Ohio from 1851 to 1855. He held other progressive posts and wrote extensively including a systematic theology and the Heidelberg Catechism of 1863. GERMANUS IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1842-1845, 1852-1853] succeeded Anthimus V [see 1841]. In 1826-1830 he was bishop of Vidin, then bishop of Drama until 1835, when he was appointed bishop of Derkoi. He was elected to the patriarchal throne for the first time in 1842, and held the post until 1845, when he was succeeded byMeletius III. Restored to the throne in 1852, he occupied it until his death the next year. During his patriarchy he especially took care of the poor. He founded many churches, schools, libraries and orphanages. His name was particularly associated with the education of the Orthodox clergy, as he was the founder of theTheological School of Halkiin the monastery of the Holy Trinity which produced many theologians, priests, bishops and patriarchs of note. The school operated regularly until 1971 when it was closed by the government. JEWS, MISSIONS TO THE Except under Hadrian, the Jews in the Roman empire down to the reign of Constantine retained their position as a tolerated cult and were therefore more favourably placed than the Christians. In much the same way this happened in the East under the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties. Hence the church tended to be on the defensive against the synagogue and, except for efforts by Hebrew Christians of which we know little, there was little mission to the Jews. During the Reformation and Counter-Reformation some little interest was shown by the Church in the conversion of the Jews but it was not until the Moravians in 1738 and Pietists that this became important. The work of Ezra Edzard [1629-1708], J.H. Callenberg [1694-1760], and A.H. Franke [1663-1723] led to the foundation of the Institution of the Jews at Halle in 1728 and showed a change in interest. A new era began when J. Frey [1771-1851] a Hebrew Christian from Germany came to London. His work led to the founding in 1809 of the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, which is now called the Churchs Ministry among the Jews, as an interdenominational society. In 1842 Free Church supporters of Jewish missions founded the British Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, now the International Jews Society. The first acceptance of responsibility by a church as such was in 1840 by the Church of Scotland. The second generation of missionary societies came into existence in the second half of the 19th century largely as an answer to the westward surge of Eastern European Jews. England gave the lead with most societies being nondenominational. Most important were the Mildmay Mission to the Jews in 1876, the Barbican Mission to the Jews in 1889, and the Hebrew Christian Testimony to Israel in 1893. In America most missionary work was purely local in nature, but in 1894 Leopold Cohn founded the interdenominational American Board of Missions to the Jews which has grown to be the largest Jewish mission in the world. In 1938 The Friends of Israel was established. By the 1970s the Southern Baptists were the only ones active outside of America. The effect of a Holocaust on both Jews and Christians and the coming into being of Israel led to an increasing stress on dialogue, which Vatican II declared to be the policy of the Roman Catholic Church. KINGSLEY, CHARLES [1819-1875] English novelist and Christian Socialist. Educated at Kings College London and Cambridge, Kingsley was ordained in 1842. Although ill-qualified he was professor of modern history at Cambridge from 1862 to 1869 and later held the position of canon at Chester and Westminster. His concerns were educational and sanitary reform, and the extension of the co-operative principle. He was a critic of Tractarianism. Kingsleys novels also generally have some bearing on social issues. KRAUTH, CHARLES PORTERFIELD [18231883]. Lutheran theologian and editor, ordained into the Lutheran ministry in 1842. He served congregations in Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania as a member of the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod. In 1861 he became the editor of the Lutheran and Missionary and three years later was elected professor at Mount Airy Lutheran Seminary. He advocated the Akron and Galesburg rules, stating Lutheran altars for Lutherans only, Lutheran pulpits for Lutherans only. ORIGINAL SECESSION CHURCH More properly The Synod of United Original Seceders this was constituted in Scotland in 1842. It was the union of various groups who were heirs of the secession of 1733 from the Church of Scotland. They rejoined the Church of Scotland in 1956. The original secession had taken place because Ebenezer Erskine [see1740] and others felt inhibited from protesting effectively against abuses in the Church of Scotland, particularly patronage. Later the seceders divided into Burghers and anti-Burghers over the right of taking the Burghers Oath professing the true religion, and the Auld Lichts and the New Lichts over the interpretation of the clauses in the Westminster Confession regarding the civil magistrate. POPE, WILLIAM BURT [1822-1903] Canadian Wesleyan minister born in Nova Scotia and educated in England he was ordained in 1842. Pope travelled in several circuits and established a reputation as a linguist. From 1867 to 1886 he was tutor at Didsbury Wesleyan College, Manchester. In 1875-76 he produced his greatest work A Compendium of Christian Theology in 3 volumes. Impeccably orthodox and the most powerful of all Wesleyan essays in dogmatic theology it undoubtedly held back the impact of critical ideas on English Methodism several decades. Pope died after a long and painful illness. TOWNSEND, HENRY ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1815" \o "1815" 1815 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886" \o "1886" 1886) was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria" \o "Nigeria" Nigeria. Ordained in England in 1842, Townsend set off for Sierra Leone, landing there that same year. After working there only a few months, he was transferred to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_people" \o "Yoruba people" Yoruba mission. From 1846 to 1867, he based his mission in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abeokuta" \o "Abeokuta" Abeokuta. He was the first European person to enter Abeokuta and was given a grand reception. Working with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Ajayi_Crowther" \o "Samuel Ajayi Crowther" Samuel Crowther, a Yoruba Anglican priest, Townsend wrote several HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymns in Yoruba and aided in the compilation of Crowthers Yoruba primer. He retired in 1876. WHITMAN, MARCUS [1802-1847] Presbyterian medical missionary who was born in New York and for eight years practiced medicine in Canada and New York. In 1835 the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions sent him to study the possibility of Indian missions in the American North-west. In 1836 his new bride Narcissa and a small missionary band accompanied him across the Rockies, founding a chain of mission stations in the Walla Walla River Valley. In the autumn of 1842 he began a famous 3000 mile horseback journey to Boston convincing the board to rescind its decision to close part of the work. Whitman returned in 1843 with immigrants to the Oregon Territory. Due to a tragic misunderstanding Cayuse Indians murdered him, his wife, and twelve others in 1847. 1843AGAPEMONISM was a religious movement founded by Henry James Prince [1811-1899] an evangelical perfectionist. He began to make extravagant claims in 1843 which gave the impression that he was claiming to be in some sense an incarnation of God. A community was formed at Spaxton where a huge residence called Agapemone [Abode of Love] was erected. After declining it was revived under J H Smyth-Pigott but when in 1902 he called himself Jesus Christ the movement became unfashionable. ASSUMPTIONISTS Founded by a group of priests with simple vows in Nimes in 1843. The purpose was to restore higher education, to fight the churches enemies, and to fight for unity in the church. They were expelled from France in 1900 by an anticlerical government but spread to many parts of the world. Their work includes care of asylums and schools, the dissemination of literature, and missionary endeavour. CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM [1805-1861] Scottish theologian who was one of the 1843 leaders of the Disruption [see 1843]. He was a learned theologian and controversialist both in theology and matters of the church and a close friend of Charles Hodge [see1841]. DISRUPTION, THE This was the withdrawal of 474 ministers from the Church of Scotland which brought the Free Church of Scotland into existence. The Church of Scotland had been debilitated spiritually for about a century by various secessions. The secessionists were usually people who were deeply concerned about what they felt to be the wrongs of patronage, but the national church could ill afford to lose them. People flocked to the secessionist churches but at the same time the tide of evangelical life and power began to flow more strongly in the state church itself. The Evangelical party found an outstanding leader in Thomas Chalmers and it grew rapidly both in numbers and influence. There was a breath of genuine revival in the air. The General Assembly of 1842 by a large majority, declared that the Church of Scotland must be free to govern itself, and it protested against any attempt by Parliament or the courts to interfere in matters spiritual and ecclesiastical. The movement which led to the Disruption was undoubtedly spiritual at its heart, but it was also an expression of the 19th century swing towards greater democracy. FISKE, FIDELIA [1816-1864] First single woman missionary to Persia. Born in Massachusetts she was the niece of Pliny Fisk, one of the first two missionaries of the American Board to the Near East. She was converted at 15 and joined a Congregational church. The American Board appointed her to Persia in 1843. For 15 years she served in that land, principally among the Nestorian women and girls near Lake Urmia. She directed the first boarding school for girls in Persia. Ill health forced her to return to the USA in 1858 and she hoped to return to Persia but never did. MEDHURST, WALTER HENRY [1796-1857] Missionary to China educated at Hackney College and trained as a printer. He went first to Penang then to Batavia with the London Missionary Society. In 1843 he went to the newly opened Treaty Port of Shanghai which was to be his base until his death. In addition to evangelistic work he had already earned a reputation as a Chinese scholar and became a member of the Bible Society committee commissioned to produce the first union version of the Bible. Medhurst was a prominent figure among early Protestant missionaries to China. METHODIUS Patriarch of Antioch [1843-1859] see also 1813 and 1860. MORISON, JAMES [1816-1893] Founder of the Evangelical Union. He was the son of a Secession minister educated at Edinburgh and licensed to preach in 1839. His views on the universal nature of the Atonement soon led to suspension from the ministry of his denomination and joined by three others including his own father he founded the Evangelical Union in 1843. His remarkable gifts as a preacher drew huge congregations and this continued after he moved to Glasgow to become the first minister of Dundas Street Church with which post he combined the post of principal of the theological hall he established. Initially regarded as a heretic he became one of their most trusted and outstanding theologians of his time, a fact acknowledged by Glasgow University which made him a doctor of divinity in 1883. He was appreciated in America when he visited by the Cumberland Presbyterians [see 1810] who shared his dislike for strict Calvinism. The Evangelical Union joined the Scottish Congregationalists in 1898. SCOTLAND [see also 1559] The question of patronage by the landowners was a constant irritant that caused a number of schisms with the most important and largest being that of the Disruption of 1843 which led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland. After the disappearance of the Scottish Parliament in the Union of 1707, the Church of Scotland became the only popular representative of the Scottish people. Christianity has had a stronger influence upon Scotland than upon most nations. 1844CRAMP, JOHN MOCKETT [1791-1881] Baptist pastor and scholar who in 1844 went to Canada to become president of Montreal Baptist College. In 1851 he became president of Acadia College Nova Scotia. In 1869 he resigned to devote himself to literary work which included writing theological and historical books. EAST AFRICA KENYA Effective preparation for the evangelisation of Kenya began in 1844 with the arrival of J.L. Krapf [see below], a German Lutheran sent out by the Anglican Church Missionary Society (CMS). He began to work in Mombassa and then moved inland to Rabai some 50 kilometres from the sea where he was joined by a colleague John Rebmann in 1846 [see 1846]. Krapf was forced by ill health to return to Europe in 1853 but he continued his linguistic work. Meanwhile the CMS reinforced its staff at Rabai though several died from malaria. In 1861 the United Methodist Church from Britain opened a mission station at Ribe, a few kilometres north of Mombassa and later extended its work up to the Tana River. In 1873 slavery was legally abolished within the Sultanate of Zanzibar, and the CMS established a colony of freed slaves at Freretown on the mainland just north of Mombassa. Work in the hinterland began in 1891. The Imperial British East Africa Company invited the churches of Scotland to send out missionaries to Kenya. The original site which was chosen proved to be a bad one with the Rev Thomas Watson being the sole survivor of this party. He moved to a location near present day Nairobi. In 1895 the Africa Inland Mission was formed by Peters Scott entered Kenya, and began to work among the Kamba people at Machakos in 1902. Other missions such as the Friends Africa Mission and the Seventh-Day Adventist Church moved up to stations in western Kenya, and Anglican missionaries entered West Kenya from Uganda and began church, educational, and medical work in that area. The modern history of Roman Catholic missionary work in Kenya began with the arrival of Holy Ghost Fathers, who were French in origin, in Mombassa in 1892. In 1924 the Kenya Missionary Council was established and finally the Christian Council of Kenya in 1943 to which almost all non-Roman Catholic churches and missions belong. Most of the missions have now been handed over to indigenous African churches, which have arisen out of their work and have now assumed control of the work formerly carried out by these missions. FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND A reformed and Protestant church established in 1844 in reaction to the doctrines and development of the Oxford movement [see 1833] in the Church of England. Its constitution was formally registered in 1863. It is pledged to the Thirty Nine Articles, and its Prayer Book is, for all practical purposes, the 1689 revision of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, a revision acceptable at the time to Puritans, but not adopted by the Anglican Church. The existence of a vigorous evangelical wing in the Church of England has militated against the development of the Free Church of England, but it has persisted in the face of many difficulties. GOVETT, ROBERT [1813-1901] English theological writer who was educated Oxford and ordained as an Anglican in 1836. His preaching attracted great crowds until in 1844 he confessed that he had forced his conscience on the matter of infant baptism and resigned his curacy and fellowship. Most the congregation left the Church of England and made Govett their pastor and by 1848 he had baptised some 400 former Anglicans. The Surrey Chapel, in Norwich, was opened in 1854, and Govett ministered to the end of the century. Govetts writing was extensive and complete in its faithfulness to biblical revelation. Much concerned with eschatology, he held that the book of Revelation is to be understood literally. HUC, ABBE [1813-1860] Missionary to China. During the period after the Opium Wars there was significant persecution of the Roman Catholics. However, starting in 1844 and continuing for three years Huc and Father Gabet, French Lazarists, undertook a remarkable journey from Peking through Mongolia and Tibet to Lhasa and back to Canton. They were protected by wearing Mandarin dress and the crimson sash that signified kingship to the emperor. Everywhere they found terror-stricken little groups of Christians and nearly succeeded in establishing a mission in Lhasa itself. The famous account of his journeying stimulated fresh interest in many abroad in Christian missions to China. KRAPF, JOHANN LUDWIG [1810-1881] Pioneer missionary to Kenya, educated at Tubingen, he was a pastor for a short time before offering to the Anglican Church Missionary Society in 1838. Initially sent to Abyssinia he was transferred to Mombasa in 1844 where he laid his wife and newborn child in a lonely missionary grave. He took a house in Mombasa and studied Swahili into which he translated the New Testament and produced a standard dictionary and grammar. In 1846 he was joined by fellow German Lutheran, Johannes Rebmann [see 1846], and they moved to Rabai about 10 miles inland from Mombasa to work among the Wanyika. They made several important journeys of exploration inland. In 1853 Krapf had to return to Europe due to ill health but he maintained his interest in East Africa and continued important linguistic work. He did return on a couple of occasions to Africa before he died. LATIN AMERICA [see also 1735 and 1916] Protestant missionary activity. A milestone of the Protestant missions was the founding of the Patagonian Missionary Society, later renamed The South American Missionary Society, by an Anglican sea captain Allen Gardner in 1844. This was the first missionary of the aggressive evangelistic type. The British and Foreign Bible Society and the American Bible Society representatives such as James Thompson [1798-1854] and many more were active. Presbyterian churches were planted by missionaries David Trumbull [1819-1889] in Chile in 1868 and H.B. Pratt in Colombia in 1865. William Taylor [1821-1902] stressed the need for self-supporting missions and was an outstanding pioneer of Methodist work in Chile, Peru, and Central America. In 1882 J.H.L. Ewen of Great Britain, travelling through Argentina in a horse-drawn Bible Coach planted Plymouth Brethren assemblies there. Interdenominational work began when the American Board of Commissioners of the Foreign Missions sent workers to Mexico between 1860 and 1880, and when C.I. Scofield [see 1909] founded the Central American Mission in 1890, pioneering the work in almost every one of the Central American republics. Lack of religious liberty and harsh persecution from Roman Catholics severely hindered Protestant missions during this period. OIKONOMOS, CONSTANTINE [1780-1857] Greek scholar and theologian who was a keen patriot who was strongly opposed to Western influences in Greek life which had assumed increased importance in the 18th and 19th centuries. His most notable achievement was a massive four volume study of the Septuagint in over 3700 pages published in Athens [1844-1849]. The SOUTH AMERICAN MISSION SOCIETY was founded at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brighton" \o "Brighton" Brighton in 1844 as the Patagonian Mission. Captain HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Gardiner" \o "Allen Gardiner" Allen Gardiner, R.N., was the first secretary. The name Patagonian Mission was retained for twenty years, when the new title was adopted. The name of the organisation was changed after the death of Captain Gardiner, who died of starvation in 1851 on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picton_Island" \o "Picton Island" Picton Island in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America" \o "South America" South America, waiting for a supply ship from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England. Gardiner thought that the original mission should be expanded from southern South America ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia" \o "Patagonia" Patagonia) to all of South America. The Societys purpose is to recruit, send, and support HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" \o "Mission (Christian)" Christian missionaries in South America. In 1860 Allen Gardiner, Jr. established a second mission station at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lota,_Chile" \o "Lota, Chile" Lota, Chile, and later won important official concessions against the incumbent Catholic clergy. This was the first of many successful missions that the South American Missionary Society founded on mainland South America. There are nationally based organisations in Great Britain, Ireland, Canada, and the United States. STERN, HENRY AARON [1820-1885] Missionary to the Jews. Stern was born to Jewish parents in Germany and educated at Frankfurt. At seventeen he began a commercial career in Hamburg but became interested in Christianity and was baptised in London in 1840. He trained as a missionary at the College of the London Jews Society and in 1844 he sailed for Baghdad and worked amongst the Jews and Muslims in Asia Minor and Persia until 1853 when he was transferred to Constantinople. In 1858-59 he went on missionary journeys to the Crimea and Arabia and then joined J.M. Flad [see 1868] in his work and among the Falasha Jews in Ethiopia. Later he incurred the hostility of the eccentric King Theodore. He was imprisoned and tortured [1863-1867] together with Flad and other Europeans. Flad was eventually released and an expeditionary force under Sir Robert Napier defeated Theodore who committed suicide. Stern and others were liberated and returned to England where the remaining years of his active ministry was spent in London where he wrote and distributed literature among the Jews and became famous for his missionary sermons. THOMAS, OWEN [1812-1891] Welsh Calvinistic Methodist minister and author who was the son of a stonemason and followed his fathers craft. When the family moved to Bangor in 1827 he entered Bala College in 1838, and completed his studies at the University of Edinburgh. He was ordained in 1844 and after serving several pastorates he moved to Liverpool in 1865 and spent the remainder of his ministry there. He was an outstanding figure in the life of Welsh evangelical local churches in the Victorian Age. He was a firm defender of Calvinism in the moderate form that derived from the thinking of Dr Edward Williams. He was an extensive writer and his greatest achievement was the huge biography of John Jones [1796-1857] published in 1874 which is also a biography of Welsh evangelicalism in the first half of the 19th century. WILLIAMS, SIR GEORGE [1821-1905] Founder of the Young Mens Christians Association [see below]. This son of a farmer and apprentice to a draper was converted through reading the works of C.G. Finney [see 1821] and joined the local Congregational church. In 1841 he went to work in London in a drapers shop and later rose to be a partner in the firm. In 1844 a meeting of twelve young men in Williams room is generally recognised as marking the foundation of the London YMCA. He was the major power behind the expansion of this international movement. Williams was an evangelist, temperance advocate, and social reformer as well as a businessman, and was knighted in 1894. YOUNG MENS CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION The YMCA appears to have had independent beginnings in several European countries but its origin is traditionally ascribed to George Williams [see above] and his meetings in London in 1844. The early decades were not untroubled and Williamsons primacy and single-minded purposefulness were often resented by British and foreign colleagues alike. It was criticised at various times for being either too broad or too narrow, particularly in its prohibition of games and smoking, the YMCA gradually overcome prejudice and added recreational relief work to its original evangelistic concerns. In the world wars with its symbol of the red triangle it provided especially for the needs of soldiers, the wounded, and prisoners of war. 1845AMERICAN SOUTHERN METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodist missionary society operated by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_South" \o "Methodist Episcopal Church, South" Methodist Episcopal Church, South that was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. ANTHIMUS VI Patriarch of Constantinople [1845-48, 1853-55, 1871-73] who succeeded Meletius III [see below]. He was the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople for three periods from 1845 to 1848, from 1853 to 1855 and from 1871 to 1873. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kutali_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Kutali Island (page does not exist)" Kutali Island in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea" \o "Aegean Sea" Aegean Sea and died in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kandilli&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Kandilli (page does not exist)" Kandilli. Before becoming a patriarch, Anthimus was a monk at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esphigmenou_Monastery" \o "Esphigmenou Monastery" Esphigmenou monastery in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Athos" \o "Mount Athos" Mount Athos. In 1845 he expanded the monastery, adding two HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapels" \o "Chapels" chapels, a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibule_(Architecture)" \o "Vestibule (Architecture)" vestibule and a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porch" \o "Porch" porch to it. ARTEMIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1845-1847] see 1825 and 1847. BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN [17621860] German leader of the Tubingen School which criticised Christianity and the Bible. He had an antisupernatural and antitheistic interpretation of history and Christian origins. He was much influenced by Hegel. He believed that the only genuine letters of Paul were Romans, Galatians and the two books of Corinthians because of their anti Judaizing sentiments including the rejection of the law, circumcision and their wider conception of God. BUCHANAN, JAMES [1804-1870] Scottish evangelical theologian who studied at Glasgow and in 1828 was inducted into the large and influential parish of North Leith where his evangelical preaching attracted great crowds. At the 1843 disruption, in common with most fellow evangelicals, he left the established church and became minister of St Stephens Free Church Edinburgh. In 1845 he was appointed professor of apologetics at New College and two years later succeeded Thomas Chalmers [see 1815] in the chair of systematic theology. CAIRNS, JOHN [18181892] The most outstanding United Presbyterian leader of his time. He was brought up among Seceders the son of a border shepherd and ordained in 1845 where he ministered at Berwick on Tweed for thirty years. He became professor of theology at Edinburgh in 1876. It is said that because of his personality and character his death called forth a manifestation of public feeling such as does not occur twice in one generation. CANDLISH, ROBERT [18061873] Scottish minister who was one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance in 1845 and its moderator in 1861. He left the Church of Scotland at the Disruption [see 1843] to form the Free Church of Scotland. In his Cunningham lectures of 1861 he disagreed with F D Maurices [see 1838] view of the universal fatherhood of God. He was not universally accepted for his theology particularly within his denomination. CARLYLE, THOMAS [1795-1881] Scottish writer who was the son of a peasant farmer who was concerned about social conditions which in his concept required strong just men to emerge and sort out the problems. He produced two massive works on Oliver Cromwell [1845] and Frederick the Great [1858-65]. He admired the Puritans and Covenanters but it is sad that he became disillusioned in his Latter-Day Pamphlets. CYRIL II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1845-1872] see 1827 and 1872. DARBY, JOHN NELSON [1800-1882] Plymouth Brethren leader who was born into a distinguished Anglo Irish family. Darby had a distinguished career at Trinity College Dublin and after graduation in 1819 was called to the Irish Chancery Bar in 1822. Ordained three years later and serving in a parish in County Wicklow he became uneasy about church establishment and startled the country in 1827 with his tract On the Nature and Unity of the Church of Christ. Resigning his curacy the same year he associated with a group meeting in Dublin for communion and prayer and quickly assumed leadership because of his teaching gift and his powerful and attractive personality. From 1830 he often made preaching trips to the Continent. In 1845 Darby broke with B. W. Newton [see 1847] in Plymouth through disagreements on prophecy and ecclesiology and later led the attack on Newton on heresy charges that forced the 1848 division of the brethren into Open and Exclusive groups. Darby later travelled to North America, the West Indies, and New Zealand. Though not the founder of the so-called Plymouth Brethren he was undoubtedly the most gifted teacher at the beginning. GOBAT, SAMUEL [1799-1879] Bishop of Jerusalem. French-speaking Protestant who entered Basle Mission Societys school in 1821 where he showed considerable linguistic skills. He studied Arabic in Paris and transferred to the English Church Missionary Society for service in Ethiopia. He spent two terms there in the 1830s then went to Malta to do translation work. In 1845 the Lutheran Gobat was ordained into the Anglican church and a year later King Frederick William IV appointed him to the joint English-Prussian bishopric of Jerusalem. In Palestine he founded hospitals, schools, and orphanages, and brought in German workers to assist in his ministry. He came under pressure through his work with the Orthodox Church. After his death Prussia withdrew its support from the bishopric, leaving it purely an Anglican post. HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON [1810-1877] German Lutheran theologian who is widely regarded as the most significant theologian representing the Erlangen School which is a modified form of Lutheran orthodoxy. He taught there from 1845 laying great emphasis on biblical exegesis which he coupled with stress on Christian experience. The latter is expressed historically in salvation history, of which Scripture is the record prior and subsequent to the coming of Christ. HUNT, JOHN [1812-1848] English missionary to Fiji who was born into a farming family in Lincolnshire and had little formal schooling. Converted in a Methodist meeting at 17 he educated himself and preached in various chapels. After being ordained in 1838 he sailed to Fiji as a missionary where he stressed Bible translation and the training of indigenous pastors. As he was a strong enthusiast for the doctrine of entire sanctification his preaching sparked a revival in 1845. The rigours of extensive travelling in visiting the scattered Fijian congregations led to his early death. His translation of the Scriptures were published posthumously, the New Testament in 1853 and the whole Bible finally being published in 1864. MELETIUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1845] succeeded Germanus IV [see 1842]. There is no additional information readily available. NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY [1801-1890] Tractarian and cardinal. Born into a family of Evangelicals, this was the strongest influence upon him until entering Oxford in 1817. He gradually relinquished evangelicalism under the influence of R. Whatley [see 1831] who impressed upon him the divine appointment of the church, and Hawkins who taught him to value tradition. E.B. Pusey [see 1828], J. Keble [see 1833], and above all R.H. Froud [see 1831] took him further into High Church beliefs. He became vicar at St Marys University Church at Oxford and issued a number of tracts attempting a reconciliation between the 39 Articles and Romanism. He came under widespread criticism, and his researches into the early church resulted in his book The Arians of the Fourth Century, and also led to doubts about the Church of England which were raised again in 1839 when he was studying the Monophysite controversy. He resigned from St Marys in 1843 and joined the Roman Catholic church in 1845. In 1864 in response to a personal attack upon him by Charles Kingsley [see 1842] Newman replied in a paper which again brought him into prominence. In 1879 he was made a cardinal. His influence within both the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church has been immense. His hymn Praise to the Holiest in the height is still frequently sung. OOSTERZEE, JAN JAKOB VAN [1817-1882] Dutch Reformed minister who was educated at Utrecht and by 1862 had served several churches in Alkmaar. Well known as a pulpit orator and evangelical leader he taught practical theology at Utrecht. His writing career began in 1845 as editor of a theological journal. Oosterzee published a number of works which covered the full range of pastoral and teaching expertise. PORTUGAL [see also 1614] Protestantism did not effectively reach Portugal until 1845 when meetings were commenced simultaneously in Lisbon and Oporto. Since then a large variety of missionary agencies have been active and the progress of the reformed faith has been similar to that in Spain, with English Methodism playing a more active role. Since 1917 popular devotion in the country has been enormously strengthened by the cult of our Lady of Fatima. This, which is now the hallmark of Portuguese Catholicism, began in a small town in the middle of the country in May 1917 when three poor children are alleged to have seen a vision of the virgin on six occasions. The cult which had the accompanying miraculous cures were first frowned on by the church but from 1930 have been officially favoured and Our Lady of Fatima is now identified, unofficially at least, as the queen of Portugal. SAKER, ALFRED [1814-1880] Missionary to the Cameroon. Saker was an engineer and joined the Baptist Mission which left Jamaica to work among the liberated slaves in Fernando Po in 1843. In Cameroon in 1845 he founded Bethel Station, giving himself to preaching, teaching, and translation. When the Spanish authorities stopped Protestant worship on Fernando Po in 1858, Saker with ninety families founded a settlement in Victoria on Cameroons mainland. He introduced crafts and building work and completed the Douala Bible in 1872. He also made the first ascent of Cameroons Mountain [13,352 ft] with Sir Richard Burton. Retiring to England in failing health in 1876 Saker encouraged the founding of the Baptist Missionary Society Congo Mission in his closing years. SALMON, GEORGE [1819-1904] Anglican minister who was the son of a Protestant linen merchant of Cork. Salmon had a brilliant career at Trinity College Dublin where he spent much of his life as professor and provost. He was ordained into the Church of Ireland in 1845. Salmon pursued two separate academic disciplines, he was internationally recognised as a mathematician, he was also widely known for his theological writings. Strongly Protestant he co-operated with Archbishop Whately [see 1831] in Cautions for the Times an answer to the Tractarians [see 1833]. He later questioned successfully many of the questionable parts of Horts Greek New Testament text. SOUTHERN BAPTIST CONVENTION is an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist" \o "Southern Baptist" Southern Baptist missionary society founded in 1845 which was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. Its most famous missionary was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottie_Moon" \o "Lottie Moon" Lottie Moon. [see 1873] TACHE, ALEXANDER ANTONIN [1823-1894] Canadian Roman Catholic bishop who was born in Quebec and educated at Montral and in 1844 became a member of the Oblate Order being ordained in 1845. Tache was sent as a missionary to the Red River area of Manitoba. He became the second bishop of St Boniface in 1853 and was created archbishop there in 1871. He helped restore order during the Riel Rebellion in 1869- 70. He was also a leader in the Manitoba separate-school struggle. WILBUR, JOHN [1774-1856] Quaker preacher who became minister of the Society of Friends in 1812. Wilber was known as a rugged and effective speaker. On a preaching tour of the British Isles [1831-1833] he zealously opposed the evangelical movements entering Quakerism under the leadership of Joseph Gurney, Elizabeth Frys brother. When Gurney preached in America [1837-1838], Wilber opposed him and was expelled, becoming leader in 1845 of some 500 separatists. 1846AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant-based HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolitionist" \o "Abolitionist" abolitionist group founded on in 1846 in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany,_New_York" \o "Albany, New York" Albany, New York. The main purpose of this organisation was to eliminate HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery" \o "Slavery" slavery, to educate HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American" \o "African American" African Americans, to promote racial equality, and to promote HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian values. Its members and leaders were of both races and chiefly affiliated with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregationalist" \o "Congregationalist" Congregationalist, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodist and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian churches. From the beginning the leadership was integrated: the first board was made up of 12 men, four of them black. Members of the AMA started their support of education for blacks before the Civil War, but their pace of founding schools and colleges increased during and afterward. Freedmen and sympathizers alike believed that education was a priority. Altogether, the AMA founded more than five hundred schools and colleges for the freedmen of the South during and after the Civil War, spending more money for that purpose than the Freedmens Bureau of the federal government. While the AMA became notable in the United States with its work in opposition to slavery and in support of education for freedmen, it also worked in missions in numerous nations overseas. BUCHAN, ELSPETH [17831846] The founder of the most bizarre Scottish sect, the Buchanites [see 1820] died in 1846. She claimed to be the Holy Spirit and the woman clothed in the sun of the Revelation. BURNS, WILLIAM [18151888] Scottish Presbyterian missionary to China who studied at Aberdeen and was licensed to preach in 1839. After a successful evangelistic ministry in Scotland, Ireland, and Canada he went to China in 1846. He studied Chinese, adopted native dress and laboured for many years and whilst not visibly successful inspired Hudson Taylor [see 1865] for a ministry in China. He translated Pilgrims Progress and some hymns into Chinese and died in a remote spot he had chosen to visit because of its destitution. DABNEY, ROBERT [1820-1898] He was a young contemporary of J. H. Thornwell and is generally regarded as the second great theologian of the Southern Presbyterian Church. He graduated from the University of Virginia in 1842, and in 1844 entered the Union Seminary, was licensed to preach in 1846 before becoming Minister of the Tinkling Springs Presbyterian Church in 1881. He took a prominent part in the formation of the Southern Presbyterian Church. From 1861 he served as chaplain, then as chief of staff to Stonewall Jackson. He played a prominent role in the foundation of Austin Theological Seminary. In 1870 he published his Syllabus and Notes of the Course of Systematic and Polemic Theology Taught in the Union Seminary in Virginia, which revised and re-issued in 1878 went through six editions until 1927. EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE [see 1951] which was formed in 1846 after Christian leaders had felt the need to present a more united front in the face of political upheaval in Europe. It was stressed at the inaugural conference in London that those present had not met to create a Christian union, but to confess the unity which the Church of Christ possessed as his body. One of the first difficulties encountered was a difference of opinion within the ranks regarding the rights and wrongs of slavery. In the course of the first century of its existence the Alliance concentrated its attention on a number of different projects, including the relief of persecuted Protestant minorities, the promotion of a united week of prayer throughout the world during the first full week of January, the defence of biblical Christianity, and the promotion of missionary work. FERRETTI, SALVATORE [1817-1874] Organiser of the Evangelical Italian church in London. A man of great faith and deep humanity, in 1846 he founded a school in London to save poor Italian children from the exploitation of other Italians who used them to beg in the city and cruelly ill treated them. The school, which he supported, gave private lessons in Italian and was put under the auspices of the Society for the religious care and instruction of foreigners which had been founded by Lord Shaftesbury. Returning to Italy in 1861 he founded an orphanage for girls in Florence, which is still in existence. GAIRDNER, JAMES [1828-1912] Scottish historian and records scholar. He worked as a clerk and an editor in the Public Record Office, London from 1846 to 1893. Always strongly Protestant in his outlook, he also sought to be objective in his editing and writing. He wrote a number of books closing his career with the four volume work on Lollardy and the Reformation in England. MENDELSSOHN BARTHOLDY, FELIX [1809-1847] Musical composer who was born into a cultured Jewish family that turned to the Lutheran Church. He was talented not only in music but also art. He presented Bachs St Matthew Passion in 1829, the first time since the composers death and this marked the beginning of the revival of Bachs great legacy of choral music. Mendelssohns oratorio Elijah was written for the Birmingham Festival in 1846 and is one of the greatest 19th-century oratorios. Extracts of his music are often used as service music and his setting of Psalm 43 for unaccompanied chorus is a fine piece of its kind. NEALE, JOHN MASON [1818-1866] Anglican scholar and hymn writer who was educated at Cambridge and although his parents were Evangelicals he adopted High Church ideals. Lifelong ill-health prevented him in 1843 from accepting a living at Crawley in Sussex but in 1846 he assumed the wardenship of Sackville College East Grinstead, a refuge for needy old men. There he remained the rest of his life. His ritualism caused the bishop of Chichester to inhibit him for many years. Despite bitter Protestant opposition, Neale founded for the education of girls and the care of the sick the Sisterhood of St Margaret at Rotherfield in 1854. Among his many hymns are translations including All glory, laud, and honour, Good King Wenceslas and O come, O come, Immanuel. PIUS IX Pope [1846-1878]. He was archbishop of Spoleto in 1827 and bishop of Imola five years later before his election as pope. He enjoyed the longest reign as pontiff and oversaw the revival of the Roman Catholic Church in the 19th century. Two major events dominated his reign, the end of papal temporal power and the first Vatican Council in 1869-1870. Pius experienced revolution personally in the Revolution of 1848-49 when he was forced to flee Rome. French troops restored him in April 1850 and occupied Rome for most of the next twenty years. However uprisings and the Sardinian Italian invasions in 1859-60 and 1870 terminated the papal temporal power over the Papal States. He constructively promoted Ultramontane renewal of his spiritual power by defining in 1854 the Immaculate Conception of Mary which encouraged wide popular Catholic revival among the faithful as did the promulgation of Papal Infallibility in 1870 and the convening of the Vatican Council in the same year. He re-established hierarchies in a number of countries and in the process Pius IX achieved a church remarkably independent from state domination. He succeeded Gregory XVI [see 1831] and was succeeded by Leo XIII [see 1878]. REBMANN, JOHANNES [1819-1876] German missionary to East Africa. Born in Wittenberg and trained at Basle, Rebmann was sent to East Africa by the Church Missionary Society in 1846. With J.L. Krapf [see 1844] he established the Rabia Mpia mission among the Nykia. Rebmann took several exploratory journeys and was the first European to see Kilimanjaro in 1848. He prepared a map which helped inspire the Burton and Speke expedition of 1857. His linguistic studies in three vernaculars laid firm foundations for future workers. After 1855 he was alone at Rabia Mpia except for a brief period. In 1875 Rebmann returned to Europe blind and broken in health. His death coincided with the effective entry of the Church Missionary Society into East Africa. ROSMINI, ANTONIO [1797-1855] Italian philosopher and founder of the order of the Sisters of Providence. He was ordained a priest in 1821 and despite his early conservative views became the author of many significant progressive works dealing with various aspects of philosophy, politics, law, economics, and natural science. In 1846 Rosmini denounced the insufficient education of the clergy, the divisions among bishops, and the riches of the church. With Gioberti [see 1833] he hoped for a confederation of the states of Italy under the leadership of the pope. SCRIVENER, FREDERICK HENRY AMBROSE [1813-1891] New Testament scholar who was educated at Cambridge and taught for 10 years at Kings School Sherborne and was headmaster of Falmouth School from 1846 to 1856 and later prebendary of Exeter 1874 to 1891. Throughout his entire working life he studied New Testament texts and published the texts of 20 manuscripts and listed all known manuscripts. He was an ardent supporter of the Textus Receptus in opposition to Wescott and Hort text used in the Revised Version. He failed to convince other scholars of his view. SPITTLER, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH [1782-1867] Swiss German mission founder. He helped to establish the Basel Mission Society in 1815 and during the 1820s sought to organise a work in Greece. His principle achievement was the St. Chrischoma Pilgrim Mission which was founded in 1840. He founded a missionary training school for skilled craftsmen in a church near Basle and its graduates first ministered among German immigrants in America. After 1846 the primary field became Palestine. Inspired by Samuel Gobat [see 1845] in Jerusalem, Spittler tried to extend his work to the Ethiopia but this was unsuccessful. After his death the mission opened a China field in cooperation with Hudson Taylor [see 1865]. THOMPSON, WILLIAM (Lord Kelvin) [1824-1907] Physicist who was educated at Cambridge and in 1846 was appointed professor of natural philosophy at Glasgow holding the chair there for 53 years and becoming the leader of science in his generation. He made numerous discoveries; he was co-founder with J.P. Joule and others of the science of thermodynamics; he was the originator of the absolute [Kelvin] scale of temperature; founder of geophysics; inventor of numerous electrical instruments; pioneer of the first Atlantic cable in 1858 and of electrical power transmission. In early life he was inspired by Faraday; his early research originated in the desire to discover when God had created the world. Kelvins character was exemplary, he was modest, never claimed priority in discovery, took special delight in the praising the work of others, even the most junior, and treated assistants and students with the same deference as fellow professors. He was deeply interested in and knowledgeable about the Bible and from 1860 was often involved in courteous controversy with geologists and materialistic evolutionists on topics relevant to the Christian faith. TRENCH, RICHARD CHEVENIX [1807-1886] Archbishop of Dublin who was educated at Cambridge, ordained in 1832, and was professor of divinity at Kings College London from 1846 to 1858, and dean of Westminster from 1856 to 1863. Trench went to Dublin in 1863 as the archbishop and there he opposed unsuccessfully the disestablishment of the Irish Church but did much to settle the church after the legislation had been passed before he retired in 1884. WHITE, ELLEN GOULD [1827-1915] She was the most prominent leader of the Seventh-day Adventists Church. Born in Maine she received almost no formal education because of poor health. Her parents were devout Methodists but in the 1840s embraced William Millers [see 1833] Advent preaching and were disbarred from the church. Millers preaching and Mrs Whites testimony of her own revelations formed the beginning of the Seventh-day Adventists Church, which stresses a strong prophetic and eschatological note as well as health reform. She married Elder James White in 1846. In 1855 they moved to Battle Creek Michigan where the church headquarters came to be located after her husbands death in 1881. She spent some time in Europe and Australia and was a prolific writer. 1847BEECHER, HENRY WARD [18131887] Congregational pastor was the son of Lyman Beecher [see 1832]. He was ordained by the New School Presbytery of Cincinnati in 1838 and eventually became pastor of the Plymouth Church of Brooklyn [18471887]. He was a witty and dramatic preacher and was politically active. He did not believe in a literal hell and accepted evolution which caused criticism but none so great as an unproved adultery charge which overshadowed his later years. BRADBURY, WILLIAM [18161868] American hymn tune writer who edited over 50 Sunday School and choir music books. By age fourteen he had mastered every musical instrument available, but never saw an organ or a piano until 1830, when his parents moved to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston" \o "Boston" Boston. He studied in Boston under Summer Hill and Lowell Mason [see below], and became a music instructor and organist in New York where he gained popularity by his free singing-schools, and by his concerts, at which the performers, all children, sometimes numbered 1,000. He studied in Leipzig for two years from 1847 and was criticised for treating music as a business rather than being a performer. He wrote the tunes to Just as I am and He leadeth me. DESANCTIS, LUIGI [1808-1869] Parish priest in Rome who was a Protestant pastor and theologian. Perturbed by the moral and doctrinal corruption of the church, he went through a long spiritual crisis and finally leaving the Roman Catholic Church took refuge in Malta in 1847. After a stay in Geneva from 1850-1852 as evangelist to the Italian exiles he was ordained pastor in their Waldensian church and sent to Turin where his presence gave a great impulse to the community. He joined A. Gavazzi [see 1863], attracted by his dream of founding a national Italian church, but finally returned to the Waldensians moving to France and lecturing in their faculty of theology. ENGLISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_of_England" \o "Presbyterian Church of England" Presbyterian Church of England resolved to establish a mission in China in 1847. The Rev. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Chalmers_Burns" \o "William Chalmers Burns" William Chalmers Burns was sent out to China residing first at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong" \o "Hong Kong" Hong Kong and then at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoy" \o "Amoy" Amoy. Ten years later he was joined by the Rev.George Smith. Burns laid the foundation of what became one of the most extensive and prosperous Christian missions in the Chinese Empire. Its principal centres were HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shantou" \o "Shantou" Shantou, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiamen" \o "Xiamen" Amoy, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan" \o "Taiwan" Taiwan. It had several establishments, combining churches, mission houses, hospitals, and schools and was well funded. The senior missionaries in the field were Rev. H. L. Mackenzie of Shantou, and Rev. W. McGregor of Amoy. This Society was greatly aided by a womens association, by which female agents were sent out from England. Several of these had certificates for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwifery" \o "Midwifery" midwifery, and possessed a general practical knowledge of medicine, being thus able to alleviate the sufferings of the native women to a very considerable degree. In 1890 it had one hundred and six stations in China and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore" \o "Singapore" Singapore, and employed fifteen ordained missionaries and medical workers. GEDDIE, JOHN [1815-1872] Pioneer Presbyterian missionary to the New Hebrides. Born in Scotland his family migrated to Nova Scotia in 1816. He became interested in missions at a very early age. After ordination he was instrumental in getting his small denomination to undertake a mission on its own. He became its first missionary, sailing from the USA in January 1847. As founder of the New Hebrides Mission, he laboured amid great difficulty on the island of Aneityum. After his death in 1872, a memorial was placed in the mission church with these words When he landed in 1848 there were no Christians here, and when he left in 1872 there were no heathen. GRAY, ROBERT [1809-1872] First Anglican bishop of Cape Town who was consecrated in 1847. He found South African Anglicanism weak and disorganised. Under his leadership it developed into the Church of the Province of South Africa, an independent, disestablished province of the Anglican Communion with five dioceses by 1870. However this was not achieved without difficulty and involved conflict and the case of J.W. Colenso [see 1853] leading to litigation. Despite poor health Gray travelled widely in his diocese and overseas enlisting recruits and raising money. He favoured the appointment of missionary bishops to un-evangelised areas and inspired the formation of the Universities Mission to Central Africa. HIEROTHEUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1847-1858] see 1845 and 1858. MASON, LOWELL [1792-1872] American composer who as an amateur church musician became perhaps the greatest single influence in Protestant church music in the United States during the 19th century. He edited and published a great number of collections of hymn tunes and simple anthems and devoted much of his energy to music education and the betterment of church music. MONOD, ADOLPHE [1802-1856] The greatest French Protestant preacher of the 19th century who was the leader of a powerful orthodox movement within the Reformed Church and other churches. At first Monod shunned the Geneva revival promoted by his brother Frederick [see 1832]. Contacts with the Scot, Thomas Erskine [see 1870], led him to conversion and acceptance of orthodox theology. His greatest influence was reached while pastor of the prestigious Oratoire Church in Paris [1847-1856]. His published sermons were very popular in France and abroad. NEWTON, BENJAMIN WILLS [1807-1899] Early Plymouth Brethren leader. Born into a Quaker family he trained at Oxford where he was also influenced by John Darby [see 1845] who came on a visit. Newton began his ministry in Plymouth and travelled throughout the county preaching. In 1835 he was used in the conversion of his cousin S.P. Tregelles [see 1857] the textual critic to whose researches he gave generous financial aid. Newton and Darby differed over prophetical interpretation and church order and in 1847 Newton was charged with heresy through some teaching on Christs humanity. Newton withdrew the doctrine. He ministered for many years in a chapel at Bayswater. An austere man of Calvinistic views and high personal honour, Newton influenced many leading ministers of his time. NITZSCH, KARL IMMANUEL [1787-1868] German Lutheran theologian who was educated at Wittenberg and became assistant preacher at the Castle Church there in 1811. In 1822 he was called to a chair of theology at the University of Bonn and in 1847 succeeded P.K. Marheineke as professor of theology at Berlin. As a theologian he represented a position that sought to mediate between the culture of the early 19th century and the tradition of historical Christianity. He stressed the immediacy of religious feeling as the basis of religious knowledge, uniting elements of Schleiermachers [see 1804] theology with classical Protestant dogmatics. PARK, EDWARDS AMASA [1808-1900] American Congregational theologian and professor of Christian theology at Andover Theological Seminary from 1847 to 1881 where he helped to found and edit Bibliotheca Sacra. Unlike Charles Hodge who fused Edwards to Scottish philosophy, Park allied divine sovereignty to the theology of the heart. PERRY, CHARLES [1807-1891] First Church of England bishop of Melbourne, Australia, who was educated at Cambridge where he was influenced by Charles Simeon [see 1782]. He gained pastoral experience by creating the new parish of St Pauls in Cambridge where he was vicar for five years from 1842. In 1847 he was chosen as first bishop of the new colony of Victoria. On his arrival in Melbourne there were only three colonial chaplains. During the gold rushes of the 1850s he found great difficulty in supplying clergy or churches to a vastly increased population. Perrys evangelical convictions assisted him to involve the laity and his conference of 1851 was the first its kind in Australia. He resigned from his diocese in 1876 and became a canon of Llandaff Cathedral. He played an important part in many evangelical societies and in the foundation of Evangelical theological colleges in Oxford and Cambridge. QUIMBY, PHINEAS PARKHURST [1802-1866] Founder of Christian Science and mental healing movement in America. He abandoned clock making to become a mesmerist after hearing the lectures of Charles Poyen in 1838. By 1847 he forsook mesmerism for mental healing, and established a settled practice in Portland Maine in 1849. He felt all disease arose in the mind and that it came mostly from erroneously attributing illness to physical causes. Quimbys philosophy became the foundation of Christian Science [see 1866] which was his term for properly understanding the relation between the divine and the human. Based on his treatment and manuscripts, his patient and disciple M.B. Eddy [see 1877] practiced his methods after his death and in 1875 established Christian Science as a distinct religion. ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM [1816-1853] Anglican preacher educated at Edinburgh and Oxford who became vicar of Trinity Chapel Brighton where in the six years before his death he established a reputation as a preacher equal to that of any man in the 19th century. Robertson began as an evangelical but the practice of some of those professing this view of Christianity during his first year as curate did much to drive him from any sympathy with them. He nonetheless brought evangelical passion to his beliefs and preaching. His views were closely aligned to the Christian Socialism under F.D. Maurice [see 1838]. SHORT, AUGUSTUS [1802-1883] He was the first Church of England bishop of Adelaide. Short was educated at Oxford where he became a tutor in 1829 and was influenced by the Tractarians. In 1835 he accepted a living in Ravensthorpe and in 1847 became bishop of Adelaide, Australia. On his arrival he found five clergy and by 1851 all state aid was discontinued so he reorganised his diocese as a voluntary body in 1855. In 1856 the creation of the diocese of Perth relieved him of oversight of Western Australia. He retired in 1881 and died in Eastbourne, England. 1848BOWEN, GEORGE [18161888] American missionary who was called the White Saint of India. After an irreligious youth he was converted after the death of his sweetheart in 1844. Appointed to the Marathi Mission by the American Board in 1848 he served in the Bombay area for 40 years as a self supporting missionary, unmarried and without furlough. In 1872 influenced by William Taylor [see 1884] he joined the Methodist Church in India. He was editor of the Bombay Guardian and was a great influence on both missionaries and Indians alike. BRIDGES, MATTHEW [1800-1894] Hymn Writer. Matthew Bridges was born at Malden, Essex, on July 14, 1800. He began his literary career with the publication of a poem, Jerusalem Regained, in 1825; followed by a book entitled The Roman Empire under Constantine the Great, in 1828, its purpose being to examine the real origin of certain papal superstitions. As a result of the influence of John Henry Newman and the Oxford Movement, Bridges became a Roman Catholic in 1848, and spent the latter part of his life in Canada. He is known for his hymn Crown Him with many crowns He died in Quebec. DILLMAN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH [1823-1894] Lutheran biblical scholar and orientalist who studied at Tubingen. He became interested in the neglected field of language studies of the Ethiopian Church, and worked on Ethiopic manuscripts in Paris, London, and Oxford, producing catalogues of the collections at the British Museum and the Bodleian library. He produced the grammar and lexicon of Ethiopic and editions of Ethiopic texts of the Old Testament. In later life he wrote commentaries on some Old Testament books. EDKINS, JOSEPH [1823-1905] Missionary to China. Edkins was sent by the London Missionary Society to China in 1848. In 1868 at the invitation of Hung-ren, a convert, he twice visited the Taiping rebels in Suchow and Nanking to instruct them in the Christian faith. He visited Peking in 1862 and baptised the first three Protestant converts in that city which then became a new London Missionary Society base for evangelism. An eminent philologist, Edkins also wrote extensively about Chinas religions. FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE [1817-1875] Bishop of Brechin who was educated at Glasgow University before going for three years to work with the East India Company in Madras. Returning to Britain in 1844 he graduated from Oxford and was ordained in the Church of England becoming the bishop of Brechin in 1848. He was a close friend of Edward Pusey [see 1828]. Forbes advocated the doctrine of the Real Presence, a stand which brought censure from his piscopal colleagues. He was a prolific author. KIERKEGAARD, SOREN AABY [1813-1855] Danish philosopher, son of a wealthy Lutheran. He retired early to devote his life to piety. He had a melancholy disposition inherited from his father and his writings are individual and introspective. In holy week 1848 Kierkegaard underwent a second conversion experience and he attacked formal conformist Christianity into which Protestantism had now fallen. MURRAY, ANDREW [1828-1917] South African Dutch Reformed leader educated in Scotland and Holland and ordained in 1848. Murray served in a number of parishes and was six times moderator of the Dutch Reformed Church (DRC) in Cape Colony. Theologically conservative he led opposition to liberalism in the DRC during the 1860s. Mystically inclined Murray was greatly influence by William Law [see 1714] and led a profound devotional life. He undertook frequent evangelistic tours in South Africa and addressed the Keswick and Northfield conventions in 1895. Murray was the moving spirit in the missionary awakening which led to DRC missions in the Transvaal and Malawi and he also supported the South Africa General Mission. He was the most influential leader of his own church in the 19th century and an evangelical Christian of international stature. SUMNER, JOHN BIRD Archbishop of Canterbury [1848-1862]. He was born at Kenilworth, Warwickshire and educated at Eton College and Cambridge University. In 1802 he became a master at Eton and was ordained the following year. After being a minister of the Durham diocese for some years, he was consecrated bishop of Chester in 1828. During his episcopate many churches and schools were built in the diocese. He was a prolific author whose writings were much appreciated by the Evangelical party to which he belonged. His best known writings are hisTreatise on the Records of Creation and the Moral Attributes of the Creator [1816], andThe Evidence of Christianity derived from its Nature and Reception[1821]. In 1848 he was appointedarchbishop of Canterburyand in this capacity he dealt impartially with the different church parties. In the well-known Gorham Case he came into conflict with BishopHenry PhillpottsofExeter(1778-1869), who accused him of supporting heresy and refused to communicate with him. He was president of the Canterbury Association that founded Christchurch, New Zealand. He succeeded William Howley [see 1828] and was succeeded by Charles Thomas Longley [see 1862]. TYRRELL, WILLIAM [1807-1879] First bishop of Newcastle, Australia. Tyrrell was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1833 becoming the vicar of Beauleiu in Hampshire in 1839. In 1847 when W.G. Broughton [see 1836] divided the diocese of Australia, Tyrrell became bishop of the northern part of eastern Australia based at Newcastle. He arrived in 1848 and found only eleven clergy to cover his vast diocese of over 20,000 sq miles. In 1859 the diocese of Brisbane was separated from Newcastle and eight years later after a long delay the diocese of Grafton and Armidale took the northern part of New South Wales from Tyrrells diocese. He was very supportive of his clergy and active in building churches. 1849ALFORD, HENRY [18101871] Dean of Canterbury who showed early precociousness by writing Latin odes and a History of the Jews before the age of ten. In 1829 he went to Cambridge and became a vicar in 1835. He was chiefly known for his edition of the Greek New Testament [18491861]. He also wrote a number of hymns including Come ye thankful people come and was the first editor of Contemporary Review. FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM [1814-1863] English hymn writer. Although his upbringing was Calvinistic he was influenced at Oxford by J.H. Newman and although he was ordained in the Church of England in 1830 he became a Roman Catholic in 1845. In 1849 he started a branch of the Oratory of St Philip Neri in London which developed into the Brompton Oratory. He wrote many devotional books and several collections of verse and was an ardent propagandist for the Roman Catholic Church. He also wrote a number of hymns which were published in the Roman Catholic Westminster hymnal. FRANZELIN, JOHANNES BAPTIST [1816-1886] Roman Catholic scholar trained by the Franciscans who entered a Jesuit order in 1834. He taught for six years in Austrian Poland, then studied theology at Rome and Louvain and was ordained in 1849. He worked in the German College at Rome and lectured in Oriental languages. He was papal theologian at Vatican I and was made cardinal in 1876. HARMS, LUDWIG [1808-1865] Mission organiser in Germany who was converted to a strongly biblical Christianity in 1830. Due to his interest in foreign nations he assisted in forming the North German Mission in 1836. Although his parishioners were simple peasants they founded missionary training school in 1849 and sent a group of missionary colonists to Ethiopia in 1853. Forbidden to land there, they relocated to Natal and established a settlement named Hermannsburg. Harms never left Germany but continually fostered the work at home and dispatched more agricultural missionaries to open up new stations elsewhere in South Africa where they followed a Lutheran rule. HAWKS, ANNIE SHERWOOD [1835-1918]. Poet and Hymn Writer. Hawks poems first began appearing in newspapers when she was 14 years old. She married Charles H. Hawks in 1857. They lived in Brooklyn, New York, and attended the Hanson Place Baptist Church, where HYPERLINK "http://www.cyberhymnal.org/bio/l/o/w/lowry_r.htm" Robert Lowry was pastor. When her husband died in 1888, she moved to Bennington, Vermont to live with her daughter and son-in-law (W. E. Putnam). She wrote 400 hymns in her life, mostly for use in Sunday schools, her most well known one being I need Thee every hour LINCOLN, WILLIAM [1825-1888] English preacher who was converted at 17 partly through the reading of Doddridges Rise and Progress of Religion. He studied with missionary service in mind but abandoned that plan because of poor health. He was ordained in 1849 and after a period as a curate was appointed minister of Beresford Chapel in Walworth where his preaching was very popular. He became disillusioned with the established church and continued to minister in the form of a Brethren assembly. PALMER, WILLIAM [1803-1885] Educated in Dublin and Oxford he was brought into contact with J. Keble, Froude and J.H. Newman and other Tractarian leaders. He was a rigid High Churchman and strongly opposed both Roman Catholic and Dissenters. Palmer was prebendary of Salisbury from 1849 to 1858 and assumed the title of baronet on his fathers death in 1865. PUNSHON, WILLIAM MORLEY [1824-1881] Methodist minister who was born, educated, and ordained in 1849 in England, and served there for 18 years before going to the Metropolitan Church in Toronto in 1868. A man of moving eloquence he had a vision of Canadian Methodism united from Atlantic to Pacific and was a prime mover behind the negotiations of the unification which led in 1874 to the emergence of the Methodist Church of Canada. REUSCH, FRANZ HEINRICH [1825-1900] Old Catholic theologian who was educated at a number of German universities. He was ordained as a priest in 1849 and taught Old Testament exegesis at Bonn from 1854 and as professor from 1861. Reusch was a close friend of J.J.I. von Dollinger [see 1830] and strongly opposed the Vatican Council decision on papal infallibility being present at the Nuremberg Declaration [see 1870]. He was excommunicated in 1872 and ministered at an Old Catholic church in Bonn. In 1873 he became rector of Bonn University and retired in 1878 and wrote many books on Old Testament subjects and modern church history. WARNER SUSAN [1819-1885], WARNER ANNA BARTLETT [1820-1915] The Warner sisters wrote famous childrens HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian songs. Susan wrote HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Bids_us_Shine" \o "Jesus Bids us Shine" Jesus Bids us Shine while Anna was author of the first verse of the well-known childrens song HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Loves_Me,_This_I_Know" \o "Jesus Loves Me, This I Know" Jesus Loves Me, This I Know, which she wrote at Susans request. Both sisters became devout Christians in the late 1830s. After their conversion, they became confirmed members of the Mercer Street Presbyterian church, although in later life, Susan became drawn into Methodist circles. The sisters also held Bible studies for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Point" \o "West Point" West Point cadets. When they were on military duty, the cadets would sing Jesus loves me. The popularity of the song was so great that upon Warners death, she was buried in Arlington National Cemetery. She was the first civilian to be given this honour. Her sister Anna also was buried there on her death. The Warners could trace her lineage back to the Puritan Pilgrims on both sides. Their father was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Warner" \o "Henry Warner" Henry Warner, a New York City lawyer originally from New England, and their mother was Anna Bartlett, from a wealthy, fashionable family in New Yorks Hudson Square. When they were young children their mother died, and her fathers sister Fanny came to live with the Warners. Although Henry Warner had been a successful lawyer, he lost most of his fortune in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic_of_1837" \o "Panic of 1837" Panic of 1837 and in subsequent lawsuits and poor investments. The family had to leave their mansion at St. Marks Place in New York and move to an old Revolutionary War-era farmhouse on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_Island" \o "Constitution Island" Constitution Island, near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Point,_New_York" \o "West Point, New York" West Point, NY. In 1849, seeing little change in their familys financial situation, Susan and Anna started writing to earn money. They were also prolific writers. 1850ARNOT, WILLIAM [18081875] Scottish preacher and author who studied in Glasgow gaining distinction particularly in Greek. He opened a new church in Main Street Glasgow having been ejected from the Free Church in 1850. He was called to the Free High Church in Edinburgh where he ministered until his death. Illustrations of the book of Proverbs [1857 1858] were among the many books he wrote. BLACKWELL, ANTOINETTE LOUISA BROWN [1825-1921] Reformer and one of the first ordained women in America who graduated from Oberlin in 1847 completing the course in 1850. Refused a preaching license she finally became pastor of the Congregational Church of South Butler New York but resigned four years later because of theological problems. She became a Unitarian and circuit speaker on temperance and womens rights. DUPANLOUP, FELIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT [1802-1878] Bishop of Orleans. He was educated in Paris and ordained in 1825. In 1850 as bishop of Orleans he entered the major quarrels besetting the Church of France and initiated many diocesan charities and inspired his subordinates. With the Italian war he moved to the forefront of the European politico-religious scene, writing brochures and defending papal temporal power, but he won disfavour at Vatican I Council. He was elected to the French Academy and was accepted even among unbelievers in French society, vigorously promoting education for women. ELLERTON, JOHN [1826-1893] English hymn writer. Educated at Cambridge where he was influenced by F.D. Maurice [see 1838] but did not identify itself with any party in the Church of England. He held several appointments from 1850 with his last living being at White Roding Essex. He composed 86 hymns which he refused to copyright including The day Thou gavest Lord is ended. GEYMONAT, PAOLO [1827-1907] Waldensian evangelist and scholar who graduated from theological school in Geneva and ordained pastor in 1850. His earnest desire to spread the gospel in Italy led him to work as an evangelist in Rome, Florence, Turin, and Genoa. In 1855 he was invited with G.P. Revel to start a Waldensian school of theology at Torre Pellice which he carried out with success amid many difficulties. After the unification of most of Italy in 1860 he moved the school to Florence where he lectured until 1902. He attempted during his lifetime to solve the conflict between the Waldensian Church with its rigid organisation and the other Italian denominations. HUGHES, JOHN JOSEPH [1797-1864] Roman Catholic archbishop of New York who was born in Ireland and went to the USA in 1870. He was ordained in 1826 and became assistant bishop in New York in 1837. He founded St Johns College in 1841 and became the bishop in New York in 1842 and archbishop in 1850. He organised the parochial church system of New York and freed it from public and lay control. Early the Civil War he was successful as the envoy of the United States government in winning sympathy for the Union cause in France, Ireland, and Italy. MACDONALD, GEORGE [1824-1905] Scottish novelist and poet who became minister of the Congregational Church at Arundel Sussex in 1850. For expressing views on final judgement that left some hope for the heathen he was opposed by his deacons and had his salary reduced. By 1853 the situation had become intolerable and thereafter he supported himself and his wife by lecturing, tutoring, writing, and occasional preaching. Though his health was poor and his poverty great he had a deep faith in God and reacted against the Calvinism of his day but not violently. He never became liberal in his theology. He had great influence on C.S. Lewis [see 1941]. STRANG JAMES JESSE [1813-1856] Mormon leader who was born of Baptist parents in New York. Strang studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1836 He became interested in Mormonism through his wifes brother-in-law Moses Smith and was converted to the movement through Joseph and Hyrum Smith in 1844. When the former was killed Strang claimed to be the successor, eventually forming the Mormon sect known by his name in St James Big Beaver Island Lake Michigan where he was crowned king in 1850. He announced a revelation proclaiming plural marriage as a divine institution in 1850 taking four wives himself. He made many enemies and was finally assassinated in 1856. STROSSMAYER, JOSEPH GEORGE [1815-1905] Roman Catholic bishop who was ordained for the priesthood in 1838 and nine years later became professor of canon law in Vienna. In 1850 he was elevated to the bishopric of Bosnien. At Vatican Council I he opposed papal infallibility and was the last bishop to publish the decrees of the Council in December 1872. In spite of his German heritage, Strossmayer was an enthusiastic pan-Slavist which brought him into conflict with Vienna. The pan-Slavic movement he advocated resulted in the formation of Yugoslavia after World War I. WISEMAN, NICHOLAS PATRICK STEPHEN [1802-1865] English cardinal and first archbishop of Westminster [1850-1865] who was chiefly responsible for the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England. Wiseman was Anglo-Irish by birth and rector of the English College in Rome [1828-1840] and began promoting the restoration based on hopes of Catholic revival and conversion of England, prompted by the Oxford Movement. He returned to England as the assistant bishop in the Midlands and undertook a special mission to Pius IX to urge church restoration which occurred in 1850. Pius IX named him cardinal and first English Catholic primate. He promoted Ultramontane principles and practices, the establishment of English branches of religious orders, and organised basic Catholic ministries among the newly immigrant Irish. Wisemans enthusiastic announcement in October 1850 caused popular anti-Catholicism including a statement by Prime Minister Lord John Russell that it was papal aggression. YOUNG, BRIGHAM [1801-1877] Founder of the Mormons settlements in Utah. Young had little schooling but great leadership ability. He joined Joseph Smiths Mormons in 1832 and led the group to Kirtland, Ohio becoming an apostle in 1835 and chief of the Twelve Apostles in 1838. He led the Mormons from Missouri to Utah in 1847 and organised the state of Deseret. In 1850 he became governor of the Territory of Utah and did most of the planning for the Mormon Temple in Salt Lake City and founded the University of Utah. 1851-1860 AD 1851DA COSTA, ISAAK [1798-1860] Dutch poet and theologian who was born into a wealthy Jewish family in Amsterdam. He was, through the persistence of Willem Bilderdijk [see 1795] converted from an admiration of Voltaire to fervent Christianity. He had a profound influence on the subsequent religious history of the Netherlands. He edited the poems of Bilderjidk in 16 volumes. One of his own collected works, The Four Witnesses in 1851, compiled over many years, was first published after Strausss Life of Jesus had begun to make an impact in Holland. GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS [1812-1900] Swiss reformed theologian and exegete. He became chaplain to the king of Prussia, and professor of biblical exegesis [1851-1873] in Neuchatel and then professor of New Testament exegesis in the same city [1873-1887]. He was one of the most influential Reformed scholars of his day, his work being translated into various languages. He defended the orthodox Christian position against a growing theological liberalism in academic Protestant circles. HUNG, HSIU-CHUAN [1813-1864] Leader of the Taiping rebellion. He was given the outlines of Christianity written by Liang A-fah [see 1814] but because he had no teaching in the faith he began to teach a mixture of Chinese beliefs and the doctrines of the Christian faith and adopted much Christian teaching and practice. Being also egocentric he assumed the imperial title in 1851 and led a peasants uprising against the Manchu rule declaring that he was to set up the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace. The group degenerated and was finally suppressed by foreign troops led by Lt. Col. C. G. [Chinese] Gordon. Hung committed suicide. STOWE, HARRIET ELIZABETH BEECHER [1811-1896] Abolitionist and author born in Connecticut she studied and taught at Hartford. When her father Lyman Beecher [see 1832] became president of the Lane Theological Seminary in 1832 she went with him and married Professor Calvin E. Stowe in 1836. They sheltered fugitive slaves in their home until they moved in 1850 to Brunswick Maine. Uncle Toms Cabin or Life Among the Lowly appeared in the magazine National Era in 1851 and as the book in the following year. It promoted strong antislavery sentiment. She produced many books subsequently. THORNWELL, JAMES HENLEY [1812-1862] Presbyterian minister and scholar, educated at South Carolina College who engaged in pastoral work for a few years before becoming professor at that college which was later the University of South Carolina. He became president in 1851 before taking up a position as professor of systematic theology at Columbia Theological Seminary. He helped to establish the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States during the Civil War. WESTCOTT, BROOKE FOSS [1825-1901] Bishop of Durham who attended King Edwards School Birmingham where he was much influenced by the headmaster James Prince Lee. In 1844 he went to Trinity College Cambridge and became a fellow there in 1849. His pupils included J.B. Lightfoot [see 1879], E.W. Benson [see 1882], and F.J.A. Hort [see 1881]. He was ordained in 1851 and then went to teach at Harrow School. Westcott became canon of Peterborough in 1869 and the following year he became professor of divinity in Cambridge. Here he personally taught early church history and Christian doctrine and was also prominent in the formation of the Cambridge Mission to Delhi and the founding of the Cambridge Clergy Training School later known as Westcott House. In 1890 the age of 66 he was appointed to succeed Lightfoot as bishop of Durham. He showed a deep concern for the social and industrial problems of the dioceses and often spoke to the miners. In 1892 he helped to settle a coal strike. He is best remembered for his work with Hort in establishing a text of the New Testament [1881] by making a scientific evaluation of the vast mass of manuscripts. It was intended that Lightfoot, Westcott, and Hort, should between them write a complete commentary on the New Testament, and he completed his share apart from the Book of Revelation. Westcotts knowledge of the early Fathers commentaries was unrivalled and his exegesis and exposition were always marked by great theological and spiritual depth. WESTERN TEXT The name given by Westcott [see above] and Hort [see 1881] to a type of text of the Greek New Testament which had special affinities with the West. Its chief representatives are Codex Bezae [D] for Acts and the Gospels and Codex Claromontanus [Dp] for the Epistles, both of which the text is written in Greek and Latin, the Old Latin version, and the Curetonian Syriac. Most of the Latin Fathers made use of the Western form of the text in their quotations. The characteristics which Westcott and Hort found in it included an apparent freedom to change things in order to bring out the meaning better which might involve the omission or insertion of words, clauses, or even whole sentences. 1852BLUMHARDT, JOHANN CHRISTOPH [18051880] German evangelical leader who studied at Tubingen and became a tutor in 1830 at the missionary training centre in Basle which had been founded by his uncle Christian Gottleib Blumhardt. He was involved with a revival in Mottlingen where he was pastor in 1845. He resigned from pastoral work in 1852 and acquired a centre at Bad Boll, for sufferers of all types of illness, as a Christian ministry. CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN [1815-1857] Biblical scholar and author who as vicar at Axminster combined with J S Howson [see 1867] to write The Life and Epistles of St Paul which was an important book for introducing English speaking people to the 1st century environment in which Paul worked. RUOTSALAINEN, PAAVO [1777-1852] Finnish Pietist leader who was the son of a farmer. He experienced a personal revival as a youth in a Pietistic sense but spiritual discernment came later when a blacksmith told him, Lacking one thing you lack everything, the inner knowledge of Christ. This sentence became a motto for the Pietistic Movement. He succeeded in uniting two branches of the Pietistic revival in Finland and developing what is now the biggest and perhaps the most significant movement in Finland which still influences large groups of people. Ruotsalainen has influenced Christian life in Finland more than anyone else in that countrys modern church history. 1853COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM [1814-1883] First Anglican bishop of Natal whose theology was liberal. He, unlike most missionaries, favoured baptising polygamists and respected African beliefs and customs. He questioned the historicity and authorship of the Pentateuch and Joshua. He was deposed but reinstated on appeal to the Privy Council. His positive contribution to missionary work and bible scholarship was degraded by an inadequate theology, an unattractive personality and the conservatism of his critics. DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM [1829-1895] Congregational preacher who graduated in London and started his career as a schoolmaster but soon turned to the Ministry becoming in 1853 pastor of Carrs Lane Chapel Birmingham where for several decades he exerted a powerful influence upon the religious educational and social life of the city. He is remembered particularly for his works on the atonement 1875 in which he saw in the death of our Lord the sole ground of mans reconciliation with God. He strenuously opposed extreme Calvinism and the High Church movement. He co-operated in revival meetings with D. L. Moody. FAIRBAIRN, PATRICK [1805-1874] Scottish theologian who studied at Edinburgh University and after ordination served in parishes in Orkney, Glasgow and East Lothian where he continued as minister of the Free Church after the 1843 disruption. In 1853 he went to his churchs Aberdeen College as professor of divinity and three years later became principal of Glasgow College, which post he held until his death. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision Company. He wrote a definitive work The Typology of Scripture, which was reprinted in 1953, as well as other publications. GUICCIARDINI, PIERO (Count) [1806-1886] Italian Protestant leader and a descendant of Francisco Guicciardni [see 1516]. Contact with the Swiss Protestant Church in Florence and study of the Bible led to his conversion in 1836, a date which he desired to be remembered on his tomb. Actively involved in preparing religious reform, in the reaction and repression after 1848 he was imprisoned and exiled with many others, and took refuge in Britain. Here he came into contact with the Open Brethren. At the invitation of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge he collaborated in a revision of the Italian Bible which had been translated by Diodati. The Guicciardini Bible of 1853 remained for a long time the best Italian translation. In 1854 he returned to Italy with the purpose of preaching the gospel to his compatriots with Pietrocola-Rossetti [see 1857]. The communities formed were called Free Italian Churches and by 1870 there were more than 35 scattered throughout Italy. HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB [1805-1882] Swiss German Reformed theologian who studied in Berlin where he was a pupil of F. Schleiermacher [see 1804] and J. Neander [see 1813]. While professor of historical theology at Lausanne he authored several works on the Zwinglian and Calvinist Reformation. In 1854 he was named professor of Reformed theology at Erlangen and in 1848 he was invited to undertake the editorship of a comprehensive religious encyclopaedia from the Protestant perspective to counter a Catholic work then being published. The editing of this 22 volume encyclopaedia commenced in 1853 was his most significant endeavour. Herzog himself contributed 529 articles to it. MONSELL, JOHN SAMUEL BEWLEY [1811-1875] Anglican Minister and Hymn Writer. Son of the Archdeacon of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derry" \o "Derry" Derry, Monsell was educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Dublin" \o "Trinity College, Dublin" Trinity College, Dublin, graduating in 1832. He married Anne Waller in 1835. Their eldest son Thomas died on the way to the Crimean War in 1855, aged 18, in a shipwreck off Italy; their eldest daughter Elizabeth Isabella died in Torquay at the age of 28 in 1861. He held a number of appointments commencing with a curacy in Derry, Vicar at Egham near Windsor [1853-1870], Rector of St. Nicholas, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guildford" \o "Guildford" Guildford and Chaplain to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria" \o "Queen Victoria" Queen Victoria 1870-75. Monsell himself died after being struck by falling masonry from the roof of St. Nicholas church, Guildford, which was being renovated. He was a prolific hymnist publishing eleven volumes of poems and about 300 hymns. His hymns which are currently sung include Fight the good fight with all thy might and Worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness PARKER, JOSEPH [1830-1902] English Congregational preacher who was ordained in 1853 as minister of the Banbury Congregational Church though his formal education ceased when he was 16. He eventually became pastor of City Temple London where he served from 1874 to his death. Preaching twice Sunday and every Thursday morning he earned a reputation alongside Spurgeon and Liddon. His theology was the whole system of evangelical truth enshrined in the Apostles Creed. During 1885-1892 he preached through the Bible and these discourses were published in the 25 volumes of The Peoples Bible. REES, WILLIAM [1802-1883] Welsh Congregational minister, author, and social leader, whose only education was a few terms of the local school. He spent his early years as a farm labourer and shepherd but this did not prevent him from obtaining a large amount of literary culture that was available to him in the Welsh language. He became a Congregational minister, serving from 1831-1853 in a number of areas including the Tabernacle at Liverpool, and Salem Liverpool from 1853 until his retirement in 1875. Rees provided a most vivid example of the way in which evangelical Christianity in its Calvinistic form inspired cultural and political activity of a radical kind in 19th-century Wales. 1854BARKER, FREDERIC [18081882] Bishop of Sydney [18541882] who was an English clergyman educated at Cambridge. His service under Archbishop Sumner led in 1854 to his being appointed as bishop of Sydney where he reestablished evangelical tradition in the diocese. He founded Moore College in 1856, the oldest theological college in Australia. During his 28 year term of service he saw the division of his vast diocese and a considerable strengthening of the parish system. BORTHWICK, JANE [18131897] Scottish publisher of hymns, mainly of German origin. Staunch supporter with her sister Sarah of the Free Church of Scotland. The sisters translations represented relatively more hymns for the Christian life and fewer for the Christian year than Catherine Winkworth [see1855]. DUFFIELD, GEORGE [1818-1888] Pastor and Hymn Writer. He was the son of a Presbyterian Minister and born at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He graduated at Yale College, and at the Union Theological Seminary, New York. From 1840 to 1847 he was a Presbyterian Pastor at Brooklyn; 1847 to 1852, at Bloomfield, New Jersey; 1852 to 1861, at Philadelphia; 1861 to 1865, at Adrian, Michigan; 1865 to 1869, at Galesburg, Illinois; 1869, at Saginaw City, Michigan; and from 1869 at Ann Arbor and Lansing, Michigan. His most famous hymn was Stand up, stand up for Jesus .The origin of this hymn is as follows: I caught its inspiration from the dying words of that noble young clergyman, Rev. Dudley Atkins Tyng, rector of the Epiphany Church, Philadelphia, who died about 1854. His last words were, Tell them to stand up for Jesus: now let us sing a hymn. He had been much persecuted in those pro-slavery days for his persistent course in pleading the cause of the oppressed, it was thought that these words had a peculiar significance in his mind; as if he had said, Stand up for Jesus in the person of the downtrodden slave. FISHER, GEORGE PARK [1827-1909] Church historian who graduated from Brown University in 1847 and continued his studies at Yale Divinity School as well as in Germany. From 1854 to 1861 he was a pastor, and then joined the faculty at the Yale Divinity School, where he became professor of ecclesiastical history. He was a major author. HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN [1827 1910]. English painter who led the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood grouping of the young British artists. In search of a serious subject matter, Hunt himself practised what he preached by going to Egypt and Palestine to paint biblical scenes with authentic local settings and types of people. Holman Hunt helped break the conventional iconographic pictures of Christ in paintings like his well known The Light of the World in 1854 which appealed to the new middle-class patrons of the arts. IMMACULATE CONCEPTION In 1854 Pius IX in a papal bull Ineffabilis Deus stated that from the first moment of the conception, the Blessed Virgin Mary was, by the singular grace and privilege of Almighty God, and in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, Saviour of Mankind, kept free from all stain of Original Sin. This dogma is based on the belief that a person is truly conceived when the soul is created and infused into the body. At the moment of her animation Mary was given sanctifying grace which excluded her from the stain of original sin. Mary was redeemed at conception by Christ in anticipation of His atoning death. At the same time the state of original sanctity, innocence, and justice was conferred upon her. Mary was therefore sinless from the moment of her conception, although this did not exempt her from sorrow, sickness, and death, consequent upon Adams sin. No direct or categorical proof of this dogma can be brought forward from the Bible. Protestants have always rejected the doctrine. INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN [1833-1899] American politician and agnostic who was admitted to the bar in 1854 and was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress in 1860. Ingersoll received as much as $5000 for some of his famous antireligious speeches. His main attack was directed against the authority of the Bible and its alleged inaccuracies. He gave titles to his famous speeches such as The Gods, Ghosts, Skulls and Some Mistakes of Moses. Few rivalled his eloquence. KIRELLOS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1854-1861] see 1810 and 1862. Despite his relatively short papacy, he is regarded as the Father of Reform of the Coptic Orthodox Church in modern times. He is credited for establishing a great printing house and printing many Church books. While abbot of the monastery of St. Antonios, he was sent to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia at the request of the Pope to mediate between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuna_Salama_III" \o "Abuna Salama III" Abuna Salama and his opponents in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Church" \o "Ethiopian Church" Ethiopian Church, as well as prevent the sympathies for the Catholic missionaries and their teaching from increasing further. As Patriarch, Cyril returned to Ethiopia at the request of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viceroy" \o "Viceroy" viceroy HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%27id_of_Egypt" \o "Sa'id of Egypt" Said of Egypt, the first recorded visit by the head of the Coptic church to that country. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" \o "Emperor of Ethiopia" Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tewodros_II_of_Ethiopia" \o "Tewodros II of Ethiopia" Tewodros II, whom Trimingham described as unable to conceive how a Christian prelate could consent to act as the envoy of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim" \o "Muslim" Muslim prince, received Pope Cyril unfavourably in December 1856. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sven_Rubenson&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Sven Rubenson (page does not exist)" Sven Rubenson records that when the Patriarch expressed an interest in reviewing the Emperors army, Tewodros suspected him of being a spy, and confined him with Abuna Salama to their house; only after the Ethiopian clergy intervened, were both men released. During a flare-up of tempers between the Abuna and Emperor in November of the following year, which led to the Abuna HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication" \o "Excommunication" excommunicating Emperor Tewodros, Patriarch Cyril lifted the interdict against the wishes of Abuna Salama and left Ethiopia soon after. LOWRY, ROBERT [1826-1899] Baptist Pastor and Hymn Writer. Lowry was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American professor of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature" \o "Literature" literature, a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_(Christianity)" \o "Minister (Christianity)" minister and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer" \o "Composer" composer of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_music" \o "Gospel music" gospel HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymns. After graduating from Lewisburg in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854" \o "1854" 1854 he was ordained and had charge of churches in a number of places including HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York; HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn" \o "Brooklyn" Brooklyn; HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Chester,_Pennsylvania" \o "West Chester, Pennsylvania" West Chester, Pennsylvania; and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey" \o "New Jersey" New Jersey. In 1869 he returned to Lewisburg as a faculty member and later went on to become its HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_(education)" \o "Chancellor (education)" chancellor. From 1880 until 1886 he was president of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey" \o "New Jersey" New Jersey HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_School" \o "Sunday School" Sunday School Union. He is most remembered as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer" \o "Composer" composer of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_music" \o "Gospel music" gospel music and a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymn writer including Low in the Grave He Lay. Despite his success as a hymn writer, it was as a preacher that Lowry would have preferred to be recognised. He once stated: Music, with me has been a side issue, I would rather preach a gospel sermon to an appreciative audience than write a hymn. LUDLOW, JOHN MALCOLM FORBES [1821-1911] Christian social reformer who was educated in France where he was influenced by socialists and social Catholics. He became a lawyer in England and at Lincolns Inn came into contact with F.D. Maurice [see 1838]. From Paris, Ludlow wrote a letter to Maurice insisting that the new socialism must become Christianised. The Chartist fiasco of 1848 united him with Maurice and Charles Kingsley [see 1842] into the Christian Socialist movement, but it was Ludlow who was the real leader and who supplied the social ideas, co-operative associations being one of his main contributions. He had wide contacts with the trade unions and workers leaders; and had a large role in the Industrial and Provident Societies Act [1852]. Ludlow conceived the scheme of the Working Mans College which he and Maurice opened in 1854 and at which he taught in many years. He believed in industrial emancipation as well as education. MARIOLATRY The worship of Mary. The term is used critically by Protestants but strictly speaking the Roman Catholic Church does not encourage worship which is due to God alone but special veneration. References to Mary in the New Testament do nothing to encourage such a cult but it seems to have come unofficially into the church in the fourth century. Pressure rising from this popular devotion led to the definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary in 1854 and that of her Assumption in 1950. Therefore in the Roman Catholic Church she was thus officially provided with a beginning and end of life parallel to that of Jesus and terms like Our Lady and the idea of her as mediatrix of redemption have helped to increase her importance as an object of devotion. MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN [1808-1884] Danish bishop and theologian. As a student he was impressed by N.F.S.Grundtvig [see 1825] and later on a tour study tour of Germany he was greatly influenced by Hegel and the Roman Catholic philosopher of religion Father Baarder. He was appointed professor of systematic theology at Copenhagen University in 1840 and from 1854 till his death he was the bishop of Zealand. Martensen exerted extraordinary influence upon his students. In his writings he made a strong attempt to bring about a harmonious synthesis between faith and thought, theology and philosophy, Christianity and culture. Unlike most other church people at this time he displayed some understanding of socialism and the legitimacy of the claims of the workers. NEVIUS, JOHN LIVINGSTON [1829-1893] American missionary to China who was educated at Princeton Seminary and went to China in 1854 under the Presbyterian Mission Board serving mainly in the Shantung area. He is best known for the Nevius method of self support and propagation. In principle there were four areas [1] Each Christian should support himself by his own work and be a witness for Christ by life and work in his own neighbourhood [2] Church methods and machinery should be developed only so far as the indigenous Christians could take responsibility for these. [3] The church should select for full time work those who seem best qualified and whom it was able to support [4] Churches were to be built in a native style and by the Christians from their own resources. The Korean missionaries adopted this approach, and a vigorous church rapidly developed which maintained an independent spirit virtually unmatched in the non-Western world. PUSEY, PHILIP EDWARD [1830-1880] English scholar, the only son of E.B. Pusey [see1828] who was both deaf and crippled. He graduated from Oxford in 1854 but his physical defects prevented his ordination and he resolved to devote his life in helping his father. This he did by preparing a critical edition of the Peshitta and the works of Cyril of Alexandria. Despite his ill-health he pursued his studies with exemplary thoroughness visiting libraries throughout Europe and the Near East. SAPHIR, ADOLPH [1831-1891] Presbyterian minister born in Hungary, the son of a Jewish merchant who with the rest of his family were converted to Christianity by the Jewish Mission of the Church of Scotland. He studied at the Free Church College in Edinburgh as well as at the universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow and served as a missionary to the Jews in Hamburg in 1854. He also held ministries in English Presbyterian churches, and throughout his lifetime maintained a great interest in the conversion of Jews and other non-Christians in Europe, serving in many capacities in various missionary agencies. He authored a number of books. ZELLER, EDUARD [1814-1908] German Protestant theologian and philosopher. A student and later son-in-law of F.C. Baur [see 1845]. Zeller first taught theology at Tubingen then moved to Marburg via Bern after which he turned to philosophy. He published in 1854 The Acts of the Apostles according to its Contents and Origin Critically Investigated where he combined the concepts of Baur with the mystical approach of Strauss calling into question the historical piscopal ty of Acts. 1855BERSIER, EUGENE [18311889] Swiss pastor and leader of the Free Reformed Church in France from 18551877 who eventually persuaded the group to reunite with the Reformed Church. His theological studies in Geneva, Gittingen and Halle was followed by a ministry in French churches from 1855-77. He was also the author of a number of books regarding Protestants. BURNS, JAMES DRUMMOND [1823-1864] He was a Scotch Presbyterian minister who was born in Edinburgh and was a graduate of the University of Edinburgh. In 1845 he became a pastor of the Free Church of Scotland at Dunblane. In 1848 he took charge of a Presbyterian Church at Funchal, Madeira. In 1855 he became pastor of a Presbyterian Church in London. He was the author of about one hundred hymns as well as a translator of German hymns however only a few of which have come into common use. His most famous hymn was Hushed was the evening hymn. COX, FRANCES ELIZABETH [1812-1897] Translator of German hymns who ranks next to John Wesley [see 1738] and Catherine Winkworth [see below] in the quality of her translations of German hymns and the extent to which they are still sung. CYRIL VII Patriarch of Constantinople [1855-1860] who succeeded Anthimus VI [see 1845]. There is no additional information readily available. JOHN, GRIFFITHS [1831-1912] Co-founder with Robert Wilson of the first Protestant mission in Inland China. He was appointed to China by the London Missionary Society in 1855. The first mission was established in Hankow six years later. John travelled widely from Hankow through Hupeh and Hunan, up the Yangtze River into Szechwan, though no work could be started there until 1888, when a Chinese evangelist took up residence in Chungking. John also prepared a translation of the New Testament in Mandarin and started on the Old Testament for the Bible societies. In 1901 the London Missionary Society under Johns leadership established several stations in the long-resistant province of Hunan. He was undoubtedly one of the five most prominent missionaries in China in the 19th century. KUENEN, ABRAHAM [1828-1891] Netherlands Protestant theologian who was professor of New Testament, ethics, and Old Testament interpretation at Leyden from 1855. He was the earliest expositor of the so-called literary-historical school of which Wellhausen is generally claimed as the chief exponent. WALKER, MARY JANE DECK [1816-1878]. Mary Walker wrote the lyrics for Jesus, I Will Trust Thee and had it published in 1855 in her husbands hymnal called Psalms and Hymns for Public and Social Worship. Her brother, James George Deck, is a well-known hymnist who lived in New Zealand. Several of Mary Jane Walkers hymns appeared as leaflets. Ira David Sankey set to music the leaflet hymn Jesus I Will Trust Thee. WHITFIELD, FREDERICK [1829-1904] Anglican minister and hymn writer. Frederick Whitfield was born and reared in England and graduated from Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland. He studied for the ministry and was ordained in the Church of England. He was first appointed to parishes in Yorkshire, and later served at Greenwich near London. He wrote the hymn There is a name I love to hear in 1855 while still a student at Trinity College. In less than ten years after its first printing, the hymn began to appear in hymnals in America. The refrain is not part of Whitfields original hymn, but was later added by some unknown person. Characterised by simplicity and a lilting style, the tune used here is typical of camp meeting songs that emerged in America in the early 19th century. WINKWORTH, CATHERINE [1829-1878] Translator of hymns. She was a pioneer in womens higher education and prepared the ground for the University College of Bristol. In 1853 she first met C.C.J. von Bunsen [see 1841] whose publication she drew upon for her translation of German hymns over 300 of which were published. YOUNG WOMENS CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION This was originally two separate organisations both founded in Britain in 1855 by Emma Roberts and Lady Kinnaird. They united in 1877 and the first World Committee of YWCA met in London in 1894. Like the YMCA it has spread with internationalism and an interdenominational character remaining a keynote of the organisation. It has the blue triangle as its symbol. 1856BONAR, ANDREW ALEXANDER [18101892] Scottish Free Church preacher who was the seventh son of a solicitor and with his brothers John and Horatius [see 1883] made a famous trio of ministers. He was involved in the Disruption of 1843 and started a new Free Church in Glasgow in 1856. He was also a member of a Mission of Enquiry to Palestine in 1839 as he was concerned with evangelisation of the Jews. BROWN, JOHN [1800-1859] Controversial leader of part of the abolitionist movement who engaged in many business ventures in several states and was the defendant in a number of legal battles resulting from his failure to meet financial requirements. In 1854 he organised guerrilla warfare activity in Kansas to get rid of slavery. Believing himself to be divinely appointed to destroy the supporters of slavery he led a group of six to commit the Pottawatomie Massacre of 1856 where five pro slavery men were seized in their homes at night and hacked to death. In 1859 he tried to set up a revolutionary government by force when he attacked the arsenal at Harpers Ferry with twenty one followers but their efforts were easily crushed and he was convicted of treason and hanged. CLOSE, FRANCIS [1797-1882] Dean of Carlisle who as incumbent at Cheltenham from 1826 for thirty years exercised a powerful evangelical ministry in this fashionable resort denouncing many vices, promoting five new parish churches and the foundation of Cheltenham College. In 1856 he was appointed as dean of Carlisle where his ministry was especially directed to the poor whose moral and physical condition he tried hard to improve. CUSHING, WILLIAM ORCUTT [1823-1903] W.O. Cushing as he liked to be known was an American minister and hymn writer. After the death of his wife in 1870 and with declining health, he retired from the ministry and began writing hymns. He wrote over 300 hymns. Most of his songs were of death and heaven. The most familiar are, Down in the valley with my Saviour I would go and the jewel song, When He cometh, when He cometh He wrote the jewel song when he was a young man, in 1856, and it was composed for use in his own Sunday school. George F. Root, the famous composer, wrote for it a very effective tune. A minister once returning from Europe on a British steamer visited the steerage and proposed a song service there. He started it with this jewel song. Mr. Roots melody was at once caught up by the immigrants, and they soon learned the hymn, which was sung by these men and women of all nations during the rest of the voyage. When at Quebec they took the train for their journeys to their new homes the song burst from every car. PALMER, BENJAMIN MORGAN [1818-1902] American Presbyterian minister who received degrees from university of Georgia and Columbia Theological Seminary and served as pastor from 1841 to 1853 before becoming professor of ecclesiastical history at Columbia Seminary. In 1856 he accepted a call to the first Presbyterian Church of New Orleans where he remained until his death. Regarded as one of the great ministers of the Southern Presbyterian Church he was the first Presbyterian moderator under the Confederacy in 1861, and defended slavery. PATTERSON, JOHN COLERIDGE [1827-1871] He was the first missionary bishop of the Church of England in Melanesia. Patterson was educated at Oxford and was persuaded by G.A. Selwyn [see 1841] bishop of New Zealand to go out to Melanesia as a missionary in 1855. In 1856 he made the first journey to Melanesia to encourage boys to return with him to study at the college Selwyn had set up first in Auckland and later in Norfolk Island. The training given by Patterson and his ability to acquire the many languages of the islands provided a strong basis for the mission. In 1861 he was consecrated bishop of Melanesia and travelled constantly supporting his English and native workers. On the main island of Mota he saw the conversion of most of the population. His work was often made more dangerous by the activities of white traders known as Black birders who forcibly took natives to labour in Australia. In September 1871 unaware of a recent outrage by these traders he landed on the island of Nukapu and was speared to death. SWEDEN [see also 1528] After 1815 and the humiliations of the Napoleonic Wars there was a reaction against 18th century rationalism aided by Pietism and the Moravians. Through the work of George Scott an English Methodist, Bible and tract work were developed; Sunday School and foreign missions were concentrated on, and the result was the Swedish Mission Covenant in 1878 bringing together most free churches with lay organisation and evangelism groups. In 1894 the World Student Christian Movement was inaugurated in Sweden. The Evangelical National Institute formed in 1856 became a leading missionary movement. Sweden made a distinguished contribution to the ecumenical movement through Nathan Soderblom [see 1914]. Among those who reacted to 19th-century liberalism were the scholars Gustav Aulen [see 1933] and Anders Nygren [see 1949]. WILLIS, LOVE MARIA [1824-1908] Love Willis, who was born at Hancock, New Hampshire. Her maiden name was Whitcomb, and she was a member of the Unitarian Church. After marrying a Boston physician named Frederick L. H. Willis, she moved to Boston and served as the editor of The Banner of Light, a Boston magazine and Tiffanys Monthly Magazine. It was in the latter publication that the hymn Father, Hear The Prayer We Offer was published in 1856. It was modified by Samuel Longfellow (1819-1892) in 1864. 1857 ARNOLD, MATTHEW [1822-1888] English poet and eldest son of Thomas Arnold [see 1828] who was educated at Rugby, Winchester, and Oxford being professor of poetry at Oxford for ten years from 1857 and inspector of schools from 1851 to 1886. He saw culture as mans greatest need stressing the personal and moral side of Christianity whilst denying miracles. COILLARD, FRANCOIS [1834-1904] French missionary to South Africa sent out by the Paris Evangelical Mission in 1857 and stationed at Leribe. In 1877 he attempted to lead a group into Matabeleland but was denied access by the overlord Lobengula. He then pressed on to Barotseland where Chief Lewanika was friendly but refused to accept conversion. Many colleagues died and critics suggested withdrawal but developments after his death proved he had not laboured in vain. CROWTHER, SAMUEL AJAYI [1806-1891] Anglican bishop and missionary who was enslaved in 1821 and taken to Sierra Leone after his liberation by the British Navy. Baptised in 1825 he entered the African Institution two years later. In 1841 he was the Church Missionary Society representative on the Niger expedition. His most significant work was with the Niger Mission which he initiated in 1857 and led for thirty years. In 1864 he was made bishop of Western Africa beyond colonial limits but the European missionaries would not accept his jurisdiction so he was virtually bishop of the Niger. His achievements however led his former opponents to recommend an African bishop of Yorubaland in 1875 but this confidence was not shared by younger European missionaries who attacked the policy of African leadership and his position was progressively undermined. The conflict led to the formation of the United Native African Church in Lagos in 1892and the appointment of a white successor after Crowthers death. This helped to discredit Henry Venns [see 1841] three self policy under which concept Crowther had been appointed. EADIE, JOHN [1810-18720] Scottish secessionist and United Presbyterian Church minister and New Testament scholar. In 1843 he was appointed professor of biblical literature in the United Presbyterian Church Divinity Hall, and in 1857 he was moderator of his churchs general assembly. His Analytical Concordance, Family Bible and Biblical Cyclopaedia proved very popular, and his widely acclaimed commentaries on several of the Pauline epistles helped to secure for him a place as one of the New Testament Committee engaged in preparing the Revised Version of the Bible in English in 1870. GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY [1810-1888] English son of an itinerant painter of miniatures, he became a farmer in North America from 1827 to 1838. He returned to England and after a brief spell with the Methodists he associated with the Brethren. He visited Jamaica in 1847 and soon became a prolific writer and lecturer on natural history. He invented and popularised the aquarium. After his first wifes death in 1857 he retired to St Marys Church remarried and shepherded a Brethren assembly. His attempt in 1857 to reconcile Genesis with Geology satisfied no one. GUNTHER, ANTON [1783-1863] German religious philosopher who studied law and philosophy at Prague where his faith was shaken by his study of Kant, Fichte and Schelling. He was appointed as a tutor in the household of Prince Bretzenheim which brought him under the influence of C.M. Hofbaur [see 1785] and his Christian convictions were restored. He began studying theology and propagated his system of philosophy and speculative theology. He was interested in apologetics and tried to combat the contemporary pantheistic idealism of Schelling and Hegel. His writings were condemned by the Index in 1857 for their basic rationalism and its application to Christian doctrine. PELOUBET, FRANCIS NATHAN [1831-1920] Writer of Sunday school literature. He was born in New York and graduated from Bangor [Maine] Theological Seminary. Ordained in 1857 as a Congregational minister, Peloubet was pastor at several churches in Massachusetts from 1857 to 1883. He produced between 1875 and 1920 the annual volumes of Select Notes on the International Sunday School Lesson. PIETROCOLA-ROSSETTI, TEODORICO [1825-1883] Italian Protestant poet and patriot who studied law at Naples and was involved in the 1848 uprising. As a result he had to flee and took refuge first at Leghorn and then Lyons, Paris, and London where he was warmly received by the many exiles including his cousin and poet Gabriel Rossetti whose surname he joined to his. He earned a living by giving Italian lessons and was invited by one of his pupils to attend an Open Brethren meeting which led to his conversion experience. Christ became the centre of his life and he devoted himself to the preaching of the Gospel, which he considered the only remedy for the sad plight of Italy. In 1857 after a most solemn commendation meeting he left London for Piedmont to begin amid all kinds of difficulties and persecution a successful work of evangelism and forming congregations. These were called the Free Italian Churches and in spite of a sad division in 1863 by 1870 they had grown to more than 30 communities scattered throughout Italy some of which were large. He spent the last years of his life in Florence, his death occurring on a Sunday at the morning meeting after giving a message which in the words of the hearers had led the congregation up to heaven. He wrote many valuable commentaries and hymns some of which are still sung today. SOUTH AFRICA While there were Roman Catholic missionaries in Mozambique and adjacent areas in the 16th century, the Dutch settlements at the Cape was more significant for the development of Christianity in Southern Africa. For over a century only the Dutch Reformed Church was permitted there and it has remained the spiritual home of most Afrikaners. The evangelisation of the indigenous Hottentots and imported slaves received little attention until the late 18th century when van Lier and Vos awakened missionary interest among the colonists. This lead eventually to a strong Dutch Reformed Mission Church among the Cape coloured people. After 1857 missions to the black Africans were also undertaken. The first missionary at Cape was Moravian Georg Schmidt [see 1742] who returned to Europe in 1744. In 1799 the London Missionary Society entered the field but the concern of its missionaries notably J.T. Vandercemp [see 1799] and John Philip [see 1828] regarding the rights of indigenous people made the London Missionary Society highly unpopular with the colonists. Methodism arrived with British soldiers at Cape Town and British settlers on the Eastern frontier, and spread among black and white throughout South Africa. The first Anglican bishop of Cape Town was Robert Gray while the Roman Catholics became well established after the arrival of its first bishop in 1838. TREGELLES, SAMUEL PRIDEAUX [1813-1875] English New Testament textual critic who was brought up as a Quaker which meant that he could not pursue a university career. As a teenager he learned Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Welsh while working at the same time in an ironworks. His abilities were recognised by G.V. Wigram who employed him to work on his famous Englishmans Greek and Hebrew Concordances. He travelled extensively across Europe for the purpose of systematically examining and collating all the then known manuscripts and was able to get his Greek New Testament published in six parts between 1857 and 1872. He wrote a number of books including many books on Bible prophecy in which he defended what lately came to be known as post-tribulational premillennialism. Tregelles was associated with the Plymouth Brethren in the early days of the movement as a brother-in-law of B.W. Newton [see 1847] but later worshipped with the Presbyterians and finally the Church of England. WICHERN, JOHANN HINRICH [1808-1881] German Protestant minister and founder of the Innere Mission [see 1848]. He studied theology at Gottingen and Berlin. Returning to Hamburg he was moved by the plight of underprivileged children in the poorest sections of the city. In 1833 he founded a school for neglected children in the village of Horn near Hamburg. Under his leadership the group expanded and children in the school were divided into family groups of around twelve under the guidance of an overseer, generally a candidate for the ministry, and two assistants. In 1848 at the First Congress of Evangelical Churches at Wittenberg Wichern called for all charitable activities in Germany to be administered through a single agency, the Innere Mission. He also took part in the prison reform in Prussia in 1857. 1858BERNADETTE [18441879] French Roman Catholic visionary who was the eldest child of a poor miller who founded the Lourdes pilgrimage after having seen a series of visions in 1858 in a cave near the river Gave. She believed the young lady who had appeared to her was the Virgin Mary. At first the church authorities disbelieved her but since then Lourdes has become one of the greatest centres for pilgrimage in Western Christendom. BEVAN, FRANCES EMMA [18271909] Daughter of the bishop of Chichester who after marriage in 1856 became associated with the Open Brethren. She was a hymn writer who published her first collection of hymns in 1858 including many translated or paraphrased from the German. BURNS, FRANCIS [1809 1863] Burns was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia" \o "Liberia" Liberia. He was the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary_Bishop_(Methodist_Church)" \o "Missionary Bishop (Methodist Church)" Missionary Bishop and the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American" \o "African American" African American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" Bishop of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" \o "Methodist Episcopal Church" Methodist Episcopal Church being elected in 1858. Born into a slave state he was placed in the service of a farmer who allowed him to go to school during the winter months. He was converted at 15 and felt led to preach but he was under indentures until the age of 21. He however pursued knowledge and became the first coloured teacher in a white school, and became licensed as a preacher. In 1834 he accompanied a missionary to Liberia as a Missionary Teacher. He was ordained in 1844. He opened an academy in Monrovia in 1851 and in 1858 the Liberian Conference elected him as their first bishop. He worked for a further five years with failing health and he returned to the USA dying a mere three months after HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" \o "Emancipation Proclamation" Emancipation in the United States. Bishop Burns was buried in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monrovia" \o "Monrovia" Monrovia, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia" \o "Liberia" Liberia. CALLINICUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1858-1861] see 1847 and 1861. GREEK EVANGELICAL CHURCH Its first leader, Michael Kalopothakes, a native of Areopolis near Sparta came under the influence of Protestant missionaries, having attended a missionary school run by two missionaries of the Southern Presbyterian Church of the United States. As a student in Athens he attended the meetings of Jonas King [see 1830] but the missionaries had no intention of establishing a Protestant church in Greece. Strong opposition compelled Kalopothakes and other Greeks to organise an evangelical church. After graduating in medicine he attended the Union Theological Seminary in New York, and in 1858 organised the first church in Athens, opened the first Sunday school, and in 1871 erected the first evangelical building at the foot of the Acropolis. He became the first agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Parallel to this movement was a similar evangelical effort among the Greeks in Asia Minor, Turkey, where a number of churches were organised. In 1922-23 as a result of war, the Greeks had to evacuate Asia Minor, and the evangelicals in Turkey came to Greece as refugees, joined the local church, and also formed new congregations in different areas. The church continues today. HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS [1819-1888] Founder of the Paulist Order. Born in New York City of German parentage he became a Roman Catholic in 1844 and entered the Redemptorist Order. After studying in Belgium, Holland, and England he was ordained in 1845 and worked with Roman Catholic German immigrants after returning to America in 1851. Because of an unauthorised trip to Rome he was excluded from his order, but freed from his vows by Pius IX to found in 1858 the Missionary Priests of St Paul the Apostle to convert Protestants. LOURDES Famous town in south-west France which gained fame in 1858 when a 14-year-old resident Bernadette Subirous [see above] reported 18 visions of the Virgin Mary. After the first vision, crowds began to accompany her to the grotto on the riverside but only Bernadette saw the visions. In one of the visions she was instructed to dig for a spring which gushed forth as she dug and is still flowing. Spring water is used for sacramental baths by pilgrims. In other visions the Virgin told her that she the Virgin was the Immaculate Conception [see 1854] and instructed Bernadette to have a chapel built and to encourage pilgrims to attend. Thousands of cures have been reported and by 1959 fifty eight of them had been officially designated as miracles. MACKENZIE, JOHN [1835-1899] Scottish missionary to South Africa under the London Missionary Society in 1858. He settled among the Ngwato at Shoshong from 1864 to 1876 and gained the confidence of Kgama III. He was convinced that the protection of the Africans demanded the extension of British rule to the Zambezi and therefore became politically involved as a government representative and as a promoter of imperial expansion in Britain. In this he was repeatedly frustrated principally by his fellow imperialist Cecil Rhodes whose motives and methods differed fundamentally from his. His final years were spent as a missionary at Hankey Cape Colony. MACLAREN, ALEXANDER [1826-1910] Baptist minister who was pastor at Portland Chapel Southampton from 1846-1858 and Union Chapel Manchester from 1858 to 1903. He was classified as the prince of expository preachers. His sermons drew vast congregations and in the pulpit he expounded evangelical certainties yet his writings show him prepared to accept a critical position. MacLaren was twice president of the Baptist Union and first president of the Baptist World Alliance in 1905. He strove unsuccessfully to unite the Baptist and Congregationalist denominations. PATON, JOHN GIBSON [1824-1907] Pioneer Presbyterian missionary to the New Hebrides. He was educated the University of Glasgow and for a decade from 1847 was a city missionary at Glasgow. Paton and his wife left Glasgow in 1858 for the island of Aneityum in the New Hebrides and subsequently became the pioneer missionaries on the island of Tanna. In 1859 his wife died in childbirth, and by 1862 Patton was in almost daily danger of his life and was forced to leave the island. He became a travelling ambassador for the New Hebrides mission. He was in Scotland in 1864 where he secured recruits and remarried then moved to the island of Anwai where he saw the conversion of the majority of the islanders. After many years of hard labour on the islands in the 1880s he made Melbourne in Australia his headquarters for work to support the mission. Until his death he travelled the world for the mission. At the Ecumenical Missionary Conference in 1900 in New York he was recognised as a great missionary leader. RAWSON, GEORGE [1807-1889] Rawson was an English Congregational layman, born in Leeds, where he practiced many years as a solicitor. He contributed to various books. His knowledge of music and his gifts as a hymn writer led the Congregational ministers of Leeds to call on him for assistance in compiling the Leeds Hymn Book, 1853. In 1858 he assisted Dr. Green and other Baptist ministers in the preparation of Psalms and Hymns for the Use of the Baptist Denomination. His Hymns, Verses, and Chants, published in London in 1876, contained eighty original pieces. His Songs of Spiritual Thought appeared in 1885. His best known hymn is By Christ redeemed, in Christ restored; 1859ANTONELLI, GIACOMO [1806-1876] Cardinal and secretary of state for Pius IX [see 1848]. His work and policy consisted of generally resisting, unsuccessfully, the final and revolutionary overthrow of the popes political rule and its incorporation into the kingdom of Italy [1859-61, 1870]. BOSCO, JOHN [18151888] Roman Catholic founder of the Silesian Order which has now spread worldwide. He was born in poverty and ordained as a priest in 1841 and worked in Turin for the betterment of poor boys, establishing night schools, workshops, and eventually a technical school. In 1859 he established the Society of St Francis of Sales (Salesians) [see below]. Reason, kindness, and the Christian faith were the basis of his educational philosophy known as the preventive system. His motto was as far as possible avoid punishing try to gain love before inspiring fear. DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT [1809-1882] English naturalist who graduated from Christ College Cambridge in 1831. His theory of evolution was formulated during a five-year voyage around South America. In 1837 he opened his first notebook on the Transmutation of Species but hesitated until 1849 before publishing his Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Lifelong vacillation between agnosticism and faith was accompanied by psychosomatic pain. Originally intending to become a clergyman, by 1850 he declared himself agnostic. In 1857 at the Oxford meeting of the British Association, T. H. Huxley as Darwins bulldog attacked Bishop Samuel Wilbeforce [see 1869] whose ridicule and lack of science was open target for Huxley. Fears that the new theory would brutalise humanity were well founded. Herbert Spencer opposed the betterment of the unfortunate because it might hinder selection by survival of the fittest. Marx, Nietzsche and Hitler justified war on the same grounds. Darwins inner conflict continued into old age, according to the duke of Argyle unrelieved by his wifes prayers and Bible reading. Some credence is given to his nurses record however that the epistle of Hebrews brought him final consolation. FAUSSET, ANDREW ROBERT [1821-1910] Anglican scholar who graduated from Trinity College Dublin in 1843. He was rector of St Cuthberts York from 1859 until his death. Evangelical and pre-millennialist he was a prolific writer and editor. HATCH, EDWIN [1835-1889] Anglican minister who graduated from Oxford and in 1859 was appointed professor of classics at Trinity College, Toronto. His most important work was his Bampton Lectures on The Organisation of the Early Christian Churches which aroused considerable controversy, especially in High Church circles. They argued that the Christian episcopate had derived from the financial administrators of Greek religious associations. His hymn Breathe on me Breath of God is still in common use. HEPBURN, JAMES CURTIS [1815-1911] Missionary to Japan who was born in Pennsylvania and decided to become a medical missionary. In 1840 he and his wife joined the Presbyterian Board, but were invalided home after five years in Java, Singapore, and Amoy. From 1859 they were among the Protestant pioneers to Japan. Though preaching was forbidden Hepburn diligently applied himself to learning Japanese while living in a Buddhist temple. His lifetime of devoted service included the opening of the first dispensary, initiating classes for medical students, inventing a system for Romanising Japanese sounds, compiling the first Japanese-English dictionary, helping found an university, and playing a major part in the Japanese translation of the Bible which was completed in 1888. IRELAND [see also 1642] Two vital factors affected Christianity in this period. First was the vigorous impact of the ministry of John Wesley who preached in many parts of Ireland and while his influence was greatest where English settlers were most numerous, the cause he fostered has been permanently established throughout Ireland. The second and very important factor was the revival in 1859 which was wider in scope and deeper in its effect. Most branches of the Protestant Church receive benefit from the movement. The onward progress of Christianity in Ireland has been closely identified with its political life. As a general rule Roman Catholics have been nationalists and republican in their outlook while the Protestant population has sought to maintain their link with Great Britain. MIDLANE, ALBERT [1825-1909] British HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet" \o "Poet" poet who wrote several hundred HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymns, most notably HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There%27s_a_Friend_for_Little_Children" \o "There's a Friend for Little Children" Theres a Friend for Little Children and Revive Thy work O Lord. Born the youngest in a large family his father died in 1824. Brought up in a Congregational church at the age of 23 he joined the Plymouth Brethren but remained committed to Sunday school teaching and hymn writing. He was encouraged to start writing at a young age by his teacher, and he wrote his first hymn Hark! In the presence of our God in September 1842 while visiting HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carisbrooke_Castle" \o "Carisbrooke Castle" Carisbrooke Castle. His hymn, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There%27s_a_Friend_for_Little_Children" \o "There's a Friend for Little Children" Theres a Friend for Little Children, was written in 1859. He later published several of his own hymn books, including Jewish Childrens Hymn Book, Bright Blue Sky Hymn Book, Gospel Echoes Hymn Book and The Gospel Hall Hymn Book, each of which contained hundreds of his hymns. He never accepted any money for his writing, and as such became HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankrupt" \o "Bankrupt" bankrupt. Generosity from his fans meant that this was later revoked. SALESIANS [The Salesian Society of St John Bosco] The society was founded in Turin by Giovanni Bosco [see above]. It is the third largest Roman Catholic order which in 1970 had over 20,000 members throughout the world and was supporting over 1500 institutions. The order maintains 140 mission stations in Asia, Africa, and South America and cares for more than half a million orphans. Pius IX gave the order apostolic approval in 1868. SOUTHERN AFRICA ZIMBABWE Attention was drawn to Central Africa by the travels and writings of David Livingstone [see 1841]. The London Missionary Society established missions at Inyati in 1859 but general Christian penetration of Zimbabwe followed its occupation by the Chartered Company in 1890. The pattern of evangelism and education was similar to that which evolved in South Africa. The Christian Council of Zimbabwe promoted common action and several of its member churches with the Roman Catholic hierarchy confronted, from 1968, the Smith regime after the Unilateral Declaration of Independence. WILLARD, FRANCES ELIZABETH CAROLINE [1839-1898] Educator and temperance leader who was born in New York but grew up on the Wisconsin frontier. She graduated from Northwestern Female College Evanston in 1859 where she was converted, later becoming a Methodist. Never married, she taught for some years and became prominent in the Temperance movement [1879] and helping to organise the Prohibition party in 1882. She was also a womens rights reformer being president of the National Council of Women. 1860ALLEN, YOUNG JOHN [1836-1907]. Young was an American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Southern_Methodist_Episcopal_Mission" \o "American Southern Methodist Episcopal Mission" American Southern Methodist Episcopal Mission during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. He arrived in China in 1860 and for the five years of the American Civil War was cut off from support causing him to work in a number of occupations. Allens most influential work was in the field of education, as he worked at a government school before founding the Anglo-Chinese College in Shanghai. He was also a strong force in educating women at a time when that was very radical for Confucian society. His efforts helped to found the McTyreire School for girls. Allen also published several newspapers and magazines as a form of both evangelism and education, which influenced many Chinese reformers of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" \o "Self-Strengthening Movement" Self-Strengthening Movement and prompted philosophical discussions comparing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" \o "Christianity" Christianity and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism" \o "Confucianism" Confucianism. His publications were popular among many Chinese for their attention to Western concepts of international relations, economics and the natural sciences. BLISS, PHILIP PAUL [18381876] America Baptist hymn writer who was converted at the age of 12 and joined the Elk Run Baptist Church. He worked on farms and wood cutting until entering the Normal Academy of Music in New York. He was a famous bass and became a musical associate of D.L. Moody [see 1873]. He and his wife were killed in a train crash. On 29 December 1876 the Pacific Express train which Bliss and his wife were travelling in approached HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashtabula,_Ohio" \o "Ashtabula, Ohio" Ashtabula, Ohio. While the train was in the process of crossing a trestle bridge, which collapsed, all carriages fell into the ravine below. Bliss escaped the carriage but the carriages caught fire and Bliss returned to try and extricate his wife. No trace of either body was discovered. Ninety-two of the 160 passengers are believed to have died in what became known as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashtabula_River_Railroad_Disaster" \o "Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster" Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster. Found in his trunk, which somehow survived the crash and fire, was a manuscript bearing the lyrics of the only well known Bliss gospel song for which he did not write a tune. I Will Sing of My Redeemer His hymns included Man of Sorrows, What a Name. I will sing of my Redeemer Wonderful words of life FABRI, FRIEDRICH [1824-1891] German mission executive. He was appointed inspector of the Rhine Mission in 1857 and was particularly interested in the expansion of the work in South Africa. On his initiative the highly successful Sumatra field was opened in 1860. He founded the West German Association for Colonisation and Export in 1880 to pressure for a colonial policy. In 1884 he retired from the Rhine Mission, accepted an honorary professorship in Bonn and spent his last years in colonial agitation. HIEROTHEOS Patriarch of Antioch [1860-1885] see also 1843 and 1885. JOACHIM II Patriarch of Constantinople [1860-1863, 1873-1878] succeeded Cyril VI [see 1855]. There is no additional information readily available. JOWETT, BENJAMIN [1817-1893] English classicist and theologian who was educated at Oxford and elected a fellow there while he was still an undergraduate in 1838. He was ordained in 1842 and wrote commentaries on the Epistles of Paul [1855] and through an essay on scriptural interpretation contributed to Essays and Reviews in 1860. He fell under suspicion of unorthodoxy and ceased to write on theological subjects. He worked to secure the abolition of theological tests for university degrees and offices. His classical learning was almost unsurpassed in his day and he was known as the Great Tutor. KAEHLER, MARTIN [1835-1912] German Protestant theologian who spent his entire academic career from 1862 until his death at the University of Halle. He was strongly influenced in his theological development by Rothe, Tholuck, Muller, Beck, and von Hofmann. In one of his books he opposed the tendency of biblical scholars to drive a wedge between the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the Apostles. He said that the real Jesus is not the portrait of Jesus of Nazareth which historians are able to reconstruct, but the Christ of faith who is experienced again and again by the Christian community (the real Christ is the preached Christ). KEIM, KARL THEODOR [1825-1878] German Protestant theologian and church historian who was professor at Zurich from 1860 to 1873. He concentrated on the history of primitive Christianity and the Protestant Reformation. He rejected the historicity of the fourth Gospel altogether though he argued for the primitive nature and primacy of Matthew. LYNE, JOSEPH LEYCESTER [1837-1908] Religious community leader, as Father Ignatius he revived the Benedictine monasticism in the Church of England. He was ordained deacon in 1860 and started communities at Claydon in 1863 and Norwich in 1864. In 1870 Lyne began building a monastery in Wales. He was often away on missions and in fund raising including an extended visit to America in 1890-91. During these times the life of the abbey became unsettled. Despite his ritualism his theology was soundly evangelical after his conversion 1866. He rejected penance and purgatory as detracting from Christ finished work. Crowds flocked to his simple preaching of Christ as Saviour. Gladstone put him among the first of contemporary orators. MABILLE, ADOLPHE [1836-1894] Swiss missionary to South Africa who went to Lesotho in 1860 with the Paris Evangelical Mission. Apart from enforced absences and an expedition to the East Transvaal in 1873 he spent his entire ministry at Morija where he operated a printing press and established normal, Bible, and theological schools. He initiated a local synod arousing resentment by his negative attitude to tribal custom. The British annexation of Lesotho in 1868 which prevented Boer domination owed much to his advocacy. Cape Colony took over the administration and they tried to disarm the Basuto, so Mabille helped to obtain the transfer of Lesotho from them to direct British rule in 1884. MAZZARELLA, BONAVENTURA [1818-1882] Italian patriot, preacher, and philosopher. He studied at Naples and as a barrister and judge fought against poverty, ignorance, and social injustice. He was actively involved in liberation movements and the war of 1848. He was persecuted and left Italy. During the time he was away he came in touch with the Gospel and was converted. Mazzarella first joined the Waldensian Church but soon found a more congenial atmosphere in the rising Free Italian Church [see 1853] caring for a large community of believers in Genoa. In 1860 he became professor of pedagogy at Bologna and then Genoa, a next to impossible achievement for a non-Roman Catholic. He was one of the finest intellects of Italian evangelism who championed the cause of religious liberty and the interests of the much neglected southern regions of Italy, and was much respected for his moral integrity and deep humanity. METHODIST NEW CONNEXION entered China in 1860, immediately after the signing of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Tianjin" \o "Treaty of Tianjin" Treaty of Tianjin, which virtually opened all China to the Christian missionaries. The pioneers of the movement were Rev HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Innocent&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "John Innocent (page does not exist)" John Innocent and Rev W. N. Hall, who established themselves in Tianjin, which was then a pioneer mission field. Hall died of fever in 1878, but Innocent survived, and was the Nestor of the Mission. There were three preaching rooms in the city of Tianjin, one being in the main thoroughfare, and in these daily preaching was maintained. On the English concession there was a large mission establishment, consisting of a training college for native students for the ministry, missionaries houses, and a boarding school for the training of native women and girls in Christian life and work. Rev. J. Robinson-Brown was the principal of the college, and Miss Waller was in charge of the school for girls. The largest mission of this Society was in the north-east portion of the province of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandong" \o "Shandong" Shandong, where about fifty native churches were maintained in an agricultural district extending over about three hundred miles. The headquarters of this circuit were in Chu Chia, Lao-ling district, where were situated the mission houses, and a medical dispensary and hospital. Another mission was opened at the Tang-san Collieries, near Kai Ping, in the north of the province of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chih-li" \o "Chih-li" Chih-li. This under the charge of Rev. F. B. Turner rapidly extended having a church in the ancient city of Yung-ping-fu, near the old wall, and also several rural chapels in the district round Kai Ping. The work of this Society was chiefly carried on by native agency; a large number of efficient men had been trained and qualified by means of the training college. Several native women were also set apart as Bible women to their own sex. One of these, Mrs. Hu, laboured in this capacity for nearly twenty-five years, and was the first such agent ever employed in China. This Mission in 1890 numbered seven missionaries, two medical agents, one lady agent, forty-six native helpers, and six female native helpers. It had over thirteen hundred communicants, and about two hundred and fifty scholars in its day and boarding schools. ROBERTS, ISSACHAR JACOX (1802 1871) Roberts was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China. Roberts graduated from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furman_University" \o "Furman University" Furman University, a Baptist school in Greenville, South Carolina. He was known for his erratic behaviour and falling into difficulties with nearly everyone who worked with him, which cost his connection with Southern Baptist Convention. Roberts was the only Baptist known to have influenced HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan" \o "Hong Xiuquan" Hong Xiuquan who led the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" \o "Taiping Rebellion" Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) against the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. Hong spent two months studying with Roberts at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou" \o "Guangzhou" Canton in 1847. Roberts refused Hongs request for baptism, perhaps due to a misunderstanding. In 1860 Roberts left Canton for the Taiping capital at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" \o "Nanjing" Nanjing. He was dismayed to find that the beliefs of the Taiping departed widely from his own Christianity, but nevertheless accepted a post as advisor to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Rengan" \o "Hong Rengan" Hong Rengan, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_minister" \o "Foreign minister" Foreign minister at the Taiping court. While there Roberts arranged for some Baptists from the United States to visit Nanjing and meet Hong directly. He left in January 1862 on board the British gunboat Renard following a dispute with Rengan, and was thereafter fiercely critical of the Taiping. SOGA, TIYO [c.1829-1871] The First African ordained minister in South Africa. Soga was the son of a Christian mother and entered Lovedale Seminary in 1844 and went to Scotland for theological training [1851-1856]. As a minister of the United Presbyterian Church he served at Mgwali [1857] and Tutura [1868] proving himself a fine preacher and a faithful pastor. His work on the revision of the Xhosa Bible and a translation of Pilgrim Progress in 1866 revealed great literary ability. He died at the early age of 42. WHITING, WILLIAM [1825-1878] Hymn Writer. The original hymn Eternal Father, strong to save was written by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whiting_(English_poet)" \o "William Whiting (English poet)" William Whiting of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchester,_England" \o "Winchester, England" Winchester, England, in 1860. It was originally intended as a poem for a student of his, who was about to travel to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States. In 1861, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bacchus_Dykes" \o "John Bacchus Dykes" John B. Dykes, an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican clergyman, composed the tune Melita for this hymn. Melita is an archaic term for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta" \o "Malta" Malta, an ancient seafaring nation and the site of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipwreck" \o "Shipwreck" shipwreck involving the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostle_Paul" \o "Apostle Paul" Apostle Paul. It became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymn often associated with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy" \o "Royal Navy" Royal Navy or the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy" \o "United States Navy" United States Navy and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" \o "United States Marine Corps" United States Marine Corps. Accordingly, it is often known as The Navy Hymn. 1861-1870 AD 1861BAKER, SIR HENRY [18211877] English baronet and hymn writer. Baker was the son of Vice Admiral Henry Loraine Baker. He attended Trinity College at Cambridge and was ordained in 1844 and be came assistant curate at Great Hockesley, near Colchester, Essex. In 1851, he became Vicar of Monkland Priory Church in Herefordshire, England, where he served most of his life. Upon his fathers death in 1859, Baker assumed the family baronetcy. From 1860 to 1877, he was editor-in-chief of the Anglican Hymns Ancient and Modern, and contributed twenty five hymns, tunes, and translations. This historic hymnal sold 60 million copies. His best known hymns were The King of Love my Shepherd is and Lord, Thy word abideth. His friend HYPERLINK "http://www.cyberhymnal.org/bio/e/l/l/ellerton_j.htm" John Ellerton reported that Bakers dying words were from his famous hymn: Perverse and foolish oft I strayed, But yet in love He sought me, And on His shoulder gently laid, And home, rejoicing, brought me. ELLICOTT, CHARLES JOHN [1819-1905] Bishop of Gloucester. Educated at Cambridge where he was elected a fellow in 1845. He was a vicar in Rutland from 1848 and afterwards professor of divinity at Kings College, London from 1858 to 61, and Hulsean professor of divinity at Cambridge from 1860 to 61. He became dean of Exeter 1861 and the bishop of Gloucester two years later until his resignation in 1905. He was chairman of the New Testament Revision Company for 11 years and wrote a series of highly acclaimed commentaries on most of the Pauline epistles. INDRE MISSION The popular name of the Danish Church Home Mission Society, an evangelical movement within the Danish national church. It was formed in 1861 by some Pietistic clergymen and laymen from the awakened circles. Toward the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century the Mission spread as a dynamic revival movement all over Denmark; many clergymen joined it, numerous laymen were employed as preachers, and gradually meeting houses were built all over the country. In the later 20th century the mission has become a recognised and established party within the church but at the same time has lost much of its original zeal and spiritual power and to some extent even drifted away from its original biblical and evangelical position. JACOB Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1861-1865] see 1858 and 1866. LINCOLN, ABRAHAM [1809-1865] 16th President of the United States who was raised on frontier farms. He was a self educated lawyer who became president in 1861. A Republican, he attracted support through simplicity of manner, his defence of established authority, his fusion of farmers and industrialists, his equation of slaverys expansion with threats to Northern prosperity, and his recognition of the inferior condition of the black Americans. His election prompted the lower South to secede and his intransigence on secession in turn led the upper South to rebel and sparked the Civil War. Assassinated by a Southern sympathiser within days of his forces gaining the victory, he epitomised the nations ideals of self-reliance, opportunism, and churchless religion. NICOLAI [Ivan Kasatkin] [1835-1912] Russian Orthodox missionary bishop to Japan. He offered as chaplain to the Russian Consulate in Hokkaido, became a monk, and took the name Nicolai. Arriving in Japan in 1861 he acquired a deep knowledge of the Chinese and Japanese languages. Christianity being a prohibited religion he proceeded cautiously. Not until 1868 did he baptise his first three converts. Returning to Russia in 1869 he was responsible for the constitution of the Orthodox Mission. With the lifting of prohibition against Christianity he returned to Japan in 1873 and built a cathedral in Tokyo and was consecrated bishop in 1880 and archbishop in 1906. He encouraged the indigenous aspect of the church selecting promising young men to evangelise their own people. At his death there were 30,000 converts. NOEL, CAROLINE MARIA [1817-1877]. Caroline Noel was born in London. Her first hymn Draw nigh unto my soul was written when she was 17. During the next three years she wrote about a dozen pieces. From 20 years of age to 40 she wrote nothing; and during the next 20 years the rest of her pieces were written. The first edition of her composition was published as The Name of Jesus and other Verses for the Sick and Lonely in 1861. This was enlarged from time to time and subsequently changed by the publishers to The Name of Jesus and other Poems. She, in common with Charlotte Elliott, was a great sufferer, and many of these verses were the outcome of her days of pain. They are specially adapted for the sick and lonely and were written rather for private meditation than for public use, although several are suited for the latter purpose. Her best known hymn is At the Name of Jesus. NOMMENSEN, LUDWIG INGWER [1834-1918] German missionary to Sumatra. He was apprentice to a schoolmaster and entered the Rhine Missions school at Barmen in 1857. In 1861 he was sent out to the missions new field of Sumatra and soon proved to be a man of great resolution and faith. His ministry among the Bataks proceeded slowly until a number of the chiefs were converted and then Nommensen was overwhelmed by a great movement of over 103,000 Christians in 1911 and undreamed-of problems of church organisation. He decided it should be a Batak not a Western church but in fact the churchs organisation was patriarchal and the missionaries held all the positions of influence and authority until German control ended in 1940. RICASOLI, BETTINO [1809-1880] Italian politician and patriot who worked for the unity of Italy and was minister of Tuscany, and later after Cavours death in 1861, prime minister of Italy. In touch with the leaders of Tuscan evangelism and with Swiss Protestant circles he was greatly influenced by them and hoped for a reform of the Roman Catholic Church. He never however severed his connection with the latter. SOUTHERN AFRICA MALAWI The attempt of the Universities Mission to Central Africa to enter Malawi in 1861 ended in disaster. The Scottish missions which arrived in 1875 exercised widespread influence from their headquarters at Livingstonia [Free Church] and Blantyre [Church of Scotland]. The Dutch Reformed Church also entered this field in 1896 and joined the Scots in the Church of Central Africa Presbyterians in 1926. The UMCA undertook work among Muslims in the 1890s. STRONG, AUGUSTUS HOPKINS [1836-1921] American Baptist pastor and educator who graduated from Yale and Rochester Theological Seminary and Berlin. Ordained in 1861, Strong held pastorates in Massachusetts and Ohio. He was president of the Rochester Theological Seminary from 1872 to 1912 and was also professor of biblical theology. He was conservative in his views but was open to certain trends developing late in the 19th century such as theistic evolution and German idealism. Strong served as president of the American Baptist Missionary Union from 1892 to 1895. TOLSTOY, LEO [1828-1910] Russian novelist and social reformer who was born into a family of the ruling class and after serving in the Crimean War returned home to write and study. In 1861 he freed his serfs. In the midst of his fame he experienced a mystical transformation and cast his lot with the peasants, adopting their dress and labouring in their trades. He rejected Russian Orthodoxy and evolved his own form of faith, emphasising as a central creed the non-resistance to evil. Disowning his title and his wealth he turned over his property to his wife. In his later years he became embittered and left his home in company with his daughter. WEIZSACKER, KARL HEINRICH VON [1822-1899] German Protestant theologian who was successor to F.C. Baur [see 1845] as professor of church history at Tubingen in 1861. In his work on the history of the gospels he attempted to provide a reunion between the radical criticism of Baur and the concepts of the more conservative criticism. He also rejected the teachings of Baur that there was conflict between the epistles of Paul and Peter in early Christianity. His translation of the Bible into German was widely appreciated. Weizsacker held offices from time to time in both church and academic life. 1862AMERICAN SOUTHERN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian missionary society of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_the_United_States" \o "Presbyterian Church in the United States" Southern Presbyterian Church founded in 1862 that was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty. CAIRD, JOHN [18201898] Scottish theologian who was educated at Glasgow and ordained in 1845 and having ministered in a number of churches became professor of theology at Glasgow in 1862. He preached what Dean Stanley called The greatest single sermon of the century before Queen Victoria on Roman 12:11. The sermon was translated into several languages. DYKES, JOHN BACCHUS [1823-1876] English composer who studied at Cambridge. He is important for his hymn tunes, a large number which have become extremely popular such as Holy Holy Holy Lord God Almighty and Lead Kindly Light. His style found numerous imitators and while he has been much criticised, he possessed a remarkable gift of providing memorable and readily singable melodies. DIMITRIOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1862-1870] see 1854 and 1874. He attended the opening ceremony for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_canal" \o "Suez canal" Suez Canal on 17 November 1869 during which he met the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Sultan" \o "Ottoman Sultan" Ottoman Sultan HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BCl%C3%A2ziz" \o "Abdlziz" Abdlziz. The see was vacant from 1870 to 1874 JAPAN [see also 1549 and 1925] The first Protestant missionaries, the Rev John Liggins and Bishop Channing-Williams of the Episcopal Church arrived in May 1859. Later that year the Presbyterian missionary Dr James Hepburn [see 1859] and two missionaries from the Reformed Church arrived while the following year the Baptists sent their first. The first church was established in 1862 and in 1865 thousands of secret Christians, descendants of the 17th century Catholic believers, revealed themselves. Intense persecution followed, but that was eased in 1873 when the edicts banning Christianity were removed. Ivan Kasatkin, later known as Bishop Nikolai, founded the Eastern Orthodox Church and saw it grow to 30,000 members. From the 1870s Christian groups emerged in Japan, at Yokohama under the Rev John Ballagh, at Kamumoto under Captain L. Janes, at Sapporo under Doctor W.S. Clarke [see 1876] at Nagasaki under Doctor G. Verbeck [see 1869], and others. From these groups came many Japanese leaders in this period of rapid growth from 1880-1889, notably Yuzuru Neeshima, Kanzo Uchimura, Masahisa Uemura, and Yoichi Honda. Numerous interdenominational bodies were founded such as the Japan YMCA [1880], Scripture Union [1884], Christian Endeavour [1886], and the Bible Society [1890]. The catastrophic influence of liberal theology which made its first appearance in 1885 was being increasingly felt in the church. Japan eventually saw a revival in 1904 led by Barclay Buxton and Paget Wilkes [see 1897]. KGAMA III [c.1828-1923] African Christian chief who was baptised in 1862 by H.C. Schulenbourg of the Hermansburg Mission and soon proved himself an uncompromising Christian. He became chief of the Ngwato in 1875 and tried to apply Christian standards of government despite strong opposition. He opposed many tribal customs, banned the liquor trade, dispensed even handed justice, and refused to alienate tribal lands to white men. He was extremely patient and magnanimous to other members of his family who opposed him. He consistently supported the London Missionary Society but had somewhat strained relations with some missionaries. He accepted a British protectorate in 1885 and was successful in avoiding control by the Chartered Company. His grandson Seretse Khama became first president of Botswana. LONGLEY, CHARLES THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1862-1868]. He was born atRochester, the fifth son of the recorder of Rochester. He was educated at Westminster School and at Oxford. He was ordained in 1818, and was appointed vicar ofCowley, Oxford, in 1823. In 1829 he was elected headmaster of Harrow School. He held this office until 1836, when he was consecrated bishop of the new see of Ripon. In 1856 he became bishop of Durham and in 1860 he became archbishop of York. Two years later he was transferred to Canterbury. Soon afterwards the questions connected with the deposition of Bishop John William Colenso were referred to Longley, but, while regarding Colensos opinions as heretical and his deposition as justifiable, he refused to pronounce upon the legal difficulties of the case. The chief event of his primacy was the meeting at Lambeth, in 1867 of the firstPan-Anglican conference of British, colonial and foreign bishops. His published works included numerous sermons and addresses. He died atAddington Park, nearCroydon. While headmaster of Harrow School, he married in 1831 and had six children some of whom later became prominent in society. He succeeded John Bird Sumner [see 1848] and was succeeded by Archibald Campbell Tate [see 1868]. MOOREHEAD, WILLIAM GALLOGLY [1836-1914] American biblical scholar educated at Xenia Seminary and was ordained into the Presbyterian Church in 1862. For some eight years Moorehead was a missionary to Italy. From 1873 to 1914 he was professor of Greek exegesis and biblical literature at Xenia Seminary. An editor of the Scofield Bible he was also a leader in the Bible Conferences and Student Volunteer movements and visiting lecturer at several Bible schools. He was also a dispensationalist and wrote tracts and essays as well as biblical commentaries. ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA [1830-1894] Anglican poet who was educated at home and later helped her mother run a school. A High Anglican she had ill health which led to a secluded life and intensified her religious attitudes. She published several books in prose for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Rossetti wrote a number of poems some of which are sung as hymns such as In the bleak midwinter and Love came down at Christmas. STUNDISTS Russian evangelical sect tracing their origin to a group of Bible students in south-west Russia about 1845. Bohnekamper, a Reformed pastor conducted pietistic devotional hours [stunden] for Russian peasants as well as German settlers. Under his son Karl the religious movement called Stundism arose about 1862. It freed itself from all connection with the Reformed Church and became purely Russian in character. Despite persecution by church and state, Stundism spread widely with the majority gradually linking with the Baptists. 1863BURGOS, JOSE [1837-1872] A Spaniard born in the Philippines who was the theologian curate at Manila Cathedral. From 1863 he led a group of clerics in action for rights in the Philippines and produced a manifesto. With Mariano Gomez and Jacinto Zamora he headed reform committees. CASWELL, EDWARD [1814-1878] Hymn writer, son of an Anglican vicar, educated at Oxford. Ordained in 1840 he converted to Roman Catholicism and joined J H Newman in 1850. He translated such hymns as When morning gilds the skies and Jesu the very thought of Thee and composed himself See amid the winter snow, publishing Hymns and Other Poems in 1863. DARBOY, GEORGES [1813-1871] Archbishop of Paris. From humble origins he became chaplain at a school where he occupied increasingly important posts. As bishop of Nancy he showed a deep interest in education. He was the archbishop of Paris from 1863. So strongly did he oppose the definition of papal infallibility that he tried to persuade Napoleon III to intervene at Vatican Council I. He eventually submitted and exemplified important pastoral instructions by his distinguished care for the needy during the siege of Paris 1870-71. He was executed by the Commune while blessing his executioners. DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE [1831-1902] Scottish Old Testament scholar who was born in a poor Aberdeenshire family which made considerable sacrifices for his education at Aberdeen. After three years school-teaching during which he mastered Hebrew and some modern languages he entered New College in Edinburgh, the theological training school of the free Church of Scotland. Licensed as a preacher in 1856, he was subsequently assistant and then in 1863 successor to the famous Rabbi Duncan as professor of Hebrew and oriental languages. He was also an influential member of the Old Testament revision committee [1870-1884]. He is now best remembered for his Introductory Hebrew Grammar published in 1874 which was known as a textbook to many generations of students. GAVAZZI, ALLESANDRO [1809-1889] Italian patriot and religious reformer. He joined the Barnabite Order [see 1533] and taught in their schools in various Italian cities. A great orator, he began to promote the cause of liberalism and Italian freedom against ecclesiastical authorities and the Jesuits, who tried vainly to silence him. He was enclosed in a convent until being liberated at the election of Pope Pius IX who sent him as a chaplain with the papal volunteers fighting with Charles Albert against Austria in the first war of independence in 1848. Disappointed with the papacy he joined the many Italian exiles who had founded the Italian Evangelical Church in London. Lord Palmerston suggested hiring a hall in Oxford Street where crowds went to hear him denounce papal abuses and Jesuits politics. He travelled widely in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in 1859 returned to Italy to join Garibaldi in the Wars of Independence. Disagreeing with the Waldensians, he spent a number of years unsuccessfully trying to join the Free Italian Church. He became disillusioned and embittered, rejected by his friends, he died in Rome. GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE [1805-1872] French Roman Catholic scholar. After an irreligious youth he studied theology at Strasbourg and was ordained in 1834. In 1863 he was appointed professor of moral theology in the Sorbonne. He was elected to the French Academy four years later. He first opposed papal infallibility, but submitted to the decrees, being much concerned for renewal in French church life which led to his work in restoring the Oratory [see 1564]. NEW APOSTOLIC CHURCH In 1863 the senior apostle of the Catholic Apostlic Church, F.V. Woodhouse, excommunicated the movements German prophet Heinrich Geyer for recognising new apostles to replace those who had died. As a consequence the New Apostolic Church was founded in Germany, and it continued to flourish even under Hitler, whom Johann Bischoff patriarch from 1932 to 1960 claimed to be Gods special emissary. There are now branches in a number of other countries. SEVENTH DAY ADVENTISTS A religious denomination that grew from the work of William Miller [d.1849] [see 1833] who began to preach that the end of the world was at hand and that a fiery conflagration would usher in the new heaven and new earth. He predicted it would occur between 1843 and 1844. When this did not occur the fervour was largely diminished, a few however continued to believe that the end was near. One of these Hiram Edson saw a vision of Christ entering a second compartment of heaven proving to Edson that Millers prophetic calculations were correct. The Sabbath keeping was confirmed by visions especially those of Ellen G. White who died in 1915 [see 1846] whose importance to the movement cannot be overstressed. White, though possessing only a third grade education, wrote 45 major books and 4000 articles. The denomination was organised in 1863 and by 1874 their first missionary J.N. Andrews was sent out. In addition to the Sabbath they teach about soul sleep and abstain from certain foods as well as smoking, drinking, card playing, gambling, worldly entertainment and dancing. They conduct extensive medical programs as well as promoting healthy foods. SMALL, JAMES GRINDLAY [1817-1888] James Small was a Scot born at Edinburgh, in 1817, the son of George Small, and attended Edinburgh High School. Converted in 1834, he published two volumes of poetry, The Highlands and Other Poems in 1843, and Songs of the Vineyard in Days of Gloom and Sadness in 1846. Educated at the University of Edinburgh, he studied under Dr. Chalmers and became a minister of the Free Church of Scotland in 1847, serving at the Free Church of Bervie, near Montrose. Greatly interested in hymnology, Small published Hymns for Youthful Voices in 1859. His most famous hymn, Ive Found a Friend, O such a Friend was first published in The Revival Hymn Book in 1863. SOPHRONIUS III Patriarch of Constantinople [1863-1866] succeeded Joachim II [see 1860]. There is no additional information readily available. WARING, ANNA LAETITA [1820-1910] Poet and Hymn Writer. She was born at Neath in Glamorganshire, South Wales, where it seems she spent her whole life. It has been said of her Few authors are so sensitive or shy of publicity as Anna Waring. She has written her heart into her hymns, but particulars of her life and education are concealed from us. Her hymns were first introduced into America by a minister named F.D. Huntingdon in 1863. Though her early upbringing was among the Quakers, she was impressed by the sacraments of the Anglican Church, and identified herself with that body in 1842. She wrote hymns in her teens and completed 39 of them by 1863. In order to read the Old Testament in the original, she learned Hebrew. She had a gentle but merry spirit and did helpful work for the Discharged Prisoners Aid Society. Her ninety years of life were a blessing to all who knew her or read her poems and hymns. She is best remembered for the hymn In heavenly love abiding WILLIAMSON ALEXANDER [1829 1890] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people" \o "Scottish people" Scottish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" \o "London Missionary Society" London Missionary Society. He was known for his scholarship and translation work as well as founding of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_Diffusion_of_Christian_and_General_Knowledge_Among_the_Chinese" \o "Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge Among the Chinese" Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge Among the Chinese or the Christian Literature Society for China. Born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falkirk" \o "Falkirk" Falkirk, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" \o "Scotland" Scotland he was the eldest of seven sons and trained at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_University" \o "Glasgow University" Glasgow University with the aim of going to China as a missionary. He completed his arts and theological studies, and offered himself to, and was accepted by, the London Missionary Society for the mission field in China. For seven years he worked in evangelism, Chinese literary studies, and travelling. His health and strength wore out and he came home to Scotland on furlough from 1858-1863 to recover. In 1863 Williamson returned to China with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bible_Society_of_Scotland" \o "National Bible Society of Scotland" National Bible Society of Scotland as its first agent there. He started at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yantai" \o "Yantai" Yantai in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandong" \o "Shandong" Shandong Province and then travelled extensively distributing copies of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language" \o "Chinese language" Chinese. During this period he visited HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" \o "Beijing" Beijing, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia" \o "Mongolia" Mongolia, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria" \o "Manchuria" Manchuria. In August 1869, his younger brother and fellow missionary, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Williamson_(LMS_Missionary)&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "James Williamson (LMS Missionary) (page does not exist)" James Williamson also of the London Missionary Society, was murdered near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianjin" \o "Tianjin" Tianjin. Between 1871 and 1883 he was back at Yantai with the Bible Society and also with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_United_Presbyterian_Mission" \o "Scottish United Presbyterian Mission" Scottish United Presbyterian Mission [see 1796] In 1883 he had to return to Scotland for health reasons. While he was there he founded the Book and Tract Society for China later renamed in 1887: the Christian Literature Society for China. Williamson returned to China again and was in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai" \o "Shanghai" Shanghai in 1886, when his wife died. He died four years later at Yantai in 1890. He was 61. 1864 CLOUGH, JOHN EVERETT [1836-1910] American Baptist missionary who was the overseer of a mass movement to Christianity among the Telegus of South India. In 1864 he and his wife sailed to India to a mission that three times the Baptists had been about to give up in discouragement. He allowed the mission to continue along Indian lines and the flow of converts became a flood after the famine of 1876-8 in the relief of which he played a significant role. When he left India in 1910 the Baptist Telegu Mission had reached 60,000 members. CROSBY, FANNY [1823-1915] Fanny Crosby was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putnam_County,_New_York" \o "Putnam County, New York" Putnam County, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" \o "New York" New York to poor parents, John and Mercy Crosby. At six weeks old, she caught a cold and developed inflammation of the eyes. The family physician was not available, and a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quack" \o "Quack" quack who came in his place recommended HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_plaster" \o "Mustard plaster" mustard plasters as treatment. The botched procedure HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindness" \o "Blindness" blinded her. Her father died when she was one year old, so she was raised by her mother and grandmother. These women grounded Crosby in Protestant Christian principles, helping her, for example, memorise long passages from the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible. Crosby became an active member of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Street_Methodist_Church" \o "John Street Methodist Church" John Street HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" \o "Methodist Episcopal Church" Methodist Episcopal Church in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York City. At age 15, Crosby enrolled at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Institute_for_the_Blind" \o "New York Institute for the Blind" New York Institute for the Blind. She remained there for seven years. During that time she learned to play the piano and guitar and to sing. In 1843, she joined a group of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobbying" \o "Lobbying" lobbyists in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C." \o "Washington, D.C." Washington, D.C. arguing for support of education for the blind. From 1847 to 1858, Crosby joined the faculty at the New York school, teaching HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_studies" \o "English studies" English and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History" \o "History" history. She married HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Van_Alstyne&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Alexander Van Alstyne (page does not exist)" Alexander Van Alstyne, a blind musician and fellow teacher, in 1858. At his insistence, she kept her maiden name. They had one daughter, Francis, who died while a baby. In 1864 she published 2000 hymns of which some 60 are still in common use including Safe in the Arms of Jesus, To God Be the Glory, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_the_Way_My_Savior_Leads_Me" \o "All the Way My Savior Leads Me" All the Way My Saviour Leads Me and Blessed Assurance Jesus is mine DODS, MARCUS [1834-1909] Scottish biblical scholar who graduated from Edinburgh and in 1864 became minister of Renfield Free Church Glasgow, a position he held until he was called to the chair of New Testament criticism in New College Edinburgh. In 1890 a complaint was brought against him in the General Assembly that he had denied the inerrancy of Scripture, but it was dismissed, and a more liberal view in his church was consolidated with the passing of the 1892 Declaratory Act. EAST AFRICA TANZANIA Bishop Tozer in 1864 moved the headquarters the Anglo Catholic University Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) from Malawi to Zanzibar, and in 1868 the Holy Ghost Fathers arrived from the island of Reunion. Soon the various missionary societies began to penetrate the mainland. The UMCA landed at Tanga and worked inland as well as working up to the north bank of the Rovuma River in the south. Before the German occupation of the country, all the missionary societies were British and included the Anglican Church Missionary Society (CMS) in the central area and the London Missionary Society (LMS) along Lake Tanjanyika. With the declaration of the German protectorate in 1885 Lutheran and Moravian missionaries began to arrive. The Bethel Mission started work in Dar es Salaam in 1887, and in 1891 Moravians took over part of the work of the LMS south of Lake Victoria. In 1893 the Leipzig Mission took over the work of the CMS along with Chagga people at the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro where the latter society had run into difficulties with the German administration. On the Roman Catholic side the Holy Ghost Fathers were followed by the White Fathers in 1879 and the Benedictines in 1888. By 1914 most of the country had been occupied by missionary societies, but under the British occupation most of the German missionaries were interned in World War I, and in 1920 they were all repatriated when the country came under British mandate. Replacements came from America and Scandinavia. In 1925 the German missionaries were allowed to return but in 1940 they were interned again during World War II but the Lutheran Church of America took care of the German Mission stations. Post-war, all the churches strengthened their work and local autonomous churches were established. The largest Protestant body was the Lutheran Church. The Anglican Church set up several dioceses and in 1970 it became a separate province of the Anglican Communion. GESS, WOLFGANG FRIEDRICH [1819-1891] German theologian who studied at Tubingen where he came under the influence of F.C. Baur [see 1845] and J. T. Beck [see 1836]. After serving as assistant minister to his father he taught at the missionary college Basle [1850] before becoming professor at Gottingen in 1864. Gess came from the Wurttemberg Pietism which stressed biblical theology and Christian experience, but which adopted a looser attitude towards biblical inspiration. HANKEY, ARABELLA KATHERINE [1834-1911]. She was an English hymn writer, the daughter of a banker, who had a story to tell. Though the members of her family were prominent members of the Anglican Church, they were always associated with its more evangelical faction. Her father was one of the influential members of the Clapham Sect. Early in life Katherine, or Kate, as she was affectionately known, caught this same evangelical concern from her father. She began organising Sunday School classes for rich and poor throughout London. These classes had a profound influence throughout the city with a large number of the young students in turn becoming zealous Christian workers. Kate also did considerable writing, including such works as Bible Class Teachings, a booklet on confirmation, as well as a number of books of verse. All of the royalties received from these publications were always directed to some foreign missions project. When Katherine was only thirty years of age, she experienced a serious illness that left her bedridden for an extended period. During a long period of recovery she wrote a lengthy poem on the life of Christ. The poem consisted of two main sections, each containing fifty verses. From this came the words of Tell Me the Old, Old Story MAXWELL, JAMES LAIDLAW [1836-1921]. Maxwell was the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan" \o "Taiwan" Taiwan (Formosa). He served with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Presbyterian_Mission" \o "English Presbyterian Mission" English Presbyterian Mission. Maxwell studied medicine at Edinburgh and practiced in London before being sent to Taiwan in 1864. He donated a small printing press to the church which was later used to print the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Church_News" \o "Taiwan Church News" Taiwan Church News. In the following year he established the first Presbyterian church in Taiwan. His mission at first centred in the then capital Taiwan Fu. In 1868 he moved near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cijin" \o "Cijin" Qijin where his work, both medical and missionary, became more appreciated. In early 1872 he advised HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" \o "Canada" Canadian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_Canada" \o "Presbyterian Church in Canada" Presbyterian missionary pioneer HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Leslie_Mackay" \o "George Leslie Mackay" George Leslie Mackay to start his work in northern Taiwan, near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamsui" \o "Tamsui" Tamsui. He had two sons, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Preston_Maxwell" \o "John Preston Maxwell" John Preston and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Laidlaw_Maxwell,_Jnr" \o "James Laidlaw Maxwell, Jnr" James Laidlaw Jnr, both of whom later also became medical missionaries. He retired in London in 1885 where he formed and became the first secretary of the Medical Missionary Association. He and his sons oversaw the construction of Sin-lu Hospital in Tainan, the first western-style hospital in Taiwan. The younger J. L. Maxwell served in the Tainan hospital from 1900 to 1923. PIERPOINT, FOLLIOT SANDFORD [1835-1917] was a hymnist and poet. Born at Spa Villa, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" \o "Bath, Somerset" Bath, England, he was educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens%27_College,_Cambridge" \o "Queens' College, Cambridge" Queens College, Cambridge graduating in classical honours in 1871. Pierpoint was a classics schoolmaster and a devout HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractarian" \o "Tractarian" Tractarian. He taught at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somersetshire_College&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Somersetshire College (page does not exist)" Somersetshire College, spending most of his life in Bath and the south-west. He published The Chalice of Nature and Other Poems His most famous hymn is HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_the_Beauty_of_the_Earth" \o "For the Beauty of the Earth" For the Beauty of the Earth first published in 1864. RITSCHL, ALBRECHT [1822-1889] German Protestant theologian who was the son of the evangelical bishop and studied at various German universities becoming professor at Bonn from 1852 to 1864 and Gottingen from 1864 to 1889. He began his career as a disciple of F.C. Baur [see 1845]. He rejected the concept of a penal wrath of God. Christs death he said was not a propitiation of just judgement but the result of His uttermost loyalty to his vocation. Christs object was to bring men into the same fellowship with God by sharing His own consciousness of Sonship which he preserved to the end. For Ritschl religion was always social. SYLLABUS OF ERRORS A list of 80 propositions condemning the doctrines of liberalism attached to a papal encyclical issued by Pius IX in 1864. The first approach towards drawing up the syllabus came from the provincial council of Spoleto in 1849 which requested a condemnation of modern errors. The syllabus was arranged under 10 headings, Pantheism, Naturalism, and Absolute Rationalism; Modern Rationalism; Indifferentism and False Toleration in Religious matters; Socialism, Communism, Secret Societies, Bible Societies, and Liberal Clerical Associations; the Church and its Rights; the State and its Relation to the Church; Natural and Christian Ethics; Christian Marriage; Temporal Power of the Pope; and Modern Liberalism. The Syllabus of Errors caused problems in Belgium, France and Germany. WALDENSTROM, PAUL PETER [1838-1917] He was a Swedish theologian and churchman who studied at Uppsala and then taught biblical languages and theology at Gayle, a seaport on the Gulf of Bothnia. Ordained in 1864 he found the theological outlook of the national church depressing. Deeply interested in the revival movement, he stressed Scripture rather than creeds and insisted that salvation came through a personal commitment to Christ. He resigned from the national churchs ministry in 1882 and worked with the Evangelical National Association, a movement founded in 1856 for the reform of religion in Sweden. In 1878 he organised the Swedish Mission Covenant. Many of its members migrated to the USA where they formed what is now the Evangelical Covenant Church. Many say his devotional writings are the best reading after the Bible. WHITELAW, THOMAS [1840-1917] Scottish Presbyterian minister and biblical scholar who was educated at St Andrews and the United Presbyterians Theological Hall in Edinburgh. He was ordained in 1864 and held ministries in Glasgow and Kilmarnock but refused a call to Australia. However he was a special commissioner of the United Free Church at the union of Australian Presbyterian Churches in 1901. He wrote a number of commentaries. WOODSWORTH, JAMES [d.1917] Canadian Methodist minister who was ordained into the ministry in 1864. The same year he was sent to the Portage la Prairie circuit in the West where he served the rest of his life. He was for many years superintendent of Northwest missions for the Methodist Church. 1865ABOTT, EDWIN [1838-1926] Educationalist and writer who was appointed headmaster of the City of London School in 1865 and resigned in 1889 to devote himself to study and writing. He wrote biographies of Francis Bacon, Cardinal Newman and Thomas Becket. Having written Flatland a story of a two dimensional world he concluded that miracles came from a fourth dimension. BARINGGOULD, SABINE [18341924] Born in Exeter and educated at Cambridge. He was a hymn writer who wrote Onward Christian Soldiers for a Sunday School procession. In 1881 after a number of incumbencies he appointed himself rector of Lew Trenchard in Devon which had been the family seat for 300 years. He was the author of The Lives of the Saints in 15 volumes which has the distinction of being banned by the Roman Catholic Church by its placing on its Index. BOMPAS, WILLIAM CARPENTER [18341906] Pioneer Anglican bishop of the Canadian North who was educated privately and ordained a deacon in 1859. In 1865 he volunteered for missionary work in the Yukon. He quickly earned the respect of the Indians and Eskimos and translated the New Testament into many of their languages. He also founded hostels and schools. He was a bishop in Canada from 1874 to 1905. His many travels and his endurance of cold and famine earned him the title Apostle of the North and left a permanent mark on missionary work in the Yukon. BOOTH, CATHERINE [1829-1890] So called Mother of the Salvation Army and wife of William Booth [see 1878] who was the daughter of a Wesleyan preacher. She was educated at home and later joined the Brixton Wesleyan Church from which she and William were expelled for her religious zeal. They married in 1855 and had eight children. In 1865 after years of itinerant preaching they returned to London and set up the Christian Revival Association, a forerunner of the Salvation Army. For many years she laboured on though never out of pain. She died of cancer in 1890 with 36,000 attending her funeral at Olympia. CHINA INLAND MISSION is an interdenominational HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Missionary_society&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Missionary society (page does not exist)" missionary society, founded in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" \o "United Kingdom" Britain by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Taylor" \o "Hudson Taylor" Hudson Taylor [see below] on 25 June 1865. It was founded on principles of faith and prayer. From the beginning it recruited missionaries from the working class as well as single women, which was a new practice for a large agency. Even today, no appeals for funds are made, instead a reliance upon God is practiced to move people through prayer alone. The goal of the mission that began dedicated to China has grown to include bringing the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel" \o "Gospel" Gospel to the millions of inhabitants of East Asia who have never heard or had access to the message of Jesus Christ. Reluctantly, along with the departure of all foreign Christian workers in the early 1950s, the China Inland Mission redirected all of its missionaries to other parts of east Asia, to continue the work and maintain a ministry to China and the Chinese. The name was officially changed to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Missionary_Fellowship" \o "Overseas Missionary Fellowship" Overseas Missionary Fellowship in 1964. HANBY, BENJAMIN RUSSELL [1833-1867] Hanby was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer" \o "Composer" composer who wrote approximately 80 songs, the most famous of which are HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nellie_Gray" \o "Nellie Gray" Darling Nelly Gray and the hymn Who Is He In Yonder Stall?. Hanby was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio" \o "Ohio" Ohio and was educated at Otterbein University. He was the son of Bishop William Hanby. After graduation Hanby briefly taught school and then became a minister in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_United_Brethren_in_Christ" \o "Church of the United Brethren in Christ" Church of the United Brethren in Christ. During his tenure as minister of a church near HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio" \o "Dayton, Ohio" Dayton he composed Who Is He In Yonder Stall? Hanby was involved in the Ohio Underground Railroad which was a means of assisting runaway slaves from the south accessing freedom in Canada. In 1865 Chicago publisher HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Root" \o "George Frederick Root" George Frederick Root brought Hanby to Chicago to pursue some publishing ventures. Hanby died there from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis" \o "Tuberculosis" tuberculosis in 1867 MANNING, HENRY EDWARD [1808-1892] Cardinal, archbishop of Westminster. Educated at Harrow and Oxford he was an Anglican until his 40s, then Roman Catholic from 1851 and helped to consolidate the Catholic revival in England. He began as an Anglican Evangelical ordained in 1832, then archdeacon of Chichester in 1841. He was supported by Cardinal Wiseman [see 1850], amid opposition from older Catholic families, who took personal interest in him ordaining him a priest in 1851 and then appointing him inspector of schools in the Westminster diocese in 1856. In 1860 Manning became the chief English defender of papal temporal power. Upon Wisemans death in 1865, Pius IX made Manning new primate and he became a cardinal in 1875. He generally supported Gladstones policies. PALMER RAY [1808-1887] Congregational minister who at thirteen years of age he became a clerk in a dry goods store in Boston, where he identified himself with the Park Street Congregational Church, whose pastor, Dr. S. E. Dwight, discerning the promise of great usefulness in the boy, took a deep interest in him, inducing him to go to Phillips Academy, Andover, where he prepared for Yale College, from which institution he was graduated in 1820. The next year he lived in New York City, taking up the study of theology privately and supporting himself by teaching in a womans college. From 1835 to 1850 he was pastor of the Congregational Church at Bath before moving to pastor the First Congregational Church of Albany until 1865. He then for thirteen years (1865-78) lived in New York City and filled the office of Corresponding Secretary of the American Congregational Union. He then retired to private life. Between 1829 and 1881 he published eleven volumes including hymnals. He is regarded by many as the greatest hymn writer that America has produced, and his hymn My faith looks up to thee as the greatest hymn of American origin. He also translated and promoted Jesus, thou joy of loving hearts by Bernard of Clairvaux [10901153] SALVATION ARMY Founded by William Booth [see 1878] as the Christian Mission in East London in 1865 which took the name Salvation Army in 1878. It was an essentially evangelical movement, biblically orientated, theologically conservative. Their basis of belief includes the divine inspiration of the Bible, the doctrine of the Trinity, the salvation of believers by faith through grace, the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the body, and the final judgement. The distinctiveness of the Army includes an Arminian emphasis on free will and a holiness experience which can be subsequent to conversion, both of which can be traceable to William Booths Methodist origins, and the non-observance of the sacraments of baptism and the Lords Supper. By 1879 William Booth commanded 81 stations manned by 127 full-time evangelists with another 1000 voluntary speakers holding 75,000 services a year. In 1878 the first brass band appeared at an Army event with bands soon springing up everywhere, and the uniform was adopted two years later. The Army was faced with the appalling social needs of Victorian London. The sensational case in which William Booth son Bramwell was involved in exposing the white slave trade forced the Army into prominence and within five years thirteen homes for girls in need of care and protection had been set up in the United Kingdom and a further 17 overseas. The first Prison Gate home for discharged prisoners was opened in Melbourne in 1883. Other social action included cheap food depots, an unofficial employment exchange, a missing persons bureau, night shelters, a farm colony, soup kitchens, leper colonies, wood yards in the United States of America, home industries in India, hospitals, schools, and even a lifeboat for the fishermen of Norway. Permeating it all was the basic concern for personal salvation as had been the motivation from its beginning. The Salvation Army were very prominent in serving people in the World Wars where they gained a lot of respect for their service. SPURGEON, CHARLES HADDON [1834-1892] Baptist preacher whose father and grandfather were Independent pastors. Early in 1850 he was converted at the Primitive Methodist Chapel in Colchester Essex into which he had entered because of snowy weather. Spurgeon became pastor of the Waterbeach Baptist Chapel in 1851 and three years later was called to the New Park Street Baptist Chapel Southwark London which he soon filled to overflowing necessitating the building of the Metropolitan Tabernacle in 1859. In 1856 he began the Pastors College for training men called to preach the gospel, an establishment which still continues today as Spurgeons College. In 1865 he was one of the founders of the London Baptist Association and four years later established an orphanage now known as Spurgeons Homes. Other charitable religious organisations he founded or supported included Temperance and Clothing societies, a Pioneer Mission, and Colportage Association. He suffered periodic bouts of illness which sometime kept him out of the pulpit. He fought battles against hyper Calvinism and Arminianism in his early ministry. Spurgeon was an evangelical Calvinist who read widely and especially loved the 17th century Puritans. He last preached at the Tabernacle in June 1891 and died the following January in the south of France. TAYLOR, JAMES HUDSON [1832-1905] English missionary pioneer who was the son of a Methodist chemist. He was converted at 17 and soon felt a strong call to China. He landed in Shanghai in 1854 after completing part of medical training, as an agent of the short lived Chinese Evangelisation Society. The inefficiency of its home base threw him back on faith and prayer to support and a succession of providences caused him to server connection. He adopted Chinese dress and in 1858 married Maria Dyer in Ningpo despite the opposition of other missionaries who viewed him as a poor unconnected nobody. Invalided back to England he bore a burden for the Chinese millions without Christ which grew even stronger. As the Chinese Empire opened up he could find no mission willing to back him so he founded the interdenominational China Inland Mission in 1865 asking God to send 24 willing skilful labourers two for each un-reached province. They sailed in 1866, and Maria died four years later. Despite opposition from other missionaries and mandarins and some internal dissension, the China Inland Mission established itself as the shock troops of Protestant advance. By 1895 he led 641 missionaries which was about half the total Protestant missionaries in the country. His example led to other faith missions being founded. Among his main emphases were identification with the people such as all missionaries to wear Chinese dress, the direction of the mission to be from the field, not the home base, and dependence on God for provision. Hudson Taylor retired in 1901 and died four years later in Changsha, capital of the last province to open. WANGEMANN, HERMANN THEODOR [1818-1894] German mission executive who studied theology and became director in 1849 of a Lutheran teachers college. He was appointed director of the Berlin Mission in 1865 and held that position until his death. He was strong willed and somewhat authoritarian with some calling the Berlin Mission Wangermann Mission. His first love was the South African field, which he visited on two occasions, but was not enthusiastic about the missions moved to China in 1882 and German East Africa in 1890. He was seldom interested in cooperative efforts with other missions either at home or abroad. 1866BUSHNELL, HORACE [18021876] American Congregational minister and theologian who was ordained as pastor of the North Church at Hartford Connecticut [18331859]. He argued that conversion should be educative rather than sudden and in The Vicarious Sacrifice of 1866 declared Christs atonement as an illustration of the eternal principle of love rather than a satisfaction by which God was reconciled to man. CHINA After a period of isolation of over 100 years China was opened up again in 1841. The China Inland Mission under Hudson Taylor commenced to send protestant missionaries into all Chinese provinces making a great impact on Chinese society with its hospitals, schools, and churches. [1601-1900] CHRISTIAN SCIENCE was founded in 1866 as a religion which has its origin in Mary Baker Eddy who claimed it came to her by direct revelation and that the book Science and Health, With a Key to the Scriptures was written under divine dictation although she conceded that a clergyman edited the bad grammar. There are around 3,000 churches worldwide of which 2000 are in the United States. The church has no preachers or sermons but have First and Second readers who read passages from the Bible and from Science and Health. They believe Jesus is not God, and that he neither died on the Cross nor rose from the dead. DIX, WILLIAM CHATTERTON [1837-1898] Dix was born in Bristol, the son of a surgeon. William Dix father wrote a biography of poet Thomas Chatterton and gave his son his middle name in his honour. Young William attended the Bristol Grammar School for a commercial career. After school he became the manager of a marine insurance company in Glasgow, a vocation which he followed to the end of his life. At the age of 29 he was struck with a near fatal illness and consequently suffered months confined to his bed. During this time he became severely depressed. Yet it is from this period that many of his hymns date. His best known hymn was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_with_Gladness_Men_of_Old" \o "As with Gladness Men of Old" As with Gladness Men of Old. His heart was in the poetry of worship. He wrote more than 40 hymns over the course of his life. GUINNESS, HENRY GRATTAN [1835-1910] Evangelist and writer who was the ordained as an evangelist in 1857 and preached in Europe and America [1857 1872]. He had a part in the conversion of Doctor Barnardo in Dublin in 1866. He founded the East London Institute for training missionaries in 1873 and the Livingstone Inland Mission in the Congo in 1878 and other missions in South America and India. All these societies were in 1899 amalgamated into the Regions Beyond Missionary Union which supported nearly 100 and sent out more than 1000 missionaries. HOPKINS, GERARD MANLEY [1844-1889] English poet, educated Oxford where he was influenced in art by the Pre-Raphaelites and in religion by the later Tractarians [see 1833]. In 1866 he seceded to Rome and joined the Jesuits and held several teaching and pastoral posts including the chair of Greek at Dublin. On entering the order he destroyed the poetry he had written to that date. In his poems Hopkins revealed his allegiance to Duns Scotus [see 1291] rather than the official theology of the Jesuits, that of Thomas Aquinas. MATHESON GEORGE [1842-1906] Matheson was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" \o "Scotland" Scottish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" theologian and preacher who was educated at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" \o "University of Glasgow" University of Glasgow, where he graduated in classics, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" \o "Logic" logic and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" \o "Philosophy" philosophy. In his twentieth year he became totally HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindness" \o "Blindness" blind, but he held to his resolve to enter the ministry, and gave himself to theological and historical study. In 1879 the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" \o "University of Edinburgh" University of Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Divinity" \o "Doctor of Divinity" D.D. In 1890 he became a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He died suddenly of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoplexy" \o "Apoplexy" a stroke in 1906. He never married. One of his hymns, O Love That Wilt Not Let Me Go, has passed into the popular hymnology of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian Church. Matheson himself wrote of the composition: I am quite sure that the whole work was completed in five minutes, and equally sure that it never received at my hands any retouching or correction. I have no natural gift of rhythm. All the other verses I have ever written are manufactured articles; this came like a dayspring from on high. O Love That Wilt Not Let Me Go was written on the evening of Mathesons sisters marriage. Years before, he had been engaged, until his fiance learned that he was going blind and that there was nothing the doctors could do. She told him that she could not go through life with a blind man. He went blind while studying for the ministry, and his sister had been the one to care for him through the years, but now she was gone. He was now 40, and his sisters marriage brought a fresh reminder of his own heartbreak. It was in the midst of this circumstance and intense sadness that the Lord gave Matheson this hymn, which he said was written in five minutes. NICANOR Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1866-1869] see 1861 and 1870. SOCIETY OF ST JOHN THE EVANGELIST Popularly known as the Cowley Fathers the society is the oldest mens religious community in the Church of England. In 1850 R.M. Benson was appointed Vicar at Cowley and in 1866 took the vows with three others. The society has worked in India, South Africa, United States, Canada, as well as in Britain and in the 20th century played an increasing part in ecumenical affairs. 1867ANGLICAN COMMUNION originally involved England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales to which was added the Protestant Episcopal Church of the USA in 1789. Due mainly to missionary endeavours by 1971 there were some 365 dioceses including in Brazil, China, and Japan. The focal point of the Anglican Communion has been the succession of Lambeth Conferences since 1867 which started with 70 bishops at its inaugural meeting and reached 310 in 1958. In 1966 an Anglican centre was set up in Rome to facilitate better understanding between the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches with this action being endorsed at the 1968 Lambeth Conference. BETHEL INSTITUTIONS Housing for disadvantaged. Developed from a farmhouse near Bielefeld Germany with five epileptic boys which opened in 1867 as a result of revival in Westphalia, the institutions have grown, housing over 10,000 people. Besides homes for epileptics, mental patients, tramps, refugees, and youths in need of guidance, there are institutes for deacons and deaconesses, a mission to East Africa, a theological college, and secondary schools. The institutions were named Bethel by Pastor Friedrich von Bodelschwingh [see 1872]. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT [1867] was the foundation charter of the Dominion of Canada passed by the British Government. The self governing colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario after a series of conferences were joined together under a federal government. The act preserved the monarchy in British North America with a House of Commons elected by the people and a Senate appointed from three basic regions of the nation. Two key questions left to the provinces were property and education which allowed separate schools to continue and placated the French Canadians. BULLINGER, ETHELBERT WILLIAM [1837 1913] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican clergyman, Author and Theologian. His family traced their ancestry back to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" \o "Heinrich Bullinger" Heinrich Bullinger, the Swiss Reformer [see 1531]. He was educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College_London" \o "King's College London" Kings College London. He later received a Doctor of Divinity degree in 1881 from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Campbell_Tait" \o "Archibald Campbell Tait" Archibald Campbell Tait, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" \o "Archbishop of Canterbury" Archbishop of Canterbury who cited Bullingers eminent service in the Church in the department of Biblical criticism. He was ordained in 1862 and in 1867 Bullinger became clerical secretary of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinitarian_Bible_Society" \o "Trinitarian Bible Society" Trinitarian Bible Society [see 1831], a position he would hold till his death in 1913. In the great Anglican debate of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era" \o "Victorian era" Victorian era, he was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Church" \o "Low Church" Low Churchman. He is well known for his books including the Companion Bible. He was also a practiced musician. CANADA The Church since 1867 has been the tale of ecumenism with the Presbyterians being untied in 1875, most of the Methodists in 1884, and the Anglican Synod in 1893. In 1925 the Methodists and Congregationalists and a large part of the Presbyterians joined to form the United Church of Canada. The growth of liberalism continued in the 20th century with many emphasising the social implications of Christianity such as James Woodsworth [see 1864]. However there are many in the denominations who remain conservative and orthodox as well as groups such as the Brethren, Mennonites and the Fellowship of Evangelical Baptists. Missions to the Indians and Eskimos however have been overwhelmingly in the evangelical and conservative groups. [See Canada The Churches under British Rule 1763] CHALMERS, JAMES [1841-1901] Scottish missionary trained by the London Missionary Society who sailed in 1867 to the Cook Islands of Polynesia where for 10 years he continued the work begun at Rarotonga by John Williams [see 1817]. He however longed for un-evangelised areas such as New Guinea where he went in 1877. During his 24 years there despite setbacks he opened up many areas for the Gospel and established a training institution in Port Moresby seeing the whole area transformed. He was well known for his prayer, Christ-likeness and love for the people. He was murdered by cannibals during a journey to explore new territories. HOWSON, JOHN SAUL [1816-1885] New Testament scholar who was educated at Cambridge and served as a teacher and then headmaster of Liverpool Collegiate Institute. From 1867 he was the dean of Chester. He is best remembered as the co-author of the influential work The Life and Epistles of St Paul. Howson was chiefly responsible for the historical, geographical, and archaeological aspects of the work. JONES, JOHN CYNDDYLAN [1840-1930] Welsh expositor and theologian who trained for a Welsh Calvinistic ministry at Bala and Trevecca colleges. After serving as minister at English Calvinistic Methodist Church at Pontypool from 1867 for two years he became a Congregational minister in London. He returned to Wales, and ministered in Cardiff until his resignation. In 1888 he joined the staff of the British and Foreign Bible Society in South Wales. He was much influenced by American theologians such as W.G.T. Shedd [see 1888]. LAMBETH CONFERENCES The origin of these conferences was as a result of the synod of the Anglican Church in Canada which was held to discuss the Colenso Affair [see 1853]. As a result the archbishop of Canterbury C.T. Longley proposed an informal gathering of bishops which would meet at his personal invitation to discuss Anglican problems, though having no legislative powers. In 1867 the first conference of 76 bishops met, and its success ensured that calling of future conferences, which have occurred every 10 years, with the majority of Anglican bishops attending. The 1888 conference endorsed the Lambeth Quadrilateral [see 1886], the 1920 conference issued a plea for reunion addressed to the heads of all Christian communities, and in the 1958 conference the main topic was a review on race relations and family planning. Though the conference lasts a month, large themes are frequently treated superficially. PASSAVANT, WILLIAM ALFRED [1821-1894] American Lutheran clergyman, editor and philanthropist who in 1867 was one of the founders the conservative General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America. He served for the last 50 years of his life in Pittsburgh where he was a pastor until 1855 of the English Lutheran Church. He edited numerous papers including the monthly Missionary from 1856 and the Workman first published in 1881. He opened hospitals and orphanage asylums in a number of American cities. SCRIPTURE UNION Founded in England in 1867 as the Childrens Special Service Mission. Scripture Union is now an international, interdenominational evangelical youth and Bible reading movement, with offices or representatives in 70 countries. Basic activities are childrens evangelism and youth work especially through school groups. Scripture Union especially in Britain publishes books and booklets with a complete range of graded Sunday school lesson aids, storybooks for children and youth, training literature and discussion group material, as well as audiovisual material. VON HUGEL, FRIEDRICH [1852-1925] Roman Catholic philosopher and writer. Born in Florence of an Austrian diplomat father and a Scottish mother he went to England with his family at the age of 15 in 1867 and stayed there for the rest of his life. Baron of the Holy Roman Empire, Von Hugel was a student of many subjects and master of seven languages. He never held an office in the Roman Catholic Church but did have a relationship with controversialists within that organisation. He was a Roman Catholic who did not believe in Purgatory hereafter, and a mystic who walked the world with open eyes. 1868BORNHOLMERS The Danish Lutheran Mission, an evangelical laymans home mission formed within the Danish national church. Its name originates from a revival movement on the island of Bornholm in the 1860s and was officially formed in 1868. It has an evangelical basis accentuating the total depravity of man, reconciliation through Christ alone and sanctification as a consequence of salvation. In addition it accentuated individual spiritual gifts, the universal priesthood of all believers and the maximum spiritual development of all Christians. BRIGHT, WILLIAM [1824-1901] Church historian who was educated at Rugby and Oxford and after teaching there succeeded H L Mansel [see 1868] as regius professor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford in 1868. Of his numerous works the most important were History of the Church 313-451, Early English History and The Age of the Fathers. He was a High Church Anglican and a dynamic preacher. CHARTERIS, ARCHIBALD HAMILTON [1835-1908] Scottish Church leader who was royal chaplain to Victoria and Edward VIII and moderator of the Church of Scotland. Appointed to the chair of biblical criticism at Edinburgh University he was founder of Womans Guild, Young Mens Guild and Deaconess Hospital as well as the Life and Work magazine. CHRISTLIEB, THEODOR [1833-1889] German preacher and theologian who in 1865 became pastor at Friedrichaften where he influenced members of the German royal family. He became professor of pastoral theology at Bonn in 1868 holding that position until his death. He was a conservative and resisted the German biblical critics despite much opposition, and organised missionary work. EDISON, THOMAS ALVA [1847-1931] Inventor who was born in Ohio and was a newspaper boy at 11 and later became a telegraph operator. In 1868 he purchased the publication Faradays experimental researches in electricity which inspired his lifes work. Of his 1,100 inventions, the best known are the phonograph, electric lamp, and the alkaline storage battery. Edison was a strong believer in God stating the existence of an intelligent Creator, a personal God, can to my mind almost be proved from chemistry. He was motivated by a firm faith that where man faced technological problems, God had in nature supplied materials necessary to solve them. Thus despite early losses, no difficulty daunted him. FLAD, JOHANN MARTIN [1838-1915] German missionary to Ethiopia. He was a saddler by trade and was one of a number of craftsmen who were selected to a new work in Ethiopia. He went to Ethiopia in 1855 and initially was well received. He became a victim of the persecution of Emperor Theodorus II in 1864 and two years later, with the his family held hostage, Theodorus compelled him to undertake a diplomatic mission to England. After the British had forced the downfall of Theodorus in 1868, Flad was able to pursue an undisturbed ministry of literature distribution and evangelism among the Ethiopian Jews until his death. MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE [1820-1871] Dean of St Pauls who was educated at Oxford and ordained in 1844. He was appointed as a professor in Oxford in 1859 and succeeded as professor of ecclesiastical history in 1866. Two years later he was made dean of St Pauls. Mansel maintained that man acquires knowledge of the nature of God only from supernatural revelation. F.D. Maurice [see 1838] replied by challenging both Mansels concept of revelation his concept of Christianity. The conflict continued to drag on with little credit to either man. MORTON, JOHN [1839-1912] Founder of the Canadian Presbyterian Mission to the East Indians in Trinidad. The East Indians were brought into Trinidad as indentured labour for the sugar industry after emancipation, but social and religious factors inhibited their integration into Trinidadian Christianity, and Morton was sent to open a special mission for them. From 1868 until his death in 1912 he was the leader of the mission which included, besides Trinidad, work in Guyana, St Lucia, Grenada, and Jamaica. His approach was based on both education and evangelism. Although the Indian churches were small his emphasis on schools enabled the Indians for the first time to make their way in the West Indies. He was particularly enthusiastic about independent Indian settlement. TAIT, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL Archbishop of Canterbury [1868-1882]. Born in Edinburgh and educated the Royal High School, his parents were Presbyterian, but he early turned towards the Scottish Episcopal Church, and was confirmed in his first year at Oxford. He won an open scholarship, took his degree and became fellow and tutor of Balliol. He was also ordained deacon in 1836 and priest two years later. Although his sympathies were on the whole with the liberal movement in the university, he never took a lead in the matter. He succeeded Arnold at Rugby School but left due to a serious illness in 1848. He had married at Rugby in 1843 but in the spring of 1856 five of his children died because of scarlet fever. He was consecrated bishop of London later that year and was translated to Canterbury in 1868. His last years were interrupted by illness and saddened by the death in 1878 of his only son Craufurd, and of his wife. Tait as bishop of London devoted a very large part of his time at London in actual evangelistic work and to the end his interest in the pastoral side of the work of the clergy was greater than anything else. With his wife, he was instrumental in organising womens work upon a sound basis, and he did not a little for the healthful regulation of Anglican sisterhoods during the formative period in which this was particularly necessary. Nor was he less successful in the larger matters of administration and organisation, which brought into play his sound practical judgement and strong, common-sense. He was constant in his attendance in parliament, and spared no pains in pressing on measures of practical utility. The modification of the terms of clerical subscription (1865), the new lectionary (1871), and the Burials Act (1880) were largely owing to him. The Royal Commissions on Ritual (1867) and on the Ecclesiastical Courts (1881) were due to him, and he took a large part in the deliberations of both. He also promoted the healthy development of the Lambeth Conferenceson the lines of mutual counsel. On the other hand, Tait was not successful in dealing with matters which called for the higher gifts of a ruler and especially in his relations with the liberal trend in modern thought. The archbishop died in 1882 leaving a legacy of peace to the church. Tait was a churchman by conviction; but although the work of his life was all done in England, he remained a Scotsman to the end. It was the opinion of some that he never really understood the historical position of the English Church and took no pains to learn. He succeeded Charles Thomas Longley [see 1862] and was succeeded by Edward White Benson [see 1883]. WHITE FATHERS The common name for the Society of Missionaries of Africa taken from the white cassocks and mantles. The society was founded in 1868 by Charles Cardinal Lavigerie [1825-1892] archbishop of Algiers, to evangelise Africa. The Fathers are secular priests together with Lay brothers who live in community bound by oath to lifelong work in African missions and obedience to their superiors. They began their mission in Algeria and Tunisia and were unsuccessful in an attempt to penetrate the Sahara. Later they entered Buganda where they were very successful and subsequently going to Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Congo. The White Fathers were also much concerned with the abolition of slavery, improvement of agriculture, and the scientific exploration of Africa. ZAHN, THEODOR [1838-1933] German Lutheran biblical and patristic scholar who taught at Gottingen [1868-1877] followed by Kiel, Erlangen, and Leipzig. Though he was one of the greatest scholars of his day he did not have the impact that he might have had due possibly to his defence of orthodoxy in a day when this was far from popular. He was a prolific writer including twelve volumes on the New Testament. 1869 BLUMHARDT, CHRISTOPH FREDERICK [1842-1919] German evangelical leader who became an assistant to his father Johann [see 1852] in 1869 at Bad Boll and succeeded him as head of the establishment in 1880. His theology included a strong emphasis on the righteousness of God and His judgement against the flesh. He was a member of the Diet of Wurttemberg from 1900-1906. CHRISTADELPHIANS A sect founded by Dr John Thomas who emigrated from Scotland to the United States in 1832 and at first associated with the Campbellites and Millerites. Members accept the Bible as their sole authority. They reject the immortality of the soul and do not believe that Jesus Christ or the Holy Spirit is God, as well as there being no personal devil. Salvation is through perseverance in good works and through acceptance of their doctrines and baptism. DE LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON [1827-1891] German oriental and Old Testament scholar who studied theology and philology at Berlin and Halle. He rejected the pietistic faith of his father and teachers and became a lifelong foe of organised religion. He entered into a productive scholarly career in ancient oriental literature, especially the Septuagint, but his unpleasant personality made it difficult to secure a university chair. Even after receiving an appointment at Gottingen in 1869 he remained an unrestrained polemicist. GORDON, ADONIRAM JUDSON [1836-1895] Baptist minister, educator, and author, graduated from Brown University USA in 1860. In 1869 he went to Clarendon Street Baptist Church, in Boston, a centre of evangelistic and philanthropic work. He founded a school training missionaries for home and foreign service and for pastors assistants, from which came Gordon College and its divinity school. LINDSAY, THOMAS MARTIN [1843-1914] Scottish church historian who was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh and ordained in the Free Church of Scotland in 1869. Lindsay was appointed three years later to the chair of church history at his churchs Glasgow college. Lindsay was a defender of W.R. Smith in the heresy trial 1877-1881 that led to the latter deposition. He made substantial contributions to such projects as the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the Cambridge Modern History. RANKIN, JEREMIAH EAMES [1828-1904] Rankin was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolitionist" \o "Abolitionist" abolitionist and a champion of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperance_movement" \o "Temperance movement" temperance movement. He was educated at Andover and was closely associated with Howard College where he was professor of homiletics and pastoral theology, and president. He served twice as delegate to general conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and once to the Congregational union of England and Wales. Rankin is best known as author of the hymn God Be with You Til we Meet Again In 1869 Rankin became pastor of Washingtons First Congregational Church. This appointment followed a split in the church over the issue of race. Those who remained with the church felt that he was prepared to lead the church in a properly unbiased direction. While pastor of the First Congregational Church (1869-1884), Rankins sermons were popular with vice president Wilson and numerous members of Congress. SEELEY, SIR JOHN ROBERT [1834-1895] English historian educated at Cambridge and became professor of Latin at University College London in 1863 and professor of modern history at Cambridge in 1869 where he succeeded Charles Kingsley [see 1842]. He is best known for his Ecce Homo of 1865 which tells the story of Jesus and his subsequent influence on the morals of the world. As it dealt only with the human side of the story the book was construed as an attack on Christianity and gave rise to much controversy. TISCHENDORF, LOBEGOTT FRIEDRICH KONSTANTIN VON [1815-1874] German Protestant theologian and textual critic who studied at Leipzig where he was led to combine a careful concern for the Greek language with a love of the sacred text. Though he was a professor in the theological faculty at Leipzig he spent many years in the libraries of Europe and the near East searching out unpublished ancient manuscripts. During his lifetime he published more manuscripts and critical editions of the Greek New Testament than any other scholar. His most famous discovery was the Codex Sinaiticus at St Catherines monastery in Sinai which he visited several times. His critical edition of the Greek Testament from 1869 remains a basic reference tool for the New Testament scholar. VATICAN 1 This event was reckoned by Roman Catholics to be the 20th ecumenical council. The First Vatican Council was convened in 1868 and sat from December 1869 until July 1870. One of the major areas considered at the Council was the infallibility of the pope which caused significant problems in the unity of the Catholic Church and involved the loss of certain groups. The key figure in the council was the pope himself, Pius IX, who made his own convictions clear in his famous reply to one dissident bishop, Tradition? I am tradition. VERBECK, GUIDO HERMAN FRIDOLIN [1830-1898] Dutch-American missionary to Japan. Born in the Netherlands under Moravian influence he studied engineering at Utrecht and at the same time developed linguistic, literary, and musical skills. Migrating to the United States in 1852 he studied at the Presbyterian Theological Seminary in New York before being ordained and setting sail for Japan as a missionary. Verbeck established a school in Nagasaki and taught English through the Bible. At the governments request he opened a school for Japanese interpreters using the New Testament and the American Constitution as textbooks. Several of his students became prominent in national affairs. In 1869 he headed a school in Tokyo which became eventually the Japanese Imperial University. Later he was appointed official translator for foreign documents for the Japanese government. His final years were spent lecturing and preparing literature for the Japanese church. WILBERFORCE, SAMUEL [1805-1873] Bishop of Winchester and third son of William Wilberforce, Samuel was educated at Oxford. Brought up in an evangelical environment he was influenced strongly at Oxford by J.H. Newman [see 1845] and H.E. Manning [see 1865] to whom he was related by marriage. Ordained in 1828, after 10 years of parish work he became bishop of Oxford in 1845 and Winchester in 1869 being known as a High Church bishop. Prime Minister Gladstone would have made him archbishop of Canterbury but Wilberforce was killed by a fall from his horse. He debated at Oxford on Darwins Theory in 1859 which precipitated the later 19th century conflict between science and religion. WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER [1807-1885] Bishop of Lincoln and hymn writer who was a nephew of the poet Wordsworth. He had a brilliant career in classics and mathematics at Cambridge. Wordsworth was headmaster of Harrow [1836-1844]. In 1850 he held a country living until 1869 when he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. This conservative High Churchman was involved in controversy with the Wesleyans in 1873. He wrote a number of hymns. 1870BARNARDO, THOMAS [18451905] Converted by Irish Plymouth Brethren in 1862, he moved to London where he founded his first home for destitute boys in 1870. In 1882 he started sending children to Canada because of better employment prospects. By the time of his death nearly 60,000 children had been admitted to his homes, 20,000 had emigrated and he had materially helped 250,000 others. CREMER, HERMANN [1834-1903] German Protestant theologian who became professor of theology at the University of Griefswald in 1870 combining it with a city pastorate that he held until his death. He strongly resisted the liberal theology movement and reaffirmed a traditional interpretation of Pauls view of salvation. ERSKINE, THOMAS [1788-1870] This landed proprietor of distinguished ancestry and ample means lives in the history of Scotland as the most outstanding lay theologian that country has ever produced. He influenced profoundly some of the ablest men of his day including Dean Stanley, Thomas Carlyle, Benjamin Jowett, and Charles Kingsley. His book The Unconditional Freeness of the Gospel introduced to thousands a daring thinker of deep spiritual insight with something new and compelling to say about the Fatherhood of God, the nature of the Atonement, and the doctrine of election. His letters have long since taken the place as a minor religious classic and have been used as a textbook on practical Christianity in many college classrooms. FIELD, FREDERICK [1801-1885] Anglican scholar who was directly descended from Oliver Cromwell and was educated at Cambridge. He became partially deaf from an early age, the affliction worsened, and in 1863 the scholarly bachelor retired to Norwich where he devoted himself to his books. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the Old Testament Revision Company but age and infirmity prevented his attendance at meetings, however, his meticulous notes were always welcomed by his colleagues. FINDLAY, GEORGE GILLANDERS [1849-1919] Methodist biblical scholar who was born in Wales and educated at London University. He served his denominations theological colleges at Headingly and Richmond from 1870 until his retirement in 1917. Findlay contributed to The Expositors Bible, The Expositors Greek Testament, The Cambridge Bible, and The Pulpit Commentary. GILMORE, JAMES [1843-1891] Scottish missionary to Mongolia who studied at Glasgow University and in Congregationalist theological colleges before he left for Mongolia in 1870 to reopen, under the London Missionary Society, work that had long been in abeyance. After language study in Peking he went to Krechta in order to learn the Mongol language and customs. Gilmore went to live in a tent on the plains, preferring to reach the nomads rather than the settled Chinese-speaking agriculturalists who his seniors advised him to evangelise. With tremendous perseverance and despite an almost total lack of response from all except the Chinese, Gilmore persisted in his task 15 years in the face of adverse criticism. Promised colleagues failed to materialise, and his lonely, hard, self-sacrificing task seemingly made little effect on Mongolian Buddhism. LIDDON, HENRY PARRY [1829-1890] Anglican preacher who was educated at Oxford and become a member of the Tractarian [see 1833] group after the secessions to Rome. He was a famous preacher at St Pauls over the last two decades of his life. His Oxford sermons sometimes took as long as 80 minutes to deliver during which he provided exhaustive treatments of theological topics in a closely argued and deeply scholarly manner. MOULTON, WILLIAM FIDDIAN [1835-1898] Headmaster and biblical scholar who was brought up in a strongly Methodist family and entered the Wesleyan Ministry in 1858 and began tutoring in classics at Wesley College Richmond Surrey. In 1870 he was appointed to the New Testament committee working on the Revised Version of the Bible and was by far its youngest member. In 1875 he was appointed headmaster of the newly founded Leys School Cambridge and stayed there for the rest of his life. In 1897 he published A Concordance of the Greek Testament in collaboration with his son J.H. Moulton [see 1908] and A.S. Geden. NUREMBERG DECLARATION A German Old Catholic [see 1889] theological statement. It was drafted by 14 German Catholic professors at a meeting in Nuremberg in 1870 which had been called to protest the decrees of the Vatican Council. It declared firstly that Vatican I was not a true ecumenical council because it was neither free nor morally unanimous; secondly that chapters 3 and 4 of the dogmatic constitution which defined the primacy of the pope were not dogma because they had not been universally believed and taught; and thirdly that papal infallibility would stir up conflicts between church and state, Catholics and non-Catholics; and fourthly that an unfettered general council should meet in Germany. OVERBECK, FRANZ CAMILLE [1837-1905] Professor of church history at Jena [1864-1870] and of New Testament and early Christian history at Basle [1870-1897]. Overbeck was an advocate of a totally secular interpretation of the church history. Although he was a member of the Protestant faculty of theology he was a professed atheist from about 1870 and was an unrelenting critic of both orthodox and liberal theology. He was a close friend of Friedrich Nietzsche [see 1889]. PATRIMONY OF ST PETER Denotes the material wealth and possessions of the Church of Rome. Historically it refers to the lands given to the Holy See in 754 and 756 by Pepin the Short. These gifts became what were known later as the Papal States. Pepins gift is significant in that it launched the temporal power of the bishop of Rome and its corresponding events were the beginning of Romes claim to papal supremacy over the crowns of France and Germany. Papal temporal power over the vast part of Italy ended in 1870 when King Victor Emmanuel took possession of Rome as the capital of the free and united Italy. Papal economic power however was restored when Mussolini signed the 1929 Lateran Treaty. This declared Rome a holy city, returned it to the spiritual domination of the Church of Rome, and established the autonomous Vatican State. The Administration for the Patrimony of the Holy See is responsible for overseeing the Vaticans worldwide investments. Estimates in the 1970s made it clear that the Vatican could be the worlds largest business corporation. RICHARD, TIMOTHY [1845-1919] Baptist missionary to China who was born in Wales and went to China with the Chinese Evangelisation Society in 1870. Later he joined the Baptist Missionary Society. Like Ricci [see 1583] he planned to evangelise China through influencing the devoutly religious and the learned by adapting Christianity to Chinese culture and by education and literature. In 1891 he became secretary of the newly formed Christian Literature Society and started an ambitious publications programme. He succeeded finally in forming a university and remained in charge of it for its first ten years. SANKEY, IRA DAVID [1840-1908] American singing evangelist and associate of D.L. Moody [see 1886]. After service in the Union Army during the Civil War he returned to Newcastle Pennsylvania where singing soon became his chief interest. He often sang at Sunday School conventions. In 1870 as a delegate to the international convention of the YMCA, Sankey impressed D.L. Moody who persuaded him to join him in his evangelical work in Chicago. This meeting linked the two of them together for the next quarter of a century. They had a remarkable series of meetings in the British Isles from 1873 to 1875 during which the popular Sankey and Moody hymn book was published. SCHAFF, PHILIP [1819-1893] Theologian, church historian, and pioneer ecumenist, who was born in Switzerland the son of a carpenter and gained his education through scholarships eventually entering Tubingen University where he studied under F.C. Baur [see 1845]. Schaff was a brilliant student who was invited to become professor of church history and biblical literature in the theological seminary of the German Reformed Church at Mercersburg Pennsylvania where he and John Nevin [see 1840] shaped the Mercersburg Theology. From 1870 into his death he was professor at Union Theological Seminary in New York. Beginning in 1866 he was also active in the cause of Christian unity through working in the Evangelical Alliance [see 1846]. A prolific writer he published A History of the Christian Church in seven volumes and helped to prepare the Revised Version of the Bible. In 1888 he founded the American Society of Church History and served as its first president. SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON [1846-1894] Scottish Old Testament scholar who was educated in Scotland and Germany and in 1870 was appointed professor of Oriental Languages and Old Testament exegesis at Free Church College Aberdeen. Seven years later he was suspended after contributing to Encyclopaedia Britannica articles that allegedly undermined belief in the inspiration of Scripture. His uncompromising spirit led to his dismissal from the college in 1881 and he subsequently became editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and professor of Arabic at Cambridge where he also served for a time as chief librarian. SOPHRONIUS IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1870-1899] see 1866 and 1900. Sophronius III was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1863" \o "1863" 1863 to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1866" \o "1866" 1866. In HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1870" \o "1870" 1870 he was elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Patriarch_of_Alexandria" \o "Greek Patriarch of Alexandria" Greek Patriarch of Alexandria as a compromise candidate in a disputed election. He served there as Sophronius IV until his death in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1899" \o "1899" 1899. SOUTHERN AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE The 16th century Roman Catholic Mission effort faded away. During the late 19th century work was resumed through out Central Africa under the control of the White Fathers [see 1868] and in Zimbabwe by the Jesuits. In Portuguese East Africa the missionaries had the support of a Catholic government which restricted Protestant missions of which the most important were the Swiss Mission and the American Methodists. After Vatican Council II Roman Catholic pressure on Protestants eased. 1871-1880 AD 1871CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM [1815-1890] Dean of St Pauls was born in Portugal. Originally an evangelical he moved, through his association with J H Newman [see 1845], to high churchmanship. He was appointed dean on Prime Minister Gladstones recommendation in 1871. FRIEDRICH, JOHANNES [1836-1917] Church historian. Educated at Munich and ordained in the Roman Catholic Church, he lectured in the theological faculty at Munich until his retirement in 1905. Secretary to a cardinal at Vatican I, he considered papal infallibility historically indefensible and joined in opposing such a dogma. Leaving Rome before Vatican I ended, he refused to accept the decrees and in 1871 was excommunicated. The Bavarian government gave him protection in respect of his university appointment at Munich. He continued as a priest with the Old Catholics [see 1889] whom he influenced profoundly, but left them because they did not uphold clerical celibacy. GUARANTEES, LAW OF This defined the relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and the Italian kingdom after the annexation of the States of the Church. Passed by the Chamber in 1871, it determined the papal rights and prerogatives but Pius IX categorically rejected the law, refused the financial offer, and withdrew into the Vatican as a voluntary prisoner. It was formally abrogated by the Lateran Treaty of 1929. MACKAY, GEORGE LESLIE [1844-1901] Scots Canadian Presbyterian missionary born in Canada and educated at Toronto, Edinburgh, and Princeton. He was ordained in 1871. He spent the rest of his life in missionary service in Formosa, an island then scarcely touched by Protestant missionary societies. He made converts among both the Chinese and aboriginal inhabitants, built up a strong church and trained indigenous leaders. He died on the mission field. MIALL, EDWARD [1809-1881] Congregational minister who was the acknowledged leader of the movement in the 19th century to disestablishment of the Church of England. Miall for this reason left his pastorate in Leicester in 1847 and founded and edited a newspaper The Nonconformist. In 1844 he arranged a large conference called by the Nonconformists and organised the British Anti-State-Church Association which became a highly organised pressure group. Miall also promoted the concept of universal suffrage, the ballot, the repeal of the Corn Laws, and programmes for improving the living conditions of the working classes. He had two terms in Parliament and the climax in his career came when in 1871 he was stirred by what he considered to be the too favourable treatment of the Church of England in the Education Act of 1870, and he moved, although unsuccessfully, for a committee on church disestablishment. MOZLEY, JAMES BOWLING [1813-1878] Anglican theologian educated at Oxford who was closely associated with the Tractarians [see 1833] and was joint editor of the Christian Remembrancer. His examination of baptismal theology was profound and Mozley found that the evangelical case was valid and thereby became estranged from many of his former colleagues. He gave the Bampton Lectures on miracles in 1865 which defended miracles in a traditional manner. Mozley was made professor of divinity at Oxford in 1871 and died a rather isolated figure seven years later. QUARRIER, WILLIAM [1829-1903] Scottish founder of the Orphan Homes. Brought up in poverty in Glasgow after his father died. He started work at 6 years of age and became a shoemaker at the early age of 12. He became a devout Christian at 17 and never forgot the plight of slum children such as he had been. He was very successful and soon owned a number of shops, plus a shoeblack brigade, a newspaper brigade, and a parcels brigade. He said of his concern for the poor, When a little boy I stood in the High Street in Glasgow barefoot, bareheaded, cold and hungry, having tasted no food for a day and a half and I gazed at each passerby wondering why they did not help such as I. A thought passed through my head that I would not do such as they once I would get the means to help others. He opened his first home for orphans in 1871. By the 1890s Quarrier village as it was known had 34 houses, church and school, housing 1500 children at a time. He also assisted in 7000 children emigrating to Canada from 1870 to 1936. Quarrier made no appeals, had no collectors, street stalls, or entertainments for money raising purposes, relying on Gods supply. His work still functions from the village. 1872BARNETT, SAMUEL [18441913] Anglican social reformer, vicar of St Judes Whitechapel [18721893]. In 1869 he founded the Charity Organisation Society. In 1884 and 1885 he helped form the Education Reform League and advanced the Artisans Dwelling Act. During his period in Whitechapel he encouraged Christians to study social problems. BODELSCHWINGH, FRIEDRICH [18311910] German Lutheran pastor who found that teaching the Word of God to children made it come alive for him. He was also deeply moved by the loss of four of his own children in 1869. From 1872 he took charge at Bielefeld of an institution for epileptics known as Bethel [see 1867] where the disadvantaged were found useful work. He held strong views of the social responsibilities of the church and entered the Prussian Landtag in 1903. CLEPHANE, ELIZABETH CECELIA [1830-1869] Elizabeth was the third daughter of Andrew Clephane, Sheriff of Fife and Kinros s. She lived most of her life in Melrose, Scotland, about 30 miles southeast of Edinburgh. She spent most of her money on charitable causes, and was known locally as The Sunbeam. Clephanes hymns appeared posthumously, almost all for the first time, in the Family Treasury (1872), under the general title of Breathings on the Border. Her two most famous hymns were Beneath the cross of Jesus and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Ninety_and_Nine&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "The Ninety and Nine (page does not exist)" The Ninety and Nine. Folklore claims that Elizabeth wrote HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Ninety_and_Nine&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "The Ninety and Nine (page does not exist)" The Ninety and Nine for her brother, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Clephane&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "George Clephane (page does not exist)" George Clephane, who had returned to the flock only a short time before his death. As the story goes, he fell from his horse and struck his head upon a rock and was killed instantly. COMBA, EMILO [1839-1904] Waldensian historian, author, and theologian, a man of great intelligence and spirituality who was ordained as a pastor in 1863. In 1872 he was called to Florence to succeed G P Revel one of the founders of the Waldensian theological facility and taught there for 32 years. He produced a number of books on the Waldensians. GOMEZ, MARIANO [1788-1872] Filipino priest and martyr. He had long defended his fellow priests in their just grievances against the friars. When in January 1872 Filipino soldiers and workers at the Cavite arsenal mutinied and killed their Spanish officers, the government and the friars used this as an opportunity to suppress all dissent. In this connection, Gomez with his colleagues Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora were arrested, and following a secret trial with perjured witnesses, the three were garrotted before a large crowd in Manila. The three martyred priests rapidly became a symbol of united nationalism. MACLEOD, NORMAN [1812-1872] Scottish chaplain and editor who belonged to a celebrated clerical dynasty that gave six moderators to the Church of Scotland general assembly. He was Queen Victorias favourite chaplain who became widely known as editor of the immensely popular Good Words, and as a champion of the working man, and as a foreign missionary enthusiast. PROCOPIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [1872-1875] see 1845 and 1875. ROSS JOHN [1842-1915]. Ross was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people" \o "Scottish people" Scottish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_China" \o "Northeast China" Northeast China who established HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongguan_Church" \o "Dongguan Church" Dongguan Church in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenyang" \o "Shenyang" Shenyang. He is also known for translating the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language" \o "Korean language" Korean Bible. He received his education at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_University" \o "Glasgow University" Glasgow University and Theological Hall, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh" \o "Edinburgh" Edinburgh. In 1872 he was sent by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_United_Presbyterian_Mission" \o "Scottish United Presbyterian Mission" Scottish United Presbyterian Mission [see 1796] to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_China" \o "Northeast China" Northeast China, known at that time as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria" \o "Manchuria" Manchuria. John Ross went first to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yingkou" \o "Yingkou" Yingkou, then moved to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukden" \o "Mukden" Mukden (the present-day HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenyang" \o "Shenyang" Shenyang) and established a church there in 1889. This church was called HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongguan_Church" \o "Dongguan Church" Dongguan Church (East Gate Church) because it was built just outside of East Gate, as Christian churches were not allowed within the city wall. It was rebuilt after the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" \o "Boxer Rebellion" Boxer Rebellion, and is now still used as a Protestant church. While in China, John Ross met traders from Korea one day, and decided to make a Korean translation of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament" \o "New Testament" New Testament, which was completed in 1887 and brought to Korea. This was the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_translations_by_language" \l "Korean" \o "Bible translations by language" Korean version. Ross returned to Scotland in 1910, but continued to help the Scotland-China Society. 1873CHAMBERLAIN, JACOB [1835-1908] American missionary to India from the Dutch Reformed Church. He was a medical doctor who in 1859 joined the Arcot Mission in South India and established two hospitals. From 1873 to 1894 he chaired a committee to edit the Telegu Bible, and he formed a Telegu hymnal. Repeated sickness caused him to spend 10 years in the USA where he was able to encourage missionary interest. First moderator of the Synod of South India 1902. CHENEY, CHARLES EDWARD [1836-1916] Founding member of the Reformed Episcopal Church in America in 1873 in association with Bishop G D Cummins [see below]. He was a pronounced evangelical favouring the fundamentals of the Christian faith and opposed both Romanism and radicalism. He was deposed because of not associating regeneration with infant baptism but was reinstated on appeal. CROSBY, HOWARD [1826-1891] Presbyterian scholar who was a member of the New Testament Committee for the American edition of the Revised Version and moderator of the general assembly in 1873. He founded a society for crime prevention in 1877. Amongst his writings were commentaries on Joshua, Nehemiah and the whole New Testament. CUMMINS, GEORGE DAVID [1822-1875] Founder of the Reformed Episcopal Church was ordained after being a Methodist preacher for a number of years. As a low churchman he noticed that many of his colleagues were using the Book of Common Prayer which provided for greater ritualism. He tried to get the Prayer Book of 1785 accepted to change this, but failed, and as he was unable to continue to obey the churchs mandates and strictures against celebrating Holy Communion with non Anglicans he resigned his orders and in 1873 formed the Reformed Episcopal Church using the 1785 Prayer Book and having himself as presiding bishop. DAMIEN, FATHER Roman Catholic missionary priest. Born in Belgium he was trained for the priesthood by the fathers of the Sacred Heart in Paris and took the religious name Damien. He was sent in 1864 to Honolulu to be ordained as a missionary in the Sandwich Islands. In the 1860s the government decided to use the island of Molokai as an isolation settlement for lepers, but made no provision for permanent medical staff. Damien heard of the lepers plight and was allowed to join them. The colony thereafter increased to over 1000. He undertook the duties of a nurse, builder, superintendent, as well as priest. By 1885 he knew that he had leprosy, yet continued to serve the lepers right up to his death. His growing fame also created hostility among local officials and the Catholic hierarchy of the islands. The most famous defence of his character came from Robert Louis Stevenson in 1905. GREENWELL DORA [1821-1882] Dora (Dorothy) Greenwell was born into a wealthy family, but circumstances made it necessary for her father to sell the family estate, Greenwell Ford. This began a life of hardship for Dora herself. Ongoing health problems complicated what hymn historian J. R. Watson calls a sad and unfulfilled life. Dora lived for 18 years with her widowed mother, who discouraged her friendships and did not understand her longing for a fuller, freer existence. There is a possibility that she struggled later with an addiction to opium, possibly administered because of the physical pain she endured. Dora Greenwell may have been physically frail, but she had a keen mind and a loving heart. An evangelical Anglican, her longer prose works were on religious subjects, but her essays covered a variety of social causes including womens education, child labour, and the education of the learning disabled. The hymn that is most commonly associated with her is I Am Not Skilled to Understand, published in her book Songs of Salvation, in 1873. MAY LAWS Legislation associated with Bismarcks legislation against German Catholicism. Passed in May 1873 they were based on the theory of the absolute supremacy of the state. They limited the extent of Episcopal powers of excommunication and discipline, instituted a supreme ecclesiastical court whose members were appointed by the emperor and directly under state control, placed priestly training under close government supervision, and required all ordinance to pass through a state university and submit their state examinations in literature, history, and philosophy, and subjected clerical appointments by bishops to government veto. The laws were condemned by Pope Pius IX in 1875 and were also opposed by many German Protestants. They were eventually modified in 1886-87 after agreement between Bismarck and Pope Leo XIII. MOON, CHARLOTTE DIGGES LOTTIE [18401912] was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention" \o "Southern Baptist Convention" Southern Baptist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Mission_Board" \o "International Mission Board" Foreign Mission Board who spent nearly forty years (18731912) helping the Chinese. As a teacher and evangelist she laid a foundation for traditionally solid support for missions among Baptists in America. Moon was born to affluent parents who were staunch Baptists. She was very short in stature being only 1.3 metres tall. She excelled at languages including Latin, French. Greek, Hebrew, Spanish and later Chinese She underwent a spiritual awakening at the age of 18 and after the Civil War with her friend, Anna Safford, opened Cartersville Female High School in 1871. To the familys surprise, Lotties younger sister Edmonia accepted a call to go to North China as a missionary in 1872 and Lottie herself soon felt called to follow her sister. On July 7, 1873, the Foreign Mission Board officially appointed Lottie as a missionary to China. She was 33 years old. While accompanying some of the seasoned missionary wives on country visits to outlying villages, Lottie discovered her passion: direct evangelism. Most mission work at that time was done by married men, but the wives of China missionaries had discovered an important reality: only women could reach Chinese women. Gradually she began wearing Chinese clothes, adopted Chinese customs, learned to be sensitive to Chinese culture, and came to respect and admire Chinese culture and learning. In turn she gained love and respect from many Chinese people. In 1885, at the age of 45, Moon gave up teaching and moved into the interior to evangelize full-time in the areas of Pingtu and Hwangshien. Her converts numbered in the hundreds. She pleaded the desperate need for more missionaries, which the poorly funded board could not provide. She encouraged Southern Baptist women to organise mission societies in the local churches to help support additional missionary candidates, and to consider coming themselves. The first Christmas offering for missions in 1888 collected over $3,315, enough to send three new missionaries to China. Moon also argued that regular furloughs every ten years would extend the lives and effectiveness of seasoned missionaries. She suffered with the Chinese wars, famines and diseases sharing her meagre funds with them resulting in her health failing and death in Japan en route for America. Lottie Moon has come to personify the missionary spirit for Southern Baptists and many other Christians, as well. The annual Lottie Moon Christmas Offering for Missions has raised a total of $1.5 billion for missions since 1888, and finances half the entire Southern Baptist mission budget every year. REINKENS, JOSEPH HUBERT [1821-1896] Old Catholic [see 1889] bishop who was a professor of church history at Breslau University. He opposed the Vatican Councils definition of papal infallibility in 1870 joining J.J.I. von Dollinger [see 1826] in the Nuremberg Declaration. He was excommunicated. He was elected and consecrated first bishop of the German Old Catholics at Cologne in 1873 with his see at Bonn. Reinkens in turn consecrated Edward Herzog as the first Swiss Old Catholic bishop in 1876 and took a prominent part in the Bonn Reunion Conferences of 1874-75 and devoted the rest of his life largely to the Old Catholic cause. SPAFFORD, HORATIO GATES [1828-1888]. He was born in New York and by the 1860s life was good for Horatio G. Spafford and his wife Anna. They were living in Chicago with their five children, Annie, Maggie, Bessie, Tanetta and Horatio, Jr. He had a successful law practice in Chicago. Horatio Spafford was quite active in the abolitionist movement. Frances E. Willard, president of the National Womens Christian Temperance Union as well as evangelical leaders like Dwight L. Moody were often guests in their home. Spafford was a Presbyterian church elder and a dedicated Christian. However, in 1870 their faith was tested by tragedy. Their four year old son, Horatio, Jr., died of scarlet fever. In October of 1871 when the Great Chicago Fire broke out Horatio faced another test of his faith as they had invested in significant real estate. The Spaffords did not despair. Their home had been spared and they had their family. Even though their finances were mostly depleted, Anna and Horatio used what resources they had left to feed the hungry, help the homeless, care for the sick and injured and comfort their grief stricken neighbours. The Spaffords planned to leave in November 1873 on their voyage to Europe. Due to a sudden business emergency Anna and the four daughters were sent off with Horatio to follow but on November 22, 1873 the steamer Ville du Havre was struck by a British iron sailing ship, the Lockhearn. The steamer Ville du Havre, with Anna Spafford and her daughters aboard, sank within twelve minutes in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. Only 81 of the 307 passengers and crew members survived this tragic shipwreck. Anna was taken to Cardiff, Wales where she telegraphed her husband Horatio. Annas cable was brief and heartbreaking, Saved alone. What shall I do Horatio left on the next available ship and the day that they crossed the place of the disaster he penned his famous hymn It Is Well With My Soul. He died of Malaria on October 16, 1888 in Jerusalem. Anna Spafford continued to work in the surrounding areas of HYPERLINK "http://www.associatedcontent.com/topic/19209/jerusalem.html" \o "Jerusalem" Jerusalem until her death in 1923. STALKER, JAMES [1848-1927] Scottish minister, scholar, and writer who was educated at Edinburgh, Berlin, and Halle. He was ordained into the United Free Church and was the pastor of two churches before becoming professor of church history at the United Free Church College Aberdeen from 1902 to 1926. He was best remembered however as a preacher who shared in the revival movement following the 1873 Moody and Sankey mission that have a lasting effect upon him. Stalker was fearless and untroubled by personal ambition, declining a number of advancements, and encouraged every movement that carried the Gospel to the people. 1874BONN CONFERENCES where church reunion between the Catholics, Anglican, Greek and Russian churches were examined in 1874 and 1875. One of the major problems was the gap between the Eastern and Western doctrines of the Holy Spirit. Another was the refusal of the Eastern Orthodox church to commit themselves to the validity of Anglican orders. CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT began when John H Vincent, first chairman of the International Sunday School Lesson Committee, began summer camps for Sunday School teachers at Lake Chautauqua New York. Meetings are still held there in July and August. FISK, JOHN [1842-1901] American philosopher, historian, and lecturer. A highly precocious child he graduated from Harvard and was admitted to the bar without formal legal training. He turned from the Calvinism of his youth to propagating Herbert Spencers evolutionary philosophy. Claiming Evolution is Gods way of doing things he infused evolutionism with religious values in such works as Outline of Cosmic Philosophy in 1874 and The idea of God in 1885. HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS [1832-1910] German theologian and New Testament scholar who was educated at Berlin before beginning his academic career. He taught in Heidelberg from 1858 and in Strasbourg from 1874 until his retirement in 1904. In a study on the synoptic Gospels he developed a two-source theory with its dual necessity of accepting a teachings source for Matthew and Luke and the priority of Mark, which yielded the kind of portraits of Jesus compatible with the liberal psychological scheme. As a consequence Holtzman was involved in the church-political squabbles of the German pastors. He laid the foundation of the New Testament research of the 20th century. KIRELLOS V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1874-1928] see 1862 and 1929. He joined the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paromeos_Monastery" \o "Paromeos Monastery" Paromeos Monastery in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrian_Desert" \o "Nitrian Desert" Nitrian Desert, where he served as abbot prior to his elevation to Pope. In the beginning of his papacy there was a dispute between him and the members of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Congregation_Council" \o "General Congregation Council" General Congregation Council of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" \o "Coptic Orthodox Church" Coptic Orthodox Church, whose secretary at the time who went on later to become the Prime Minister of Egypt. This disagreement was despite the fact they had elected him to become the Coptic Pope and contrary to the expectations of the council, he spent the better part of his papacy at loggerheads with the council and objecting on its interference in the churchs matters. In general, his papacy was an era of regeneration for the Coptic Orthodox Church and he continued the work begun by Pope Kirellos IV in educational reform. In 1881, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopian Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohannes_IV_of_Ethiopia" \o "Yohannes IV of Ethiopia" Yohannes IVasked him to ordain a metropolitan and three Bishops for the Ethiopian Empire. Pope Cyril V chose the four monks from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=El-Muharraq_Monastery&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "El-Muharraq Monastery (page does not exist)" El-Muharraq Monastery. He was much loved in Ethiopia and once news of his death reached HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia the rulers ordered requiem masses be said throughout Ethiopia, and that government offices be closed for three days. His was the longest of papal reigns in the Coptic church. NEESHIMA, YUZURU [1843-1890] Japanese Christian leader who was born into a Samurai family in Tokyo and was determined to bring the learning of the West to Japan. He secretly left his country in 1864 and finally reached Boston where the ships owner befriended him. Schooling and seminary followed his conversion and in 1874 on fire with a desire to evangelise his own people he was commissioned as a missionary by the Congregational Church. In 1875 he found founded in Kyoto, the stronghold of Buddhism, the first Christian school in Japan. Undaunted by broken health he worked passionately to give his students an education that united sound biblical teaching with the highest academic standards. He died from overwork when only aged 46. ORR, JAMES [1844-1913] Scottish theologian educated in Glasgow and studied theology under the United Presbyterian Church. He was the minister in Hawick from 1874 to 1891. Orr taught church history at the UP Theological College from 1891 to 1901 and was then professor of apologetics and theology in Glasgow. Writing in the heyday of liberal Protestantism he contended for historical evangelicalism from the standpoint of modified Calvinism. He wrote apologetics and also contributed to The Fundamentals from 1909 to 1915. PASTOR, LUDWIG VON [1854-1928] Church historian born in Germany who by 1874 had decided to write a history of the popes. He studied at Bonn, Berlin, and Vienna and subsequently played a role in opening up the Vatican Archives to all scholars in 1883. His major work was The History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages in 16 volumes. This was based on extensive research in the Vatican and in over 200 other European archives. RAINY, ROBERT [1826-1906] Scottish minister and scholar who graduated from Edinburgh and in 1851 became minister of the Free Church of Scotland at Huntly. In 1862 he assumed the chair of church history at New College Edinburgh a post which he held for the next 44 years and with which from 1874 he combined the college principalship. He led the Free Church into union with United Presbyterian Church in 1900 and his own third term as moderator was over the United Free Church assembly. His funeral, delayed because he died in Australia, was reported as being the greatest spectacle in Edinburgh since that of Thomas Chalmers in 1847. RYERSON, ADOLPHUS EGERTON [1803-1882] Methodist leader and educationalist who was born in Canada and called to the Methodist ministry and became a successful saddleback preacher and missionary to the Credit River Indians. In 1829 he became the first editor of the influential Christian Guardian and secretary of the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Vitally concerned about education he helped found the Upper Canada Academy which became the Victoria College in 1841 with himself as principal. The educational system of Ontario after 1870 was largely based upon his 1846 Report. From 1874 to 1878 he was the first president of the General Conference of the Methodist Church of Canada and he was probably the most influential Canadian Methodist of his time. SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY [1845-1933] Professor of Assyriology who was a son of a vicar. Educated at Oxford, Sayce was ordained but did not marry and pursued a life of leisurely scholarship which took him almost every winter from 1879 to 1908 to his houseboat on the Nile. He became the first professor of Assyriology in England from 1891 until his retirement in 1919. He was a member of the Old Testament revision company [1874-1884]. He was no literalist but with his realisation of the importance of discoveries he became a wise opponent of higher critics who were so involved with their own theories of literary formation to look at the empirical evidence. SMITH, HANNA WHITALL [1832-1911] A member of a pious Quaker family who with her husband Robert Pearsall Smith was a speaker at interdenominational Higher Christian Life meetings in America and England. She was converted in 1858 under Plymouth Brethren influence at the same time as her husband, a Presbyterian layman. After 1867 she testified to a life of spiritual victory and rest through complete commitment to Christ. Her husband, originally sceptical joined her as a leader of the Christian assemblies devoted to the study of teaching on the life of victory in Christ. In 1872 they moved to England because of her husbands declining health and for two years experienced great success in interdenominational meetings devoted to biblical exposition of their new found religious experience. The movement thus initiated led to the founding of the Keswick Convention in 1874 were annual sessions are still devoted to a consideration of biblical teaching on the higher life for the believing Christian. SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED [1847-1927] Old Testament scholar of Puritan descent who was educated at Lane Theological Seminary and the University of Berlin. He taught at Lane from 1874 and was ordained as a Presbyterian and up to 1882 was a conservative. An article on Wellhausen reinforced his observation that textual corruption of the Bible implied non-infallibility. It was not however until he defended C.A. Briggs [see 1890] that he too was tried for heresy by the Presbyterian Church in 1892 and suspended from ministry. Subsequently he taught at various theological schools. STEBBINS, GEORGE COLES [1846-1945] American gospel hymn writer who studied music at Rochester, Chicago, and Boston. He served as musical director from 1874 at Bostons Clarendon Street Church and was a lifelong acquaintance of D.L. Moody, Ira Sankey, P.P. Bliss, and D.W. Whittle. For nearly 50 years Stebbins led choirs, wrote music, and worked as an evangelical music director. He authored over 1500 hymns, the best-known of which being Take Time to be Holy. STONE SAMUEL JOHN [1839-1900]. Samuel Stone is remembered as the writer of The Churchs One Foundation, was the son of Rev, William Stone. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford and served as curate of Windsor from 1862 to 1870, then of St. Pauls Haggerston where in 1874, he succeeded his father as vicar. In 1890 he became rector of All Hallows-on-the-Wall in London. St. Pauls Haggerston was in a poor section of London. Stone would open the church at 6:30 in the morning so that commuters, frequently poor working girls, arriving early could have a brief service and prayer, then have time to rest, to read or to sew. He built numerous churches; his belief was that poor people deserved beautiful churches in which to worship. His thoughtfulness earned him the title of the poor mans pastor. Stone wrote poems and hymns, publishing several collections. His hymns have been described as expressing a manly faith and being rhythmic, vigorous and scriptural. He also was a member of the committee that assembled Hymns, Ancient and Modern. He was a supporter of Bishop Gray in the controversy of Bishop Colenso over the historicity of the Bible. SVERDRUP, GEORG [1848-1907] American church leader of Norwegian descent who studied theology at Oslo and at German universities. In 1874 he was called to America as professor of theology at Augsburg Seminary Minneapolis. Sverdrup accepted the ideal of living Christianity and in his new country felt convinced that this would prosper only in the form of a free church with lay preaching and independent congregations. He became therefore the champion of the free church ideal and the Norwegian Lutheran Church was founded in 1897 and organised according to his ideas. 1875BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN [1831-1899] Scottish theologian educated at Edinburgh who in 1859 became the minister at Cardross. He transferred to Broughty Ferry nine years later and in 1875 was appointed professor of apologetics and New Testament exegesis. His writings include The Humiliation of Christ, The Kingdom of God, and commentaries on the synoptic gospels and the epistle to the Hebrews. DIXON, AMZI CLARENCE [1854-1925] Baptist pastor and author who was born in North Carolina and studied at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. He had a number of pastorates including the Moody Memorial Church in Chicago [1906-1911] and the Metropolitan Tabernacle London [1911-1919]. He was active in the conservative Bible conference prophetic movement and in evangelical crusades from about 1875. He joined R. A. Torrey [see 1900] in the publication of The Fundamentals, a 12 volume paperback series dedicated to the defence of the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith. EDERSHEIM, ALFRED [1825-1889] Biblical scholar born of Jewish parentage in Vienna who went to the University of Vienna in 1841 but was forced to leave after a few months due to the illness of his father. Shortly after, he came under the influence of the Scottish Presbyterian, John Duncan, who was chaplain to workmen on the Danube bridge at Pesth. Edersheim accompanied Duncan to Scotland and was enrolled as a student at New College, Edinburgh, and later at the University of Berlin. In 1846 he became a missionary to the Jews in Rumania and three years later was inducted as minister of the Free Church in Old Aberdeen. In 1875 he was ordained in the Church of England and was vicar of Loders, Dorset. Of his writings the most widely read was The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah 1883. GALESBURG RULE Lutheran pulpits for Lutheran ministers only; Lutheran altars for Lutheran communicants only was adopted by the Lutheran General Council meeting at Galesburg, Illinois in 1875. It was intended to preserve confessional distinctiveness threatened by practices of some Lutherans that seemed to promote unionism and Americanisation. The rule, suggested by president C.P. Krauth, was enacted at Akron, Ohio in 1872, with carefully worded provisions for exceptional cases. HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN [1803-1875] English poet, educated Oxford, who spent most of his life as a vicar on the north coast of Cornwall. Although his Anglo-Catholicism was marked by his own eccentricities he was undoubtedly sincerely attracted to the lore of the Celtic saints. There is some controversy as to whether or not he was accepted into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed. HIEROTHEUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1875-1882] see 1872 and 1882. KESWICK CONVENTION This annual summer gathering of evangelicals at Keswick in the English Lake District originated in the Moody Sankey revival of 1875 through the efforts of the then vicar of Keswick, Canon Harford Battersby. The keynotes of Keswick are prayer, Bible study, addresses, and much enthusiasm for foreign missions. Local Keswick Conventions are held in various cities. Supporters come mainly from Christians of the Reformed tradition especially evangelical Anglicans. LAWS, ROBERT [1851-1934] Scottish medical missionary who joined the Livingstonia Mission in 1875 as medical officer and second in command. As leader after 1877 he founded stations at Bandawe in 1881 and Livingstonia in 1894 and helped to develop extensive work west of Lake Nyasa. He regarded evangelism, education, industrial training, and medical work as complementary aspects of the Christian mission and gave practical expression to this belief while living at Livingstonia which he superintended from 1894 to 1927. His work there provided trained leaders of the autonomous African Church which he hoped to create. MACKAY, ALEXANDER MURDOCH [1849-1890] Scottish missionary to Uganda who studied at the Free Church training college and in 1873 went to Berlin to acquire qualifications with an engineering firm. In 1875 having read H.M. Stanleys book on David Livingstone [see 1841] he changed his original intention about working in Madagascar and applied to the Church Missionary Society (CMS) for work in Uganda. He arrived in East Africa and began work on making a road through to Lake Victoria Nyanza 230 miles inland. It took two years. He arrived at the lake shortly after the murder of two CMS colleagues and after all the others had left because of ill-health. The boat, intended for the lake and brought up in sections, had suffered severe damage but Mackays engineering knowledge and resourcefulness resulted in its completion and made an enormous impression. A party set out in the boat for Entebbe headquarters of King Mtesa, and he gave him permission to read and expand on the New Testament on Sundays. Arab traders opposed him and the French catholic priests introduced problems. There was much persecution of Christians and Mackay finally withdrew to the south of the lake where he taught and translated and there met Stanley. Mackay died from malaria but not before he saw the first copies of Matthews gospel printed. NEW TESTAMENT CRITICISM The application to the New Testament of techniques used by scholars in the study of ordinary literature in the attempt to determine the original wording of the various documents and to decide questions of date, authorship, literary composition, and the like. Criticism has particularly negative connotations in many Christian circles not due to the work but to the attitude of many of the critics in their hostility to orthodox Christianity. The distinction between the critics and Bible believing scholars is a false one as anyone who studies the Bible in depth must be classified as a biblical critic for they must face the same questions. Criticism comes in five groups [1] Textural criticism which seeks to ascertain the original wording of the text, [2] Linguistic criticism seeks to understand the nature of the words of a document using Greek grammar. [3] Historical criticism which seeks to understand the historical setting [4] Literary criticism is concerned about authorship, sources, composition date and place of writing and is often called higher criticism as it is based on the previous type and [5] Redaction criticism which relates to understanding the special contribution of every evangelist. PFLEIDERER, OTTO [1839-1908] German Protestant scholar who studied at Tubingen under F.C. Baur [see 1845] and became an adherent of the Tubingen School [see 1826]. In 1875 he took the chair of theology at Berlin. After lecturing in Britain he considered Pauline theology a very logical outworking of Christian teaching. 1876 CLARK, WILLIAM SMITH [1826-1886] American agriculturist who reached Sapporo in Japan and within eight months set up a college, school, and experimental farm. He converted all sixteen students to Christianity and following his lead the converts won all the second class for Christ. This group became known as the Sapporo Band. Its most prominent member was Kanzo Uchimura [see 1881]. COMBER, THOMAS JAMES [1852-1887] Baptist pioneer missionary born in London and accepted by the Baptist Missionary Society he sailed for the Cameroons in 1876 meeting Alfred Saker [see 1845] en route. With George Grenfell [see 1884] he was appointed to the proposed Congo Mission. They established a base at San Salvador in 1878. His wife died within a month of arriving in Africa. Comber and Grenfell explored the Congo River as far as Liboko on the mission steamer Peace. Many missionaries died including Combers brother and sister and he finally succumbed in his thirty fifth year. EAST AFRICA UGANDA. The pioneer missionary work in Uganda may be said to have been started by the explorer H. M. Stanley. In April 1875 he had several interviews with Mutesa I, the Kabaka of Buganda in which he found the king to be very interested in the Christian faith. The result was Stanleys famous letter to the Daily Telegraph and New York Herald in which he appealed for some pious practical missionaries to come to the kingdom of the Buganda. The Anglican CMS took up the challenge and in 1876 a party of eight missionaries led by Lieut. Shergold Smith set out from Britain. Only three reached Buganda, and of these two were killed in a local dispute leaving only the Rev C.T. Wilson who was alone for the next year or so. In November 1878 Alexander Mackay [see 1875] a Scottish Presbyterian arrived. Stanleys letter had been read also by the head of the White Fathers and in 1878 he sent a party of missionaries to Buganda despite the personal request from the CMS Secretary not to do so in order to avoid the competition and consequent confusion in their minds the people of Buganda. Much unhappiness and even warfare would have been avoided if this request had been heeded. Mutesa I died in 1884 and was succeeded by his son Mwanga who was a cruel and treacherous ruler and the infant Christian Church was subjected to persecution which produced many martyrs both Anglican and Roman Catholic. The first Anglican bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, James Hannington [see 1882] never reached Buganda but was murdered at Busoga on Lake Victoria in 1885 by Mwangas orders. Finally in 1894 Uganda was declared a British protectorate. This finished Mwangas reign of terror. The government built a railway from Mombasa to Lake Victoria which was a major factor in opening up Uganda to the world. Outstanding among the Anglican missionaries was Alfred Tucker, bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, who arrived in 1890. He had firm views on the needs to establish an indigenous church. In 1898 he was installed as the first Anglican bishop of Uganda but because of ill health was forced to resign in 1911. In 1894 the Mill Hill fathers of the Catholic persuasion came from Britain to work in East Uganda. After the establishment of law and order under the British administration there was a mass movement among the people in Buganda into both the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. The Protestant influence in Uganda has remained predominantly evangelical and Anglican but a few other Protestant missions have entered the country; thus there has been no need for a Christian Council as in Kenya and Tanzania. There have been a few separatist movements in the Uganda church, the most important was led by Rubens Spartas in 1929 when he broke away from the Anglican Church to establish the African Orthodox Church which in 1946 was recognised by the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Alexandria. HOWE, JULIA WARD [1819-1910] Writer and reformer who married Samuel Howe in 1843. He was a humanitarian and teacher of the blind which placed Julia in the company of prominent Bostonian intellectuals, poets, and social reformers. Brought up an Episcopalian she became a Unitarian and occasionally preached from Unitarian pulpits. After husbands death in 1876 she gave herself unceasingly to public service, a leader of every humanitarian movement or cause. She advocated womens suffrage, prison reform, international peace, and childrens welfare. Her most famous piece of poetry is The Battle hymn of the Republic. LOBSTEIN, PAUL [18501928] French Protestant theologian who was educated at Strasbourg, Tubingen, and Gottingen where he taught as professor of theology from 1876. Essentially a systematic theologian he wrote mainly in French with only a few books in German. His later studies were in historical theology and dogmatics; aspects of Calvins thought, studies of the doctrines of God, and the person and work of Christ. MCGRANAHAN, JAMES [1840-1907] Born in Pennsylvania, his father sent him to a singing school, and he soon became an assistant by playing the bass viol. At the age of nineteen he organised his first singing class. He entered the Normal Music School in 1861 and in 1875 he accepted the position as one of the managers of Dr. Roots Normal Musical Institute, in which capacity he served as director and teacher for three years, He was a close friend of Philip Bliss [see 1860] who encouraged him to use his tenor voice for Christian service. This was shortly before Bliss death and he became his natural successor in 1876 for Major Whittles evangelical ministry where he served for eleven years. His most famous hymn Far, far away in heathen darkness dwelling reflected the need for world wide evangelism. NIAGARA CONFERENCES Gatherings for Bible study at Niagara-on-the-Lake Ontario in the closing decades of the 19th century. These assemblies marked the beginnings of the Bible Conference Movement. The idea of conferences probably originated in 1868 when eight men associated with pre-millennial periodical Waymarks in the Wilderness met informally in New York City. In 1875 another small group met near Chicago and the following year they met again at Swampscott Massachusetts for fellowship and Bible study. The conference usually open with a Wednesday evening prayer meeting and for the next week the participants heard two Bible lessons each morning, two every afternoon, and another each evening. There is evidence that the early conferences were a result of J Darbys travels in the United States and influence of the Plymouth Brethren. ROBINSON, GEORGE WADE [1838-1877] George Robinson was a poet and hymnist from Cork, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland" \o "Ireland" Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and New College, St. Johns Wood, London. He entered the Congregational ministry and was co-pastor at York Street Chapel in Dublin with Dr. Urwick. He then became pastor at St. Johns Wood, Dudley, and at Union Street, Brighton. His most remembered poetry is in the Hymn Loved with Everlasting Love with its chorus I am His and he His mine He died in January 18, 1877. SLESSOR, MARY [1848-1915] Missionary to West Africa who was born in Aberdeen, Scotland in a very poor family. Her mother was a devout Christian who was deeply interested in the United Presbyterian Churchs Calabar Mission. Mary was converted in her teens and having experienced youth work in Dundee slums she sailed for Nigeria in 1876 and worked there almost continuously until her death. She fought against witchcraft, drunkenness, twin killing, and other cruel customs. She acquired great skill in the languages and had an almost uncanny insight into the African mind. She was instrumental in establishing trade between the coast and inland areas to their benefit and in beginning the Hope Waddell Institution to train Africans in useful trades and to carry out medical work. She was the first woman vice consul in the British Empire when British rule was established in the area. As a result of her work under God the Ibo people became more Christian than tribes in other parts of Nigeria. WEBB-PEPLOE, HANMER WILLIAM [1837-1923] Anglican minister and missioner who was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1863. He held a number of positions before becoming vicar of St Pauls Onslow Square London from 1876 to 1919. He was a prebendary of St Pauls Cathedral London from 1893. A champion gymnast, he suffered an injury while at Cambridge, putting him on his back for three years in which position he did all his degree and ordination examinations. A leader of the Evangelical party and the chief promoter of Keswick he was also a strong supporter of missions particularly among the Waldensians. WESLEY, SAMUEL SEBASTIAN [1810-1876] English composer and organist who was the grandson of Charles Wesley [see 1738]. Anglican prejudice was against the Wesleys inhibited him in his early years. Like Bach he suffered from inadequate forces to carry out his ideals and was angered by official indifference. He did however write some fine anthems and composed the well-known tune Aurelia for the hymn The Churchs one foundation. 1877AMENT, WILLIAM SCOTT [1851-1909] He was a missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions" \o "American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions" American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions from 1877, and was known as the Father of Christian Endeavour in China. Ament became prominent as a result of his reported heroism during the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" \o "Boxer Rebellion" Boxer Uprising and controversial in its aftermath because of the personal attacks on him by American writer HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twain" \o "Mark Twain" Mark Twain for his collection of punitive indemnities from north China villages. BAEDEKER, FREDERICK [18231906] English based Brethren missionary to Russia and Scandinavia with especial emphasis on prisons. Both he and his wife were converted in 1866 under the ministry of Lord Radstock who encouraged them to evangelise in Europe. In 1877 he settled for three years with his family in St Petersburg and in 1889, in spite of official disfavour, he obtained a unique permit which was renewed every two years until his death, to preach and distribute Bibles in any Russian prison. DELITZSCH, F. J. [1813-1890] Lutheran Old Testament scholar who was born and educated in Leipzig where he taught for some years, later holding chairs at Rostock and Leipzig. From a Jewish background he sought to combat both the extremes of anti-Semitism and Zionism and to aid in the conversion of the Jews to Christianity. In 1863 he founded a Jewish missionary college; translated the New Testament into Hebrew in 1877 and established at Leipzig an institution for the Jews. In 1886 he published a number of Old Testament commentaries of a conservative character. He examined carefully the critical series of Wellhausen [see 1892] and came to uphold the liberal view that there are different literary styles in the Pentateuch and of the dual authorship of Isaiah. His critical views were probably more widely accepted in the English-speaking world than those of Wellhausen himself. It is however as an exegete for which he is chiefly remembered. EDDY, MARY BAKER [1821-1910] Founder of Christian Science. Born into a Congregational family in New Hampshire she was from infancy subject to attacks of convulsive hysteria and even as a grown child had to be rocked to sleep in a cradle made by her father. She was highly sensitive, intensely religious, seeing God everywhere. Reared on the Westminster confession, she was accepted on confession of faith at the age of 12 by her fathers church, despite her rejection of the Westminsters predestinationism. In 1862 Mary visited Doctor Phineas Quimby an ignorant non religious blacksmith who practised hypnotism and through it set her free from years of suffering. Impressed by his healing through the use of mind, Mary combined Quimbys methods with her understanding of Christianity and gave birth to her Divine Science of healing, which she claimed came by direct revelation from God. In 1877 she married Asa Gilbert Eddy a man of poor health whom she cured. After his death this remarkable widow of 61 went on to fame, wealth, and the founding of her own church. She died at 89, after years of loneliness and mortal terror that enemies were projecting some mental arsenic into her mind. GIBBONS, JAMES [1834-1921] Catholic archbishop of Baltimore. Son of Irish immigrants, he rose from simple surroundings to become the American Cardinal, the dominant Roman Catholic prelate in United States history. He was appointed as archbishop of Baltimore in 1877 and named cardinal in 1886. He led the nations first archdiocese and thus much of the American church until his death. Although untalented as a writer and a thinker he extended Catholic influence in an age of intense anti-Catholicism. GRANT, GEORGE MONRO [1835-1902] Canadian minister and educator. Ordained a minister in the Church of Scotland in 1860 he became pastor of St Matthews Church Halifax in 1863. In 1877 he was appointed principal of Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, and held that office until his death. Emphasising very strongly the practical, social, and political aspects of Christianity, he became a national figure because of his involvement in national and imperial interests, and because of his book Ocean to Ocean published in 1873. In 1899 he was moderator of his denominations general assembly and in 1901 became president of the Royal Society of Canada. Grant was known as author, educator, politician, and minister, and was regarded almost as a national institution. HODGE, ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER [1823-1886] Presbyterian theologian and son of Charles Hodge [see 1841] who succeeded his father at Princeton as systematic theologian in 1877. Explainer of his fathers ideas rather than creator of new concepts, and less prolific and scholarly, he was noted for a number of works defending the Princeton fundamentals of divine sovereignty and human depravity, and attempted to enliven these ideas through social application. LAMBUTH, WALTER RUSSELL [1854 1921]. Lambuth was a Chinese-born HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodist Bishop who worked as a missionary establishing schools and hospitals in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea" \o "Korea" Korea and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" \o "Japan" Japan in the 1880s. Walters parents were pioneering missionaries in China. Together they also founded the mission work of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_South" \o "Methodist Episcopal Church, South" Methodist Episcopal Church, South in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" \o "Japan" Japan. He came from a line of Methodist ministers. Walter graduated with theology and medical degrees before he returned to China with his wife Daisy Kelly as a medical missionary in 1877. Then he was dispatched to West Japan where they were founders of Methodist work in Japan. He also established Methodist work in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Congo" \o "Belgian Congo" Belgian Congo, later travelling to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" \o "Europe" Europe and establishing Southern Methodism in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium" \o "Belgium" Belgium, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" \o "Poland" Poland, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia" \o "Czechoslovakia" Czechoslovakia, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia" \o "Siberia" Siberia and supervising missionary work worldwide until his death in 1921. SABATIER, LOUIS AUGUSTE [1839-1901] French Protestant scholar who was brought up in the early 19th century Protestant revival and became a leading exponent of liberal Protestantism in France. He taught at Strasbourg [1868-1870] which was cut short for political reasons but eventually in 1877 he helped to restore the faculty in Paris. From 1886 he taught also at the Sorbonne. His theology evolved in relation to his wide interests in modern cultural problems and was also shown in his prolific regular writings on literature and politics. SCHERESCHEWSKY, SAMUEL ISAAC [1831-1906] Missionary translator was born in Lithuania of Jewish parents. He graduated from Breslau University and through reading the New Testament became a Christian. Going to the USA he joined the Baptist Church and studied at a Presbyterian seminary [1855 to 1858]. He served as a missionary in Shanghai in 1859 and Peking [1863-1875]. He was gifted in languages and contributed with others in the translation of the Prayer Book and New Testament into Mandarin and undertook the Old Testament by himself. He became bishop of Shanghai in 1877 and four years later was struck down with paralysis due to a stroke. He resigned his see in 1883 but over the next twenty years completed, with the help of his wife, a translation of the Bible into Wenli, typing some 2,000 pages with the middle finger of his partially crippled hand. Four years before his death in 1906, he said, I have sat in this chair for over twenty years. It seemed very hard at first. But God knew best. He kept me for the work for which I am best fitted. SOLOVIEV, VLADIMIR SERGEEVICH [1853-1900] Russian theologian and philosopher who graduated from the University of Moscow in 1873. After research in London and Egypt he returned to Moscow in 1876 and the following year moved to the University St Petersburg where Dostoevsky [see 1880] and Leo Tolstoy [see 1861] were among those present at his lectures on Godmanhood. He was forced into retirement in 1881 after he advocated mercy for the assassins of Alexander II, and devoted the rest of his life to his writings. He was deeply influenced by German idealistic philosophy and Gnostic mysticism. He advocated the reunion of the Eastern and Western churches and the establishment of a universal theocracy. Because of his connection with Rome he is sometimes called the Russian Newman. He was a prolific author. TIELE, CORNELIUS PETRUS [1830-1902] Dutch theologian who was educated in Amsterdam and became professor of religious history at Leyden University in 1877. During his professorship he exercised a great influence on the development of the study of comparative religion, especially in the Netherlands. He had a vast knowledge of ancient languages and history and was able to write in a lucid and orderly way. WEISS, BERNHARD [1827-1918] German Protestant New Testament scholar who taught at a number of universities in Germany including Berlin from 1877 to 1908. Demonstrating that criticism and positive Evangelical theology were not mutually exclusive, Weiss was one of a long line of conservative German scholars who have not been given the recognition they deserve. He was a strong critic of F.C. Baur [see 1845] and the Tubingen scholars. WORLD ALLIANCE OF REFORMED CHURCHES The oldest international Protestant body membership of which was open to any church organisation based on Presbyterian principles which honours the supreme authority of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in matters of faith and morals and has a creed that is in harmony with the consensus of the Reformed Churches. This group had its first general council in 1877. The Alliance remains essentially consultative and advisory. 1878BOOTH, WILLIAM [18291912] Founder of the Salvation Army in 1878. He was converted in 1844 and became a minister and evangelist but resigned in 1861 from the Methodists to become a freelance evangelist. With his wife Catherine [18291900] they tackled social evils alongside his evangelical preaching. Cheap food centres, night shelters and unemployment exchanges were all set up by Booth. While his wife was dying of cancer he conceived of a Missing Persons Bureau and Legal Aid for the poor. In 1904 aged 75 he did a 29 day motorised evangelistic tour of Britain 1224 miles long and 164 meetings long. In his preaching life he travelled 5 million miles, preached 60,000 sermons and had drawn 16000 officers to serve in the Salvation Army. FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM [1831-1903] Dean of Canterbury. Born in India to missionary parents, he went to school at King Williams College, Isle of Man where the religious teaching was strongly evangelical. He further studied at Kings College London where he was influenced by F.D. Maurice [see 1838], and after graduation and ordination was a schoolmaster until his mid-40s. He had a tremendous influence on the Victorian middle classes in both religious and cultural matters. His Life in Christ published in 1874 went through 12 editions in the first year and his Life and Works of St Paul published in 1879 also had a great impact. Much controversy was aroused by a collection of sermons in which he questioned the doctrine of eternal punishment for the wicked. In 1882 he preached at Charles Darwins funeral. It was held that Farrars broad outlook long hindered his ecclesiastical promotion, but eventually, after having been a royal chaplain and canon of Westminster, he was appointed dean of Canterbury, which post he held the last eight years of his life. He was elected in 1866 as a fellow of the Royal Society, an honour not accorded to many modern churchmen. JOACHIM III Patriarch of Constantinople [1878-1884, 1901-1912] succeeded Joachim II [see 1860]. He was born inConstantinople in 1834 and educated inVienna. In 1858-1861 he was a deacon in the holy temple of St George. In 1864 he was elected bishop of Varna and ten years later bishop ofThessalonica. During his first reign, he worked on the improvement of the financial state of the patriarchate. In 1880 he founded the magazine Truth and undertook various other charitable acts. He is seen as one of the most prominent and important patriarchs of modern times. Patriarch Joachim III repeatedly attempted to find a solution to theBulgarian schism. LEO XIII Pope [1878-1903]. He was educated by the Jesuits at Viterbo after which he studied in Rome and was ordained a priest in 1837. He gained a reputation as a social reformer and in the 1840s mediated an educational controversy between the Jesuits and the Catholic University of Louvain. In 1853 Leo was created cardinal and spent his long episcopate building and restoring churches and encouraging learning and social reform and although not popular with Pius IX protested against the loss of temporal power by the papacy in 1870. By conciliatory methods he overcame anti-clerical protests in Germany after the decree of papal infallibility in 1870. After his election as pope he renewed contacts with Russia and Japan and improved relations with Britain. In France however he tried with little success to disassociate the Catholic clergy from the Royalist party and during his last years relations between church and state in France had deteriorated into a period of aggressive anticlericalism. In Italy as well the loss of the Papal States remained permanent so that the pope was considered The Prisoner of the Vatican. Leo did much in the social area attempting to stem the flow of common people away from the church by promoting the concept of just wages and trade unions. He encouraged the study of the Bible and in 1883 opened the Vatican library to historical research. He succeeded Pius IX [see 1846] and was succeeded by Pius X [see 1903]. MILLS, BENJAMIN FAY [1857-1916] He was an evangelist and Christian Socialist born in New Jersey and ordained as a Congregational minister in 1878. In 1886 Mills started itinerant evangelism. Believing social and economic problems could be solved only by effecting Gods kingdom on earth, Mills became the only major evangelist attempting to unite revivalism with the social gospel. Finding this impossible, he terminated his itinerant ministry in 1895 to preach Christian Socialism in New York and Boston. In 1899 despairing of evangelical awakening he became minister of the First Unitarian Church in Oakland California. PEARSON, CHARLES WILLIAM (1847-1917) Pearson was a pioneer HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda" \o "Uganda" Uganda, and thus was one of the pioneers of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Uganda" \o "Church of Uganda" Church of Uganda. He was later a parish priest in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England. He started life as a merchant seaman for some years before being discharged in London in 1875. The next year he attended the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Mission_Society" \o "Church Mission Society" Church Missionary Societys college in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islington" \o "Islington" Islington, and in 1878 led a party of four missionaries to Uganda to replace four who had died. The first party of CMS missionaries, led by Lt. G. Shergold-Smith, had landed at Bagamoyo in July 1876, but a year later two had been killed in a skirmish, and two others had died of fever. Pearson and his party reached Rubaga in Uganda in February 1879, over nine months after setting out. They were received at the court of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutesa_I" \o "Mutesa I" Mutesa I, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabaka" \o "Kabaka" Kabaka (King) of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buganda" \o "Buganda" Buganda, A week later a party of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" French HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic" \o "Roman Catholic" Roman Catholic missionaries arrived, and difficulties ensued as Mutesa played off HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab" \o "Arab" Arab, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" \o "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" British and French interests against each other. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian missionaries had not come prepared to be used as political pawns. Their denominational rivalry reduced the effectiveness of their message, as the Catholics refused to kneel for the Anglican prayers and vice versa. Pearson appears to have been mainly occupied in translation work. After serving in Uganda for two years Pearson returned to England for health reasons, using the more conventional route via the East Coast and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanzibar" \o "Zanzibar" Zanzibar. He was known as a student of languages, and gained knowledge of 17 languages. He was eminent as a translator, and served several publishers and missionary organisations in that capacity. ZAIRE H.M. Stanleys exploration of the basin of the Congo brought the first Protestant missionaries to Zaire in 1878. The first two societies were the Livingstone Inland Mission and the British Baptists. The former was a branch of the Regions Beyond Missionary Union and when the parent body found itself overextended the Congo mission was handed over to the American Baptists. Other missions followed until they totalled some 46 societies, a high percentage of them American. It was the missionaries who revealed the atrocities committed during the time of King Leopolds personal rule. This obliged the Belgian government to step in and take control in 1908. The Roman Catholic government showed a distinct favouritism towards Roman Catholic missions which had followed the Protestants into the field, until after World War II when a more liberal party came into power. Independence brought chaos to much of the country. For the next few years many missionaries had to be evacuated some of them up to three times. A number were killed, both Catholics and Protestants, along with an uncounted numbers of Congolese Christians. 1879BRITISH ISRAELITES Founded in England by John Wilsons book Our Israelitish Origin published in 1840. They believed that the British and American peoples are part of the lost tribes of Israel. The first Anglo Saxon Association was founded in 1879. Critics urge that the evidence for British Israelitism is very slender and that the lost tribes were largely absorbed into Judah. HAVERGAL FRANCES RIDLEY [18381879] She was an English religious poet and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymn writer. Take my life and let it be and Lord speak to me that I may speak are the best known of her hymns. She also wrote hymn melodies, religious tracts, and works for children. She was born into an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican family, her father, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Havergal" \o "William Henry Havergal" William Henry Havergal (17931870), was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergyman" \o "Clergyman" clergyman, writer, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer" \o "Composer" composer, and hymn writer. In 1852-3 she studied in the Louisenschule, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf" \o "Dsseldorf" Dsseldorf, and at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf-Oberkassel" \o "Dsseldorf-Oberkassel" Oberkassel. Otherwise she led a quiet life, not enjoying consistent good health; she travelled, in particular to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" \o "Switzerland" Switzerland. She supported the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Missionary_Society" \o "Church Missionary Society" Church Missionary Society. She died of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritonitis" \o "Peritonitis" peritonitis at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caswell_Bay" \o "Caswell Bay" Caswell Bay on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gower_Peninsula" \o "Gower Peninsula" Gower Peninsula in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales" \o "Wales" Wales. HERGENROTHER, JOSEPH [1824-1890] Roman Catholic scholar who studied at Wurzburg, the German college in Rome, and was appointed as professor of canon law and church history there. He was a consultant for the preparations of Vatican I and became a cardinal in 1879 and the first prefect of the Vatican archives. Defending papal infallibility, he refuted Dollinger having earlier attacked his liberalism. LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER [1828-1889] Bishop of Durham. He was a sickly child and educated at home, then at King Edwards School Birmingham where he formed a friendship with E.W. Benson later archbishop of Canterbury. In 1847 he went to Cambridge and studied under B.F. Westcott [see 1851] and held professorships there. In 1879 he was appointed bishop of Durham and devoted himself with great energy to his duties. He saw to the building of churches into the expanding industrial areas, and also had living with him young graduates who were training for the ministry. Lightfoot was fluent in seven languages and was at his best when dealing with and assessing facts rather than ideas. This made him a good foil for both Wescott and F.J. Hort [see 1881]. With both he intended to write a commentary on the complete New Testament. Lightfoot was to do the Pauline epistles and completed Galatians in 1865, Philippians in 1868, and Colossians and Philemon in 1875. MACARIUS OF MOSCOW [1810-1882] Metropolitan of Moscow who was educated at Kursk and at Kiev and became a leading theologian in the Russian Orthodox Church holding a professorship of dogmatic theology at St Petersburg. He was made metropolitan of Moscow in 1879 and became an authority on the official theology of the Roman Catholic church. He is the author of a number of books. MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK [1831-1879] Scottish physicist who was educated at Edinburgh and Cambridge. His investigations and discoveries cover a wide field but he is best known as the creator of the electromagnetic theory. Throughout his life he was a committed Christian whose philosophic consideration of his faith led him to some of his greatest scientific discoveries. Sir Richard Glazebrooke said of him all he read helped only to strengthen that firm faith in the fundamentals of Christianity in which he lived and died. RENAN, JOHN ERNEST [1823-1892] French humanist historian and oriental linguist who unsettled both Catholics and Protestants with his publication The Life of Jesus in 1863. In this publication he depicted Jesus as a truly remarkable itinerant preacher but certainly not the Son of God. His portrait came at the right historic moment for him and achieved immense popularity among the enlarging sceptical readership. From 1845 he went on numerous archaeological digs in the Near East and became professor of Hebrew at the College of France in 1862 until removed because of the furore over his publication. He was reinstated in 1870 and appointed director of the college in 1879 under the secularist Third Republic. YOUNG, ROBERT [1822-1888] Scottish theologian and Orientalist. He was apprentice to a printer and combined his work with book selling from 1847 and spent much time in the study of languages. In 1856 he went to India as a literary missionary, superintendent of the mission press at Surat and retained his missionary interest when he returned to Europe in 1861. Young is best known for his comprehensive Analytical Concordance to the Holy Bible published in 1879. 1880CABRINI, FRANCES-XAVIER [18501917] Italian Catholic who founded the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart. She was shy and delicate but had a strong spirit. Abandoning her career as a primary school teacher she founded her own womens missionary society in 1880. Leo III [see 1878] sent her to New York in 1889 where she worked with Italian immigrants founding schools, hospitals, and charitable organisations on a worldwide scale. CHURCH OF ENGLAND ZENANA MISSION was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" \o "United Kingdom" British HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian missionary society that was involved in sending workers to countries such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China during the late HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" \o "Qing Dynasty" Qing Dynasty.. ELLIOT EMILY ELIZABETH STEELE [1836-1897] Emily Elizabeth Steele Elliot was the niece of Charlotte Elliot, author of the hymn Just As I Am. She wrote a number of hymns for the church in England where her father served as pastor. Elliot published a book called Under the Pillow containing 48 of her hymns. It was designed for the use of those in hospitals and infirmaries. The one song of hers in common use today is the Christmas hymn Thou Didst Leave Thy Throne. She published Chimes of Consecration, a volume of seventy original hymns, in 1873, and Chimes for Daily Service, seventy-one hymns, in 1880. She edited the Church Missionary Juvenile Instructor for several years. HARRIS, JAMES RENDEL [1852-1941] Quaker scholar and Orientalist who was educated Cambridge and taught mathematics at the University until 1882 when he migrated the USA. Returning to England he gained the reputation of a brilliant but unorthodox scholar who specialise in textural problems. Having previously been a Congregationalist, in 1880 he joined the Society of Friends or Quakers. In 1896 he organised relief for Armenians at the time of the massacres. Theologically he was a liberal Christian and was scornful of fundamentalism. KUYPER, ABRAHAM [1837-1920] Dutch Calvinist theologian and political leader. As a young preacher he was attracted by the deep-seated Calvinistic Pietism of the villagers and this along with other influences led him to embrace orthodox Calvinism. He ran for parliament and made orthodox Calvinism a political force. His programme called for state aid for religious schools, extension of the suffrage, recognition of the rights of labour, reforms in colonial policies, and a revitalisation of national life. By 1880 Kuyper started an orthodox Calvinist Free University which was free from church and state control. He also taught in the seminary. By 1886 he led an exodus of over 100,000 orthodox from the Reformed Church to set up the second largest Protestant group in the Netherlands. This is known as the Doleantie. As a theologian he revived a systematic, orthodox Calvinism, marked by an emphasis on common grace. His achievement was also to give the long submerged common people the lower-middle-class orthodox Calvinistic group a religious and political voice. LATHBURY, MARY ARTEMISA [1841-1913]. She was born in Manchester, Ontario County, New York, a daughter of a Methodist minister and wrote extensively for the American religious periodical press. She was a teacher, artist, and editor as well as a writer. She taught art at a number of schools in the north eastern USA, and was then hired as associate editor for the Methodist Episcopal Sunday School publications. She wrote and illustrated many poems and other pieces for those books and magazines, including the Childs Life of Christ. Her two best known hymns are Break Thou the Bread of Life a Study Song for the Chautauqua and Scientific Circle written in the summer of 1880 and Day is dying in the West written in the same year at the request of the Rev. John H. Vincent D.D. PITRA, JEAN-BAPTISTE [1812-1889] Cardinal and scholar. After study at Autun he became a Benedictine and in 1843 prior of St Germain in Paris. He travelled widely in search of Latin and Greek manuscripts. The pope sent Pitra on an ecumenical mission to Rome after which he became Pius IXS adviser on oriental matters. In 1869 he was appointed librarian at the Vatican where he catalogued precious Greek manuscripts. In 1880 he was made cardinal legate of Monte Cassino. RYLE, JOHN CHARLES [1816-1900] Bishop of Liverpool who was educated at Oxford the son of a wealthy banker. Ryle was a fine athlete, he rowed and played cricket for Oxford. He was spiritually awakened in 1838 on hearing Ephesians Chapter 2 read in church and was ordained in 1842. He was a country pastor until at the age of 64 he was appointed in 1880 at Disraelis recommendation the first bishop of Liverpool. He was a prolific writer and the author of numerous tracts and books. His leadership of evangelicals was sound and sensible persuading them not to isolate themselves from the mainstream of church life by boycotting church congresses which would leave the High Church alone to put forward their views. He formed a clergy pension fund, constructed over 40 churches, and proved an able administrator. His strength of character was shown in that, despite strong criticism, he declared his policy to put first the raising of clergy stipends rather than commence the building of a cathedral. He worked well with people in having a kind and understanding attitude in his personal relationships. Vast numbers of working men attended his special meetings. TYRRELL, GEORGE [1861-1909] Roman Catholic modernist born in Dublin into an Anglican family and studied briefly at Trinity College before converting to Roman Catholicism which led him to entering the Jesuit order in 1880. After teaching philosophy he was called to his orders English headquarters in London and produced acceptable orthodox publications until 1899. An article on Hell in the Weekly Register in 1899 in which he began questioning Roman Catholic theology led to his transfer to a provincial mission house where he remained in an active devotional life. Two letters to The Times in 1907 replying to Pius X condemnation of modernism led to his being refused the sacraments. When he died at 48, having been plagued by ill-health all his life, he still considered himself a Catholic but was unrepentant about his work. He was refused a Catholic burial and lies in a churchyard in Sussex WATKINS, OWEN [1842-1915] Wesleyan Methodist missionary who entered the ministry in 1863 and in 1876 was sent to Natal in South Africa for health reasons. In 1880 he became the first chairman of the Transvaal and Swaziland district of the Wesleyan Methodist Church. He and his colleagues travelled extensively contacting independent African evangelists, setting up stations, purchasing mission farms, and providing pastoral care for white communities, especially on the Witwatersrand goldfields. Watkins contracted a fever while walking 200 miles from Umtali to Beira and was invalided home in 1892. He wished to advance into Central Africa but that was not possible and he finished his ministry in British circuits. 1881-1890 AD 1881ARNOT, FREDERICK STANLEY [18581914] Scottish Brethren missionary who was acquainted with the family of David Livingstone [see 1841] and wanted to follow his example. He set out for Africa in 1881 making his way from Durham to the Zambezi. He suffered a lot from malaria and dysentery. He was the foremost architect of Brethren missionary work in Central Africa establishing a number of missionary stations including those in Zambia, Benguela, and Katanga. BIBLE VERSIONS Revised section listed in order [for King James section see 1611 for twentieth century see 1952] 1881. English Revised Version of the New Testament is published, immediately followed by the innovative Greek New Testament of Westcott and Hort. 1883. Dean Burgon leads strong conservative attack on the English Revised Version and against all critical Greek texts. The new version is eventually refused by the British churches. 1885. English Revised Version of the Old Testament. 1890. J.N. Darbys English Old Testament. 1895. Elizabeth Stantons Womans Bible repudiates Biblical teaching on womans place. 1898. Eberhard Nestles Greek New Testament. 1901. American Standard Version. 1903. First edition of Weymouths New Testament (modern English version). 1904. Twentieth Century New Testament (modern English version). 1909. First edition of Scofield Reference Bible. 1913. Von Sodens Greek New Testament. Moffat New Testament (popular paraphrase). 1917. Improved edition of Scofield Reference Bible. 1928. Moffat Bible published with Old Testament. 1935. Moffat Bible revised. 1946. Revised Standard version of the New Testament published with great fanfare. 1947. Dead Sea Scrolls (dated c. 150 B.C. to A.D. 75) discovered in Qumran. CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE Founded by A R SIMPSON [1844-1919] in 1881, the name of the group was given to them in 1887. Predominantly in North America the C&MA has groups in some 40 countries on six continents. The movement have over 5,000 indigenous ministers and around 1,000 missionaries serving outside their home countries. CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETY was the first widespread non denominational youth organisation in American churches and was set up by Pastor Francis CLARK [1851-1927] in January 1881. Though many denominations subsequently set up their own youth organisations, in 1960 CE could claim 3 million members. The organisation encourages young people to confess Christ and to serve Him in fellowship with other young people in the Church. Francis Clark became its first President in 1887 and served it for the remainder of his life making five world trips for this youth work. FRANSON, FREDRIK [1852-1908] Evangelist and founder of the Evangelical Alliance Mission. Born in Sweden he migrated to America in 1869 and was influenced by Moody to become an evangelist to Swedish immigrants. He was ordained in 1881 and engaged in successful evangelism in Scandinavia and Germany until 1890 when he led in the founding of the Scandinavian Alliance Mission which has been known as the Evangelical Alliance Mission since 1949. He was its general director from 1896 until his death. He stressed Christs second coming in his evangelistic messages. HORT, FRENTON JOHN ANTHONY [1828-1892] New Testament critic and biblical scholar. With B. F. Westcott [see 1851] he edited an edition of the Greek New Testament in 1881 which formed the basis of the English Revised Version and which set the pattern for nearly all future editions of the Greek text. The 57 page introduction by Hort set out the basic elements of the science of textual criticism which remain, in all essentials, valid to the present. With his friends Westcott and J.B. Lightfoot [see 1879] he planned to write a complete commentary on the New Testament. He was responsible for the synoptic gospels, Acts, the general epistles and the Apocalypse. Due to a tendency towards perfectionism he published little. He is generally regarded as the greatest of these three Cambridge scholars. PLUMTRE, EDWARD HAYES [1821-1891] Theological writer, classical scholar and poet educated at Oxford and subsequently held the chair of pastoral theology at Kings College London. In later years he held pastoral offices in Kent and in 1881 became the dean of Wells. He enjoyed a high reputation for classical learning and helped in the translation of the Revised Version of the Bible and contributed commentaries to various series. UCHIMURA, KANZO [1861-1930] He was the founder of the Japanese non-church movement. He was won to Christianity by the zealous evangelism of students of Dr W.S. Clark [see 1876]. Under Uchimuras leadership the Sapporo Band became the first independent Japanese church in 1881. He is best known as founder and exponent of nondenominational Japanese Christianity and his greatest legacy was a 22 volume Bible commentary, the fruit of his love, the study of the Bible. WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO [1856-1915] Negro educator who was the son of a slave mother and white father. Washington was educated at Hampton Institute where he came to believe that only training produces income and virtue for his fellow Negroes. He was called in 1881 to organise Tuskegee Institute in Alabama as a school for Negroes. He grew more convinced that manual training unlike high school education, would prevent Negroes from learning but would provide jobs which would not be offensive to whites. At the Atlanta Exposition of 1895 he further pleased whites by declaring that Negroes were interested in hard work, not social advancement. Whatever the merits of his ideas he was the leading spokesman for the Negroes of his day. 1882ANDERSON, SIR ROBERT [18411918] Irish lay theologian and Bible teacher whose works centred on apologetics and bible prophecy. A dispensationalist, he taught the difference for the Church between the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels. Chief of New Scotland Yard [18881901] Anderson wrote many books including The Coming Prince in 1882 and The Bible and Modern Criticism in 1902. BLANCHARD, CHARLES ALBERT [18481925] President of Wheaton College [18821925]. He graduated from the college which he was to supervise in the time when his father Jonathon was president .When called to succeed him Charles already had ten years of association with it. He maintained the conservative evangelical character of the institution while he was also piscopal the Moody Memorial Church in Chicago. CARLILE, WILSON [1847-1942] Founder of the Church Army. A businessman who was almost ruined in 1873 which focused him on the meaning of his conversion. He became a great evangelist presenting the gospel skilfully especially in open air and after-church venues. He trained lay preachers which led in this year to the foundation of the Church Army. COOK, DAVID CALEB [1850-1927] American Sunday School leader who entered business as a sewing machine salesman and developed a prosperous mail order business. Involvement with several Sunday Schools led him to give up secular work and dedicate himself to the publication of Sunday School material. He opened the existing publishing house in Elgin in 1882. GLADDEN, WASHINGTON [1836-1918] Liberal theologian and exponent of the Social Gospel. He served churches in New York and Massachusetts [1860-1888]. His main pastorate was at the First Congregational, Columbus Ohio from 1882-1914. He applied Christs teaching to social problems, upheld the right of unions, and favoured profit-sharing and industrial arbitration. HANNINGTON, JAMES [1847-1885] Anglican missionary to East Africa. Born in Sussex he was educated at Brighton and then entered business and the army. He trained at Oxford for the Anglican ministry and was ordained in 1874. In 1882 he offered to the Church Mission Society and was appointed to Uganda. He reached Lake Victoria on his way out, but was forced to return to England suffering from malaria and dysentery. He was consecrated the first bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa in 1884 and in 1885 reached Mombasa. After superintending the work at Freretown near Mombasa he set off on foot for Uganda but was arrested and later killed on the orders of Mwanga the Kabaka of the Baganda. INTERNATIONAL BIBLE READING ASSOCIATION A movement to encourage personal bible study. It was founded in 1882 by the National Sunday School Union under the inspiration of Charles Waters, a bank manager and a member of C.H. Spurgeons congregation at the Metropolitan Tabernacle. Waters became the first secretary. It first used a scheme of Bible Reading related to International Sunday School Lessons. In three years the membership rose to 100,000 and by 1900 it had reached 750,000. The movement spread to Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States of America, and many other countries. Expansion overseas has continued both in association with missionary societies and independently such as in Nigeria in 1971. MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY [1843-1901] English writer and psychical researcher educated at Cambridge where he taught classics until he became a school inspector in 1872. In 1882 he became the co-founder of the Society of Psychical Research and made the first deep studies of the relations between hallucination, hypnotism, and mediumship. As a result of his great desire to put religion on an empirical basis Meyers drifted slowly away from his early faith in Christ. NICODEMUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1882-1890] see 1875 and 1891. OWENS, PRISCILLA JANE [1829-1907] She was an American song writer and teacher, born in Baltimore, Maryland, she was of Welsh and Scottish descent. Her hymn HYPERLINK "http://www.hymnswithoutwords.com/hymns/Will_your_anchor_hold" \o "Will your anchor hold" Will your anchor hold in the storms of life is the official hymn of The Boys Brigade. For more than fifty years she was active in Sunday School work in her home town at the Union Square Methodist Episcopal Church, and most of her hymns and songs were written for Sunday School children. Another well known hymn is We have heard the joyful sound; Jesus saves PIGOTT, JEAN SOPHIA [1845-1882] Little is known today of Irish poetess and hymn writer Jean Sophia Pigott. We know her brother Thomas was a missionary in China, and that he was killed in the Boxer Rebellion in 1901. Jean Pigott wrote a number of hymns, but only one is still in common use, the beautiful Jesus, I Am Resting, Resting. She died October 12, 1882 at Leixlip, Lucan, County Kildare, Ireland at the early age of 37 PRUITT, CICERO WASHINGTON (18571946) He was among the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist" \o "Southern Baptist" Southern Baptist missionaries to Northern HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China. He was ordained as a Southern Baptist minister at the age of 14 and began his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelism" \o "Evangelism" evangelical work by preaching to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" \o "Native Americans in the United States" Native Americans in Georgia. Later he attended the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Theological_Seminary" \o "Southern Baptist Theological Seminary" Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" \o "Louisville, Kentucky" Louisville, Kentucky. He appears to have followed the ideals of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Taylor" \o "Hudson Taylor" Hudson Taylors HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Inland_Mission" \o "China Inland Mission" China Inland Mission, dressing like the Chinese, learning the language and following Chinese customs. In 1882, he travelled to China as a missionary and was stationed in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang_Xian,_Shandong" \o "Huang Xian, Shandong" Huangxian in North China, where he met his first wife, Ida Tiffany; she died two years later. Later he married HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Seward_Pruitt" \o "Anna Seward Pruitt" Anna Seward Pruitt and they opened a school for boys that subsequently merged with the Carter School for Girls and Bush Theological Seminary, and became the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_China_Baptist_College&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "North China Baptist College (page does not exist)" North China Baptist College. They along with William and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Effie_Sears&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Effie Sears (page does not exist)" Effie Sears and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laura_Barton&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Laura Barton (page does not exist)" Laura Barton were the only missionaries that remained loyal to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottie_Moon" \o "Lottie Moon" Lottie Moon during a doctrinal dispute with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarleton_Perry_Crawford" \o "Tarleton Perry Crawford" Tarleton Perry Crawford that led to dividing the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist" \o "Southern Baptist" Southern Baptist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_China_Mission&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "North China Mission (page does not exist)" North China Mission. Crawford believed missionaries should be self-supporting, but received criticism for spending excessive amounts of time in subsequent business ventures. Crawford brought along most of the North China Southern Baptist missionaries in starting his own mission named HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gospel_Mission&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Gospel Mission (page does not exist)" Gospel Mission. Pruitt considered his greatest achievement to be the translation of his influential teacher HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Broadus" \o "John Broadus" John Broadus Commentary on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" \o "Gospel of Matthew" Gospel of Matthew from English into Chinese. SCOTT, CLARA [1841-1897]. Clara Scott was born in Illinois and attended, in 1856, the first Music Institute held in Chicago, by C. M. Cady. She went on to teach music at the Ladies Seminary, Lyons, Iowa (1859). She married Henry Clay Scott in 1861. In 1882, she published the Royal Anthem Book, the first volume of anthems published by a woman. Scott met and was greatly encouraged by HYPERLINK "http://www.cyberhymnal.org/bio/p/a/l/palmer_hr.htm" Horatio Palmer, who helped publish many of her songs. Her most famous hymn was Open my eyes that I may see She issued three collections of hymns before her untimely death when she was thrown from a buggy by a runaway horse. 1883BEACH, HARLAN PAGE [18541933] Congregational missionary who graduated from Yale in 1878 and was sent by the American Board of Foreign Missions to Tung Chou China in 1883. Here he developed a form of shorthand for the Mandarin language. He had to return home due to his wifes ill health in 1890 but was continually interested in missions. His most important works was the production of the World Missionary Atlas in 1925. BENSON, EDWARD WHITE Archbishop of Canterbury [1883-1896]. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highgate,_Birmingham" \o "Highgate, Birmingham" Highgate, Birmingham, the son of a Birmingham chemical manufacturer. He was educated at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Edward%27s_School,_Birmingham" \o "King Edward's School, Birmingham" King Edwards School, Birminghamand HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" \o "Trinity College, Cambridge" Trinity College, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" \o "University of Cambridge" Cambridge. Benson began his career as a schoolmaster at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_School" \o "Rugby School" Rugby School in 1852, and was ordained deacon in 1852 and priest in 1857. In 1859 Benson was chosen by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Albert_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" \o "Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" Prince Albert as the headmaster of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_College_(Berkshire)" \o "Wellington College (Berkshire)" Wellington College, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkshire" \o "Berkshire" Berkshire, which had been built as the nations memorial to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington" \o "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington" Duke of Wellington. He was largely responsible for establishing Wellington as a great English HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_school_(UK)" \o "Public school (UK)" public school, closely modelled on Rugby School, rather than the military academy originally planned. Benson is best remembered for devising the Festival of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Lessons_and_Carols" \o "Nine Lessons and Carols" Nine Lessons and Carols, an order first used in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truro_Cathedral" \o "Truro Cathedral" Truro Cathedralon Christmas Eve 1880, a service format that is now used every Christmas around the world. Benson and his wife had six children. None of the children married, and some of them appeared to suffer from mental illnesses, probably HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" \o "Bipolar disorder" bipolar disorder. Benson died from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" \o "Cardiovascular disease" cardiovascular diseasein 1896. He succeeded Archibald Campbell Tate [see 1868] and was succeeded by Frederick Temple [see 1896]. BONAR, HORATIUS [18081889] Pastor, Author and Hymn Writer. He was born and educated in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh" \o "Edinburgh" Edinburgh coming from a long line of ministers who had served a total of 364 years in the Church of Scotland. One of eleven children, his brothers John, James and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Bonar" \o "Andrew Bonar" Andrew Alexander were also ministers of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Church_of_Scotland_(1843-1900)" \o "Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)" Free Church of Scotland. He married Jane Catherine Lundie in 1843 and five of their young children died in succession. Towards the end of their lives, one of their surviving daughters was left a widow with five small children and she returned to live with her parents. In 1853 Bonar earned the Doctor of Divinity degree at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen" \o "University of Aberdeen" University of Aberdeen. He entered the Ministry of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" \o "Church of Scotland" Church of Scotland at first being put in charge of mission work at St. Johns parish in Leith and settled at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelso,_Scotland" \o "Kelso, Scotland" Kelso. He joined the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Church_of_Scotland_(1843-1900)" \o "Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)" Free Church at the time of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disruption_of_1843" \o "Disruption of 1843" Disruption of 1843, and in 1867 was moved to Edinburgh to take over the Chalmers Memorial Church. In 1883 he was elected Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. He was a prolific author including in 1884 The Life and Works of the Rev. G. T. Dodds, who had been married to Bonars daughter and who had died in 1882 while serving as a missionary in France. His hymns include: Fill thou my life, O Lord, my God, I heard the Voice of Jesus say and Thy way, not mine, O Lord BRYENNIOS, PHILOTHEOS [18331914] Greek Orthodox theologian who was born to poor parents and educated at Halki in Constantinople and in Germany. In 1861 he became a professor at Halki. He was an Orthodox representative at the Bonn Conference of 1874. He is famous for the publishing of the Didache of the Twelve Apostles in 1883 from a manuscript from 1056 which was housed in the residence for the visiting patriarch of Jerusalem in Constantinople. BUDDE, KARLE [18501933] German Protestant Bible scholar who continued to criticise the O.T. following procedures laid down by his friend Wellhausen. DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES [1846-1914] Old Testament scholar who was educated at Winchester and Oxford. Driver was connected with the University of Oxford all his working life succeeding E. B. Pusey in the chair of Hebrew [1883-1914]. He was influenced by the critical approach to the Old Testament of German scholars and did much to publicise their views in his teaching and writing. KAFTAN, JULIUS WILHELM MARTIN [1848-1926] German Protestant theologian educated at Berlin and later taught at the University of Berlin from 1883. He stressed personal religious experience and the historical revelation of Christ. The Atonement was interpreted in mystical and ethical categories, rejecting any idea of satisfaction or need for Gods reconciliation with man (rather than the reverse). LAGRANGE, MARIE JOSEPH [1855-1938] French Roman Catholic scholar who studied in Paris and Vienna. He was ordained in 1883 and lectured in history and philosophy at Salamanca and Toulouse. He was appointed to the biblical commission in 1902 by Leo XIII and came as close to Higher Criticism as Catholic orthodoxy would permit. SHEKLETON MARY [1827-1883] Mary Shekleton was for many years an invalid, during which time she wrote several hymns, which were printed in broadsheet form. Several of these are given in Chosen, Chastened, Crowned Memorials of Mary Shekleton late Secretary of the Invalids Prayer Union, by her sister 1884 She is remembered for her hymn It passeth knowledge that dear love of Thine published in the year of her death, 1883. SMITH, WILLIAM [1854-1914] Founder of the BOYS BRIGADE in Thurso Scotland. This was the pioneer of uniformed voluntary organisations for boys and girls. A church centred organisation with the purpose of helping boys achieve a true Christian faith, promoting habits of obedience, reverence, discipline, and self respect. It currently has 5000 companies and over 250,000 members worldwide. WHITTLE, DANIEL WEBSTER [1840-1901]. Daniel Whittle was an American poet, hymn writer, evangelist, and Bible teacher who was influenced by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_L._Moody" \o "Dwight L. Moody" Dwight L. Moody. He entered full time evangelism and worked with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._P._Bliss" \o "P. P. Bliss" P. P. Bliss and James McGranahan. He wrote the words for about two hundred hymns, including, I Know Whom I Have Believed in 1883. Whittle reached the rank of major in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amer%C2%ADi%C2%ADcan_Ci%C2%ADvil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "American Civil War (page does not exist)" American Civil War and for the rest of his life was known as Major Whittle. He was converted in a prisoner of war camp while recovering from his war wounds in the hospital while he was praying with a young dying soldier. 1884CARMAN, ALBERT [1833-1917] Superintendent of the United Methodists of Canada. Originally a school teacher he eventually became the bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He was an excellent administrator and held the position of superintendent until 1914. He is said to have stood for the integrity and veracity of the Book. DRUMMOND, HENRY [1851-1897] Scottish writer and evangelist. Educated at Edinburgh University, he was persuaded by D.L. Moody to suspend his theological course and to work with him in evangelistic campaigns during Moodys first visit to Britain 1873-1875. From 1877 he taught natural science at the Free Church College Glasgow and in 1883 published the bestseller Natural Law in the Spiritual World. In 1884 he was ordained and became professor of theology in the college. During the last 14 years of his life he was involved in controversy about the relationship of science and religion, and about the authority of the Bible. He might have been a great scientist had not evangelism been the main focus of his life. He died after two years of crippling illness. FAUNCE, WILLIAM HERBERT PERRY [1859-1930] Baptist minister and educator. After training he entered the Baptist ministry in 1884. He worked for 15 years as a pastor, before being appointed president of Brown University where he served until his retirement in 1929. Active in many social causes, he was at various times president of the World Peace Foundation, the National Education Association, and of the Religious Education Association. A liberaliser, he moderated between modernists and fundamentalists and opened Brown University to non-Baptist leadership. GORDON, GEORGE ANGIER [1853-1929] Scottish Congregational minister and writer. A preacher of great power during a long and influential pastorate at the Old South Church in Boston from 1884 to 1927. Through numerous books and lectures in all the leading American universities, he was a leader in introducing liberalism into the Congregational denomination. He called Calvinism the ultimate blasphemy of thought and held that moral progress was the key to history. GRENFELL, GEORGE [1849-1906] Baptist missionary who after a short apprenticeship in the Cameroons from 1875-78 led a pioneer party to the Congo. By inclination an explorer, Grenfell travelled 25,000 kilometres on the Congo and its tributaries from 1884 to 1886 winning recognition from the Royal Geographical Society. For over 20 years he supervised Baptist Missionary Society work and continued exploring in two steam boats he himself assembled. His base after 1889 was Boloba where he engaged in conventional missionary work. While considering European rule preferable to intertribal conflict and Arab slave-raiding he later condemned official atrocities and was treated with marked disfavour. This prevented him from completing a chain of stations linking up with the Church Missionary Society in East Africa. HASTINGS, JAMES [1852-1922] Scottish minister and editor who was educated at Aberdeen and became a pastor at the United Free Church from 1884-1911 before retiring to engage in editorial work. In 1889 he founded the monthly Expository Times which he edited until his death. Hastings was a magnificent preacher, a man whose message was always unmistakably evangelical, spoken without the aid of notes and with the eloquent simplicity which is frequently associated with a wide range of knowledge. HOLLAND, HENRY SCOTT [1847-1918] Anglican preacher and theologian who was educated at Oxford and was the canon of St Pauls from 1884 to 1910 before returning to Oxford as a regius professor of divinity. A witty and prominent member of the Lux Mundi [see 1889] group he combined High Churchmanship with a vague liberal theology. An advanced member of the Christian Social Union of which he was sometime vice-president, he popularised the view of Christ as the solution of all human problems. His religious and political optimism was shattered by the experiences of World War I. JACKSON, SHELDON [1834-1909] USA, Presbyterian missionary to the West and Alaska. Having served the Presbyterian Churches in Minnesota he was put in charge of the churchs Western missions and pioneered the use of prefabricated church buildings. He supervised the Alaskan Presbyterians missions from 1884-1907. He set up a public school system in Alaska for the government and in 1890 introduced reindeer into mainland Alaska to help the natives. He was elected moderator of his denomination in 1897. JOACHIM IV Patriarch of Constantinople [1884-1887] succeeded Joachim III [see 1878]. There is no additional information readily available. KOREA [see also 1950] Christianity was planted in Korea by Koreans not by foreigners. Prior missionary contacts were only peripheral the first Catholic de Cespedes arrived in 1593 as chaplain to the invading Japanese troops. Not until Lee Sung-hun in 1784 returned baptised from a visit to the ex-Jesuit mission in Peking did Catholicism begin to spread among Koreans. In the next 100 years despite great persecutions the Catholic Church though was still a hidden movement grew to some 17,5000 members. The first Protestant Karl Gutzlaff [see 1823] arrived in 1832 exploring the coast. The year after the arrival in 1884 of the first resident Protestant missionary, Suh Sang-yun, a Korean convert of Scots missionaries in Manchuria, brought Korean Scripture portions into forbidden Korea and secretly gathered together the countrys first group of worshipping Protestants. The missionaries followed, first a Presbyterians physician Dr Horace Allen and in 1885 two clergyman, the Presbyterian H.G. Underwood [see 1885] and Methodist H.G. Appenzeller. The pioneer in opening North Korea was S.A. Moffat. And it was in the north that church growth was the greatest and by 1910 Protestants had outstripped Catholics. The Korean Presbyterian Church was organised as an independent body in 1907 with the Korean Methodist Church following in 1930. Japanese annexation in 1910 brought harassment of the Church culminating in open persecution when Christians in the 1930s refused government demands to participate in Shinto ceremonies. TAYLOR, WILLIAM [1821-1902] American Methodist evangelist and missionary who did not receive much early education but in due course entered the Methodist ministry and was assigned to the tented city of San Francisco. His open-air meetings drew thousands of listeners and brought many conversions. Taylor organised the first Methodist Church in his city. From 1856 to 1861 Taylor travelled through North America and thereafter to England, Australia, the West Indies, South America, the Middle East, and South Africa. Elected missionary bishop of Africa in 1884 he systemised the work particularly in the Congo and Liberia advocating self-supporting missions where possible. His zeal and methods sometimes alarmed his home board but his results were often impressive. 1885BARNBY, SIR JOSEPH [18381896] English conductor and composer of more than 200 hymn tunes including When morning gilds the skies. He did much to introduce the works of Bach and Dvorak to England. BUTLER, JOSEPHINE [18281907] Social reformer, concerned initially with educational facilities for women she later supported refuges for the destitute and the removal of sexual exploitation of women. She was able to effect the raising of the age of consent to 16 in 1885 and repeal the Contagious Diseases Act which had virtually recognised prostitution in seaports and garrison towns. She formed the Ladies National Association for Appeal in 1869 which was a means to appeal to Parliament. CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY [1841-1915] Old Testament Oxford scholar who participated in the preparation of the Revised Version of the Bible. He spent time in Germany and was a pioneer in England of the critical approach to the Old Testament. He was co editor of Encyclopaedia Biblica 1899-1903. DOSTOEVSKY, FYODOR [1821-1881] Russian writer born in Moscow, son of a doctor, who was educated as an engineer but early turned to writing. He became involved with an anti-government socialist group for which he was arrested and sentenced to death but at the public execution he was given a last-minute reprieve. He was forced to spend 10 years in Siberia in prison and in military service instead. He wrote about his prison experiences in The House of the Dead 1861, and Notes from Underground in 1864 is an extraordinary picture of a mentally disturbed and alienated man. For a period he became very unstable, overwhelmed by gambling debts and emotional tensions, and epileptic seizures. His Russian Orthodoxy is represented by characters who seek salvation through suffering. EVANGELICAL COVENANT CHURCH OF AMERICA Founded in Chicago in 1885 it traces its origins to the Reformation, biblical instruction in the Lutheran State Church of Sweden, and the awakenings of the 19th century. It has traditionally cherished the historic confessions and creeds, but recognises the sovereignty of the Word of God over their interpretations. Its chief institutions are North Park College and Seminary in Chicago, and it has extensive missionary outreach. GERASIMOS Patriarch of Antioch [1885-1891] see also 1860 and 1892. JONES, SAMUEL PORTER [1847-1906] Evangelist and prohibitionist, born in Alabama USA. Chronic nervous indigestion kept him from his college and alcoholism soon ended a law career begun in 1868. He was converted under his Methodist grandfathers preaching and became a circuit rider for the North Georgia Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South in 1872. He was very successful in winning converts in Georgia and in raising funds as an agent for the Methodist Orphanage Home at Decatur. After 1885 he became an evangelist of national prominence. His meetings, characterised by controversial, vernacular oratory, often produced organised efforts to enforce local restricting laws and helped stimulate the National Prohibition movement. KEITH-FALCONER, ION GRANT [1856-1887] Missionary, Hebrew and Arabic scholar who was born into a noble Scottish family and educated at Cambridge and Leipzig. He was very tall, had an attractive personality and was also one of the earliest bicycle champions. He helped found the Cambridge Intercollegiate Christian Union in 1877 and engaged in evangelism among the poor. In 1885 he went as a missionary to the Arabs even though he had been appointed professor of Arabic at Cambridge. He and his young wife founded the Sheikh Othman hospital near Aden but he died of fever within a few months. His social, academic, and athletic standing, together with his early death, made him a great Christian influence on his contemporaries. PARKER, WILLIAM HENRY [1845-1929]. Baptist Hymn Writer. Parker was born and died in Nottingham, England. He was said to have been apprenticed in the machine construction department of a large lace making plant in Nottingham but was also involved in an insurance company. He was a Baptist layman, who attended the Chelsea Road Baptist Church and was greatly interested in the work of the Sunday School. His 1885 gospel song Tell Me the Stories of Jesus was inspired by the often repeated request of the children in his Sunday School class, Teacher, tell us another story. REVISED VERSION of the English Bible published. SABATIER, PAUL [1859-1928] French Calvinistic scholar and pastor who studied at Lille and enrolled at the Protestant faculty of the University of Paris where his brother Louis [see 1877], and Ernst Renan [see 1879] were amongst his teachers. From 1885 he was vicar at a Protestant church in Strasbourg for five years but was expelled from Germany and returned to France where he was a pastor for another five years before resigning to devote himself to a life of scholarship. He travelled to Assisi in Italy where he studied the life of Francis and the Franciscan Order. Later he became professor of Protestant theology at Strasbourg. His Life of St Francis of Assisi was an immediate success and shows a sympathetic understanding of Francis. During World War I he served as chaplain for pastors who were in the Armed Forces. STUDD, CHARLES THOMAS [1862-1931] Pioneer missionary who was the third son of Edward Studd a wealthy retired planter who was converted under D.L. Moody in 1877. Charles was converted the year after and educated at Cambridge where he excelled at cricket and was in the English team in 1882. He volunteered for missionary service and was one of the group of students known as the Cambridge Seven which aroused much enthusiasm on missions in Edinburgh and elsewhere. He sailed for China under the China Inland Mission in 1885 and gave away his inheritance to Christian causes. Invalided home in 1894 he was working two years later with students in America when the Student Volunteer Missionary Union was formed. He was pastor of the Union Church in Ootacumund in South India in 1900 to 1906 until forced home again through illness. Contrary to medical advice, after preaching in Britain for some while he went to Africa in 1910 where he founded the Heart of Africa Mission in 1912 which later became the Worldwide Evangelisation Crusade [WEC]. He laboured with Alfred Buxton and others in Central African until his death. SWAINSON, CHARLES ANTHONY [1820-1887] Anglican theologian who was son of a Liverpool merchant and educated at Cambridge. After a series of appointments he became Vice Chancellor of the University in 1885. Swainson was an authority on church creeds and liturgy. He travelled widely to view early manuscripts and published several works on the subject. He was also devoted to practical work of the ministry despite his high academic standing. UNDERWOOD, HORACE GRANT [1859-1916] Dutch Reformed missionary to Korea who was born in London and emigrated to America in 1872 where he graduated from New York University and three years later from the New Brunswick Theological Seminary. He went to Korea in 1885 under the Presbyterian Board for Foreign Missions and four years later married the queens physician. Underwood mastered the language, taught theology, and helped establish a hospital and college as well as a church. Trust and confidence of the Royal family generated through his persistent efforts brought more freedom for Christian missions in Korea. VAN MANEN, WILLEM CHRISTIAAN [1842-1905] Dutch theologian who became a preacher in the Dutch Reformed Church. He was recognised as an able theologian who moved from a relatively orthodox position steadily towards an advanced higher critical viewpoint. In his early 40s he was appointed as professor at Leyden in 1885 and became a brilliant exponent of radical higher criticism. He concluded that the Pauline epistles were sub-apostolic and extended this to most of the New Testament dating them from the second century and saw it as part of an effort to transform Judaism into a universal religion. WALKER, THOMAS [1859-1912] Anglican missionary to South India who was named Walker of Tinnevelley. Walker was educated at Cambridge and ordained in 1882 and sent by the Church Missionary Society to Tinnevelley in 1885. Apart from his evangelism and Bible teaching in the Tamil field he was a noted preacher at conventions particularly at hill stations and exerted considerable influence on the reformed section of the Syrian Orthodox Church. He was associated closely with the work of Amy Carmichael [see 1903] who wrote his biography. WORDSWORTH, JOHN [1843-1911] Bishop of Salisbury and elder son of Christopher Wordsworth [see 1869]. From 1878 he worked on a critical edition of the Vulgate text of the New Testament amassing and collating a huge number of manuscripts and was a professor of interpretation of Scripture in 1883. Wordsworth was made bishop of Salisbury in 1885 and was a close friend and adviser of Archbishop E.W. Benson [see 1882]. In the hope of a church reunion he maintained relations with the Eastern churches. 1886ANDOVER CONTROVERSY involved the Andover Theological Seminary from 1886 to 1893. The seminary had been founded in 1808 by the Congregationalists to counter the Unitarian tendencies at Harvard. E.C Smyth and his colleagues argued that the heathen who die without knowledge of the Gospel will have an opportunity to accept or reject the gospel before facing final judgement. In 1887 Smyth was deprived of his chair but in 1891 his dismissal was voided by the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD [18231900] German Evangelical Church leader who was a strong supporter of the rights of the laity and for the autonomy of the church. Active as a religious journalist in 1876 he founded an organisation for the moderates in the church and was always concerned about the Catholic aggression which he had met in Trier when he was there in 1850-56. In 1886 he founded a group to counter the influence of the Catholic Church in the Evangelical Church. BOBERG, CARL GUSTAV [18591940] Boberg was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_people" \o "Swedish people" Swedish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet" \o "Poet" poet, author and hymn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer" \o "Writer" writer, and parliamentarian, best known for writing the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language" \o "Swedish language" Swedish language poem of O Store Gud (O great God) from which the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" \o "English language" English language hymn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_Great_Thou_Art_(hymn)" \o "How Great Thou Art (hymn)" How Great Thou Art is derived. He was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter" \o "Carpenter" carpenters son, worked briefly as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor" \o "Sailor" sailor, and served as a lay HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_(Christianity)" \o "Minister (Christianity)" minister. The inspiration for How Great Thou Art came from a visit to a beautiful country estate on the southeast coast of Sweden. Boberg got caught in a midday thunderstorm with awe inspiring moments of flashing violence, followed by a clear brilliant sun. Soon afterwards he heard the calm, sweet songs of the birds in nearby trees. The experience prompted Boberg to fall to his knees in humble adoration of his mighty God. A nine-stanza poem beginning with the Swedish words O Store Gud, nar jag den varld beskader captured his exaltation of how great God is. It was translated into English by British missionary Stuart K. Hine, who also added two original verses of his own composition. It was popularized by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Beverly_Shea" \o "George Beverly Shea" George Beverly Shea and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_Barrows" \o "Cliff Barrows" Cliff Barrows during HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Graham" \o "Billy Graham" Billy Graham crusades. Boberg was the editor of a weekly HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" \o "Christian" Christian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper" \o "Newspaper" newspaper, Sanningsvittnet (Witness of the Truth), from 1890 until 1916. He served in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Parliament" \o "Swedish Parliament" Swedish Parliament for 20 years from 1912 to 1931 and published more than 60 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry" \o "Poetry" poems, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymns" \o "Hymns" hymns and gospel songs. CHICAGO LAMBETH ARTICLES adopted by American Bishops. The four basics are known as the Chicago Quadrilaterals and consist of [1] adherence to the Holy Scriptures as the ultimate standard of faith, [2] adherence to the Apostles and Nicene Creed, [3] adherence to the two sacraments of Baptism and Lords Supper, and [4] adherence to a belief in an historic episcopate. In 1888 the Lambeth Conference adopted a similar quadrilateral as the basis for its own discussion of Christian unity with other churches. FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN [1838-1912] Congregational minister who had little regular schooling and was earning his living before he was 10. He however read widely and eventually studied at Edinburgh University. He entered the Evangelical Union theological college in Edinburgh in 1857 and ministered as a pastor before becoming the principal of Airedale Theological College in 1877. He transferred to Mansfield College Oxford in 1886 at which he was the first principal, a post which he held for 23 years. An original and refreshing teacher whose theological liberalism reflected the views of the German scholars, Fairbairn was much in demand as a preacher and lecturer and paid several visits to the USA. KAFTAN, THEODOR [1847-1932] German Lutheran churchman and elder brother of Julius Kaftan [see 1883. He was general superintendent for the province of Schleswig from 1886 to 1917. A strong confessional Lutheran, he clashed with the spokesman for both the orthodox and neo-Protestant positions. He opposed Prussian attempts to Germanise north Schleswig and sought to protect the Danish character of the church life there. He disliked the churchs growing dependence upon the state and was the author of numerous works in the field of practical theology. LISZT, FRANZ [1811-1886] Hungarian composer and pianist who was one of the most influential figures of the Romantic era in music and was one of the great innovators of the 19th century. His interest and involvement in religious music is not so generally recognised. He wrote three large-scale settings of the Mass, two oratorios, and an assortment of other sacred works. MOODY, DWIGHT LYMAN [1837-1899] American evangelist who started work at the age of 13 in Northfield and at 17 secured employment in a shoe store in Boston. He began attending Mount Vernon Congregational Church in Boston and was converted in 1855. He moved to Chicago and became a travelling salesman and successful businessman. Moody joined Plymouth Church and soon rented four pews for men invited from the hotels and on street corners. In 1860 he decided give up business and spend full-time in Sunday School YMCA work. During the Civil war he also threw himself into work among soldiers and soon established the nondenominational Illinois Street Church. At a national Sunday School conference he met Ira Sankey [see 1870] who he enlisted as a musical associate. In 1873 Moody sailed for Britain. This his third tour which lasted two years, was destined to make him a national figure. Major crowds attended his meetings in Scotland and when he went to London for a four-month period total attendance at the meetings reached more than 2 1/2 million. He returned to the United States where he established a school for girls, Northfield Seminary, and two years later a school for boys, Mount Hermon School. In 1880 he began a summer conference ministry, and in 1886 started the Chicago Evangelization Society later to be known as the Moody Bible Institute. It has been established that he travelled more than 1,000,000 miles and addressed more than 100 million people. In the midst of his last evangelistic campaign in Kansas City Moody became ill and died a few days later. NICOLL, WILLIAM ROBERTSON [1851-1923] Religious journalist, son of a Free Church of Scotland minister, who was educated at Aberdeen and subsequently entered the ministry. Ill health caused his resignation from the pastorate and moving to London he edited The Expositor [1885-1923] and The British Weekly [1886-1923]. He also wrote for the secular press and published many books. He was knighted by Edward VII in 1909. ROWLEY FRANCIS HAROLD [1854-1952] The son of a doctor, Francis Harold Rowley became an ordained Baptist clergyman who, for about 30 years, served churches in several States in America. He was also greatly interested in animal welfare, wrote books on the subject, and was president of the Massachusetts S.P.C.A. for 35 years, being made chairman of the board at the age of 91. For his notable interest in both human and animal welfare, the Rowley School of Humanities at Oglethorpe University in Atlanta was named in his honour. I Will Sing the Wondrous Story is the only hymn credited to Rowley. He was serving a church in Massachusetts at the time of writing it (around 1886). The church was holding a series of evangelistic meetings, assisted by gospel musician Peter Bilhorn. Pastor Rowley says, One night, after the close of the service, he said, Why dont you write a hymn for me to set to music. During the night these most unpretentious and wholly unworthy verses came to me. Years later, the author was walking down a street in London, late at night, and saw a group of Salvation Army people holding an open-air service. He says, As I came nearer to them, it occurred to me that the hymn they were singing was familiar. Then it dawned upon me that it was this one. SOUTHERN AFRICA ZAMBIA Zambia was entered from several directions with F. Coillard [see 1857] coming from Lesotho to found the Barotse Mission in 1886 closely followed by the Primitive Methodists. The London Missionary Society entered Bembaland from Tanganyika; the Presbyterians, the Dutch Reformed Church, and Anglicans from Malawi; the Wesleyan Methodists from Zimbabwe. The development of the Copper Belt after 1925 led to the spontaneous formation of an African Union Church and to united action by several missions. Zambia was proclaimed a Christian country in 1991. TERESA OF LISIEUX [1873-1897] Carmelite and devotional writer who had a deprived childhood and became gravely ill. This led however at Christmas 1886 to a conversion experience that led her to her monastic commitment. She was able to enter the Carmelite convent in Lisieux at only fifteen years of age. From 1893 she was acting novice mistress and wrote Little Way. Pope Benedict XV said it contained the secret of sanctity for the entire world. Dying of tuberculosis she wrote her autobiography, the wide circulation which has led to her extensive cult. She was canonised in 1925. 1887BLACKSTONE, WILLIAM EUGENE [18411935] American friend of the Jews who was converted as a boy and served in the Civil War with the US Christian Commission. Impressed by the lack of literature on the Second Coming he became a writer on the Second Advent. He founded the Chicago Hebrew Mission in 1887 and three years later headed the first conference between Jews and Christians in that city. DIONYSIUS V HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople (1887-1891) succeeded Joachim IV [see 1884]. There is no additional information readily available. EVANS, OWEN [1829-1920] Welsh minister with elementary education only, who served as minister in several Congregational churches. He was chairman of the Union of Welsh Independents in 1887. Apart from being a successful pastor he was a prolific author. He specialised in books of the popular nature dealing with biblical themes and written in a clear and interesting style. Throughout his life he was an ardent defender of the Reformed faith against the attacks of modernism and liberalism. GOFORTH, JONATHAN [1859-1936] Canadian Presbyterian missionary to China. Educated at Knox College Toronto he was ordained in 1886 and went with his wife to China in 1887. Here they were pioneers in the Canadian Presbyterian work in Honan Province. Theologically conservative and a firm believer in preaching he became famous for his leadership and participation in revivals which swept over China in the early 20th century. Though he lost his eyesight during his final years in China, he continued to minister there until 1934. KIDD, BERESFORD JAMES [1864-1948] Church historian educated at Oxford and was ordained in 1887. He was vicar of St Pauls at Oxford from 1902 to 1920 then became warden of Keble College until his retirement. He wrote a number of books on church history. His work on the history of Christianity was based on careful study of its documents, illustrative collections of which he also published. POLLARD, SAMUEL [1864-1915] Missionary to China who was born in Cornwall son of a Methodist minister. Pollard reached China under the Bible Christian Mission [see 1815] in 1887 and was appointed to the south-west region. He soon began the evangelisation of the Miao tribe and spent 20 years among them. He reduced their language to writing and prepared literature in the script he devised. His educational efforts were greatly resented by those who gained from their workers being illiterate, and on one occasion Pollard was severely beaten. Before he died of typhoid he witnessed the mass movement of the Miao into the Christian church. PREMILLENNIALISM The view which asserts that Christ will come a second time before the 1000 years of His millennial reign, and places the Rapture of the Saints, the First Resurrection, the Tribulation, and The Second Advent before the Millennium in prophetic time sequence with the brief release of a bound Satan, the Second Resurrection and Last Judgement afterwards. This view was held by the early church fathers until Origen, Eusebius, and Augustine modified it. It was revived in the modern era by John Darby [see 1845], W.E. Blackstone [see above], and C.I. Scofield [see 1909], among others. SAMMIS, JOHN HENRY [1846-1919] John Sammis was born in Brooklyn, New York and died in Los Angeles, California. He was a businessman who later attended McCormick and Lane Theological Seminaries. Ordained a Presbyterian minister in 1880, he served in numerous pastoral positions in the Midwest and taught at the Bible Institute of Los Angeles for the remainder of his career. He wrote over 100 hymns of which the most famous is When we walk with the Lord written in 1887. SLEEPER, WILLIAM TRUE [1840-1920]. William Sleeper was an American Congregational clergyman. He had pastorates in Massachusetts and Maine. He was pastor of the Summer Street Congregational Church in Worcester, Massachusetts, for over 30 years. He is best remembered for his hymn Out of my bondage, sorrow, and night Jesus I Come published in 1887. Musician George Stebbins [see 1874] spoke of his ability to compose hymns. He said I spoke to Reverend Sleeper, one of the pastors of the city who sometimes wrote hymns, of my impression of the message and asked him if he would write me some verses on the subject. He acted at once on my suggestion and soon after came to me with the hymn. Before the meetings closed a musical setting was made. STAINER, JOHN [1840-1901] English composer and organist both at Magdalen College in 1860 and St Pauls cathedral 1872. His most famous composition was the oratorio The Crucifixion published in 1887. He was knighted the following year by Queen Victoria. WARFIELD, BENJAMIN BRECKINRIDGE [1851-1921] American Presbyterian scholar who took an arts degree at Princeton and travelled in Europe for a year before becoming editor of the Farmers Home Journal. Later he trained for the ministry at Princeton Theological Seminary and at the University of Leipzig. In 1878 he became instructor of New Testament language and literature in Western Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, holding the rank of professor from 1879 to 1887. He then moved to Princeton where he succeeded A.A. Hodge [see 1877] as professor of didactic and polemical theology. Warfield was a committed Calvinist with a high regard for the Westminster Confession of Faith and held dogmatically to an inerrant Scripture, original sin, predestination, and a limited atonement. He fought a running battle with the C.A. Briggs [see 1890] and H.P. Smith [see 1874] over biblical inerrancy, which he and Charles Hodge [see 1841] defended vigorously. 1888ABBOT, LYMAN [1835-1922] Congregational minister who became pastor in Terre Haute Indiana in 1860 and after the Civil War served on the American Union Commission which promoted reconstruction in the South. In 1888 he succeeded H Beecher [see 1847] as pastor of Plymouth Church in Brooklyn. During the 1880s he changed from an orthodox position to radical biblical criticism and liberalism accepting Darwinism and applying evolutionary principles to religious questions. AFFIRMATION which is the right to affirm, provided for those giving evidence in English civil courts who, with or without religious faith, object on conscientious grounds to take an oath on Gods name. The Common Law Procedure Act of 1854 extended this right to any who had conscientious reasons for objecting to be sworn but this option did not explicitly include atheists until the Oaths Act of 1888. BATIFFOL, PIERRE [18611929] French Roman Catholic scholar who specialised in Roman Catholic Church history and took a strong stand against modernism. In 1888 he was appointed to teach in Paris where he worked for the next decade. His book on the Eucharist was placed on the Index. He later took part with Cardinal Mercier at the conversations at Malines [see 1921] between the Catholics and Anglicans. BURGON, JOHN [18131888] Anglican scholar educated at Oxford who was an author and controversialist. He wrote in 1888 the popular Lives of Twelve Good Men which was a study of twelve high churchmen of his era. He strongly defended Textus Receptus for the N.T. and was against the Revised Version of the Bible. He also denounced the disestablishment of the Irish Church in 1869. HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM [1823 1897]. Bishop and hymn writer. The son of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrewsbury" \o "Shrewsbury" Shrewsbury HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solicitor" \o "Solicitor" solicitor How was educated at Shrewsbury, Oxford and Durham. He was ordained in 1846 and for upwards of thirty years was actively engaged in parish work at Whittington in Shropshire and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswestry" \o "Oswestry" Oswestry (rural dean, 1860). He refused preferment on several occasions, but his energy and success made him well known, and in 1879 he became a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragan" \o "Suffragan" suffragan bishop in London, under the title of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Bedford" \o "Bishop of Bedford" bishop of Bedford, his province being the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_End_of_London" \o "East End of London" East End. There he became the inspiring influence of a revival of church work. He founded the East London Church Fund, and enlisted a large band of enthusiastic helpers, his popularity among all classes being immense. He was particularly fond of children, and was commonly called the childrens bishop. In 1888 he was made HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Wakefield" \o "Bishop of Wakefield" bishop of Wakefield, and in the north of England he continued to do valuable work. His sermons were straightforward, earnest and attractive; and besides publishing several volumes of these, he wrote a good deal of verse, including such well-known hymns as For all the saints and It is the thing most wonderful Some thought him possibly the greatest 19th-century hymn writer. In 1863-1868 he brought out a Commentary on the Four Gospels and he also wrote a manual for the Holy Communion. Published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge during the 1890s this book was widely distributed. In the movement for infusing new spiritual life into the church services, especially among the poor, How was a great force. LOOFS, FRIEDRICH ARMIN [1858-1928] Lutheran theologian who was educated at Tubingen and Leipzig before being appointed church history professor at Leipzig in 1886 and at Halle in 1888 where he remained until his death. He played a leading role in Lutheran affairs and became a member of the Saxon Consistory in 1910. He was a prolific author. NICHOL, HENRY ERNEST [1862-1926]. Nichol originally planned to be an engineer. But he switched to a study of music, graduating from Oxford University in 1888 with a Bachelor of Music degree. Most of his hymns were written for the Sunday School. For many of the songs he wrote both words and music. But in a few older hymnals it may not seem like it. Nichol created a pen name by rearranging the letters of his middle and last name. So you may see H. Ernest Nichol as the composer of the tune, and Colin Sterne as the author of the words, but it is the same man. One of Nichols contributions is the hymn Lord it is eventide, the light of day is waning NORTH AFRICA Unlike Egypt and the Lebanon, North Africa had no remnants of ancient churches to keep alive some semblance of Christian testimony. When Islam swept across the area in the seventh century the church of Augustine was all swept away because there had been no real missionary activity in the rural areas with each group remaining in their cities which were easy to take. It was not until the 1860s that the Roman Catholic missionaries were concerned with much more than ministering to the European population in North Africa and not until 1908 was the mission raised to the status of importance. There had been sporadic work in Algiers and Tunisia in the mid-17th century and progress was made by the Catholics reporting that by 1930 the Roman Catholic population was reported at about three quarters of a million. In 1888 John Anderson founded the Southern Morocco mission seeking especially to evangelise the Berbers and Arabs. Also early Lilias Trotter [see 1888] was responsible for the formation of the Algiers Mission Band which made special efforts to reach the oasis dwellers of the South. It was over the same period that Edward Glennie was the prime mover in the establishment of the North African Mission. These three eventually combined to form the North African Mission with an international structure and headquarters in the south of France. Other missions, including the American Methodists, the Emmanuel Mission, Mennonite Mission, Sahara Desert Mission, Southern Baptist Convention, the Gospel Missionary Union, the Bible Churchmans Missionary Society, and the Christian Brethren have all worked in different areas of North Africa. Most if not all have suffered setbacks due to aggressive nationalism in more recent times which has been strongly Islamic. Arabic is the main language of North Africa and the Van Dyke Bible has been widely distributed. Two World Wars saw the emergence of Islamic nationalism and a resentful feeling that Christianity was the religion of the occupying power and that it and its religious emissarys should go. SHEDD, WILLIAM GREENOUGH THAYER [1820-1894] American theologian educated at Vermont and Andover Theological Seminary. He was a pastor in both Congregational and Presbyterian churches but the major portion of his life was spent as professor of English literature at the University of Vermont and then in teaching in various theological seminaries. His theology was strongly conservative Calvinistic. His major work was Dogmatic Theology published from 1888 to 1894 and was a clear statement of Westminster Presbyterian Calvinism. TROTTER, ISABELLA LILIAS [1853-1928] Missionary to North Africa. She was the daughter of a London businessman and was privately educated. In 1876 she made the acquaintance of John Ruskin who admired her expert miniatures and exhorted her to devote her life to painting. Trotter however determined to sail as a missionary to North Africa. She began her work in Algeria in 1888 making dangerous missionary journeys and securing converts among the Arabs, French, Jews, and Negroes, and establishing preaching stations. Her Algiers Mission Band grew steadily from 3 to 30 full-time workers. Her translation of the New Testament into colloquial Algerian, and her illustrated tracts for Muslim readers, were greatly admired. She died while still on active service. Her society is now incorporated in the North Africa Mission. VINCENT, JOHN HEYL [1832-1920] Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church and Sunday school educator who was born in Alabama and was ordained an elder in 1857 after studying at the Wesleyan Institute in New Jersey. He pioneered in Sunday school improvements such as uniform lessons [1872] and with Lewis Miller two years later started the famous Chautauqua [see 1874] conferences in west New York State. The general conference of his church ordained Vincent bishop in 1888. He served in Switzerland from 1900 to 1904. WALKER, WILLISTON [1860-1922] He was an American Church historian who was educated at Amherst College, Hartford Seminary, and Leipzig University. In 1888-89 he lectured at Bryn Mawr College and after 12 years of being a professor at Hartford seminary became professor of ecclesiastical history at Yale where he remained until his death. He was a prolific writer. 1889 ADDAMS, JANE [1860-1935] American social reformer who attended medical school but had to retire due to poor health. She travelled in Europe and on her return with her friend Ellen Gates Starr founded Hull House as a refuge for poor immigrants near Chicago patterned after Toynbee Hall in London. She was active in legal improvements for the poor and participated in the womens suffrage movement. She received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 and although not an orthodox Christian encouraged many to assist in the plight of the poor. BUDRY EDMOND LOUIS [1854-1932] Pastor and Hymn Writer. Budry was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" \o "Switzerland" Swiss HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymn writer famous for writing the lyrics to the hymn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thine_Be_the_Glory" \o "Thine Be the Glory" Thine Be the Glory to music from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judas_Maccabaeus_(Handel)" \o "Judas Maccabaeus (Handel)" Judas Maccabaeus by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" \o "George Frideric Handel" George Frideric Handel. Born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vevey" \o "Vevey" Vevey, he studied theology in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lausanne" \o "Lausanne" Lausanne and was a pastor at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cully,_Vaud" \o "Cully, Vaud" Cully and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte-Croix,_Switzerland" \o "Sainte-Croix, Switzerland" Sainte-Croix between 1881 and 1889. He then became pastor of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_church" \o "Free church" Free Church in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vevey" \o "Vevey" Vevey for a further 35 years, retiring in 1923. Besides writing original hymns, he translated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" \o "German language" German, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" \o "English language" English, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" \o "Latin" Latin lyrics into HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" \o "French language" French. FINLAND [see also 1249] The pietistic revivals were most important in the development of the church and continued to enrich it from the end of the 17th century onwards. During the 20th century new groups arose such as the Fifth Movement which emphasis faithfulness to the Bible and the Lutheran Confession in reaction to liberal theology and higher criticism. These movements enjoy much freedom within the church and have influenced it to a great extent. The Church of Finland is a state church, but has considerable liberty. The Church assembly meets every five years; its enactments must be ratified by Parliament. In 1889 church law was passed giving everyone the right of choosing his religion. In 1923 this was enlarged to include the right to freedom from religion. There is a significant number of the Orthodox Church in Finland due to relationship with the Russian area. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland claims more than 90% of the population in 1970 having rather more than 4.5 million members while the Orthodox church numbers about 68,000. There are few Roman Catholics in Finland. GURNEY, DOROTHY FRANCES [1858-1932]. Anglican Poetess. She grew up in a devout Anglican Church parsonage. Her father, Rev. Frederick G. Blomfield, was rector of a London parish, while her grandfather had been a distinguished bishop of London. She displayed literary gifts early on. She wrote two volumes of verse as well as a devotional work title A Little Book of Quiet. One of her best known poems is Gods Garden. Dorothy married Gerald Gurney, a former actor who be came an ordained minister in the Anglican Church. Dorothy Gurney was visiting her soon-to-be married sister in the lovely, English Lake region of Windermere, the land of William Wordsworth, when her sister complained that for her forthcoming wedding, she could not find appropriate words for one of her favourite hymn tunes Strength and Stay by John B. Dykes. Apparently, her sister challenged her in a way that since she writes poetry, she can write new words to the same tune of Strength and Stay. Gurney went to the library and in about 15 minutes came back with the text, O Perfect Love. Her sister was pleased and asked it to be sung on her HYPERLINK "http://popmusic.suite101.com/article.cfm/oh_promise_me_love_song" \t "_blank" wedding. Gurney wrote only this one hymn text throughout her lifetime. Since then, it has been sung at many weddings, and eventually, found its way into the hymnals in 1889. HARNACK, ADOLF [1851-1930] German scholar who became professor at Berlin from 1889 to 1921. His appointment was challenged by the church because of his doubts about the authorship of the fourth Gospel and other New Testament books, his unorthodox interpretation of biblical miracles including the resurrection and his denial of Christs institution of baptism. Nevertheless he was perhaps the most influential church historian and theologian of his era until World War I. He was liberal in theology. JULICHER, ADOLF [1867-1938] German New Testament scholar and professor of theology at Marburg [1889 -1923] who wrote a very influential work on the parables of Jesus in which he argued that Jesus parables were originally intended to illustrate one truth only i.e. as true similes and not as allegories, and that all allegorical features are therefore secondary. KENYON, SIR FREDERIC GEORGE [1863-1852] Greek manuscript scholar, educated at Oxford and appointed to the British Museum staff in 1889. From 1898 to 1909 he was assistant keeper of manuscripts and from 1909 until 1930 director and principal librarian. His main work was done with Greek papyri and particularly with New Testament manuscripts. He used his considerable knowledge of manuscripts in the ancient world to demonstrate the substantial reliability of the New Testament text and its closeness to the events which it records. LUX MUNDI The title of a book containing A Series of Studies in the Religion of the Incarnation edited by Charles Gore [see 1911] bishop of Oxford and published in 1889. Dissatisfied with the superficial level of the Anglo-Catholic movements during the latter half of the 19th century, the contributors to this volume present a more liberal and socially informed Catholicism for the Church of England. These Oxford essays were violently attacked by the conservative members of the Church of England and assailed publicly in Convocation. NIETZSCHE, FRIEDRICH [1844-1900] German philosopher and philologist who was the son of a Lutheran minister. Before passing his final examination he was appointed an associate professor of classical philology at the University of Basle. He volunteered as a medical orderly in the Franco-Prussian war and due to ill-health returned to the University the same year finally retiring in 1879. He went insane in January 1889 as he had been awakened by the work of Charles Darwin [see 1859] and what he took to be the nihilistic implications of evolutionary theory. Nietzsche attacked Christian dogma but more especially he attacked the prevalent idea that Christian ethics could survive the overthrow of the Christians view of man which he believed the work of Darwin had brought about. He had the concept that the superman who had evolved could go beyond good and evil by his self-mastery and therefore beyond the defunct values of Christianity. The fascists later grasped the concept of superman in Nazi principles. OLD CATHOLICS The movement in German-speaking Europe especially Bavaria which rejected the dogma of papal infallibility declared by the Vatican Council [1870], and organised the Old Catholic Churches, in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, not in communion with Rome. The movement was motivated by Febronianism and then Jansenism when it associated with the already established Church of Utrecht by a common adoption of the Declaration of Utrecht [1889]. The First International Old Catholic Congress convened at Cologne in 1890. From the start Anglicans have been close to Old Catholics. The bishops of Ely and Lincoln sent communications to the Munich Congress of 1871 and attended the second at Cologne in 1872 Old Catholics recognised Anglican ordinations in 1925 and achieved full inter-communion with the Church of England in 1932 and most other Anglican churches thereafter. By 1957 Old Catholics numbered 350,000 mainly in Germany, Holland, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, and North America. SMITH, RODNEY Gypsy [1860-1947] English evangelist who was the son of gypsies who travelled in East Anglia. Smith was greatly affected by his mothers death from smallpox. Soon after his father was converted and began to hold services where Rodney himself was converted in 1876 in Cambridge and the following year he joined William Booth in his Christian Mission serving as a captain in the Salvation Army until 1882. In 1889 he went to America on an evangelistic tour, after which he joined the Manchester Wesleyan Mission. Following a world preaching tour [1897-1912] he was missioner for the National Free Church Council. He served with the YMCA in World War I and George VI made him a member of the Order of the British Empire. He sang simple gospel solos. SPURGEON, THOMAS [1856-1917] Baptist pastor and twin son of C.H. Spurgeon. He studied theology at Spurgeons College and art and wood engraving at London. In 1877 Thomas visited Australia including Tasmania and returned two years later accepting a Baptist pastorate in Auckland New Zealand in 1881. He acted as an evangelist for the New Zealand Baptist Union from 1889 to 1893. He returned to London as pastor of the Metropolitan Tabernacle but later resigned due for health reasons in 1908. His son Thomas Harold Spurgeon [1891-1967] served for many years in Dublin as the principal of the Irish Baptist College. STUBBS, WILLIAM [1825-1901] English historian and bishop who was educated at Oxford and from 1850 to 1866 was the vicar of Navestock. Between 1864 and 1889 Stubbs produced remarkable editions of English Mediaeval Chronicles which made him the outstanding historian of his time and the person who laid the foundation of the modern approach to the study of mediaeval history. In 1866 he was appointed regius professor of modern history at Oxford. He became bishop of Chester in 1884 and was translated to the see of Oxford in 1889. Theologically he was a High Churchman, politically he was a conservative. TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER [1856-1928] American evangelist and Bible scholar who graduated from Yale and also studied at German universities. He was ordained into the Congregational ministry in 1878 and became superintendent of the Congregational City Missionary Society of Minneapolis. Torrey had a long association with D.L. Moody [see 1886] and was the first superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute [1889 -1908]. He toured widely and from 1912 was dean of the Bible Institute of Los Angeles and pastor of the Church of the Open Door. Torrey wrote numerous devotional and theological books, the most important being What the Bible Teaches, How to Work for Christ, and The Person and Work of the Holy Spirit. TURNER, CUTHBERT HAMILTON [1860-1930] Anglican historian of early Christianity and New Testament scholar who came to Oxford as a student in 1879 and there remained until his death. He served as a research scholar, lecturer, and latterly as fellow of Magdalen College from 1889 to 1930 and Dean Irelands professor of exegesis from 1920-1930. His work centred on matters of chronology and textual criticism related to the Church Fathers and canon law. Turner failed to complete several major writing projects but published an extensive collection of documents relating to early Western canon law and a large number of essays, the most important being a classic study of New Testament chronology. UTRECHT, DECLARATION OF A creedal summary issued in Utrecht in 1889 which is important in the history the Old Catholic movement [see above]. The original Old Catholic Church grew out of the Jansenist controversies. Cornelius Steenhoven in 1724 was consecrated by a Catholic bishop without papal approval as bishop of Utrecht. The Old Catholic church continued as a small group and it wasnt until the 1870s when after Vatican I and the adoption of the doctrine of papal infallibility that many turned to Utrecht for their ordination. The 1889 declaration affirmed adherence to Catholicism but rejected the doctrine of papal infallibility. This was accepted as a doctrinal statement by the Old Catholic churches, including since 1897 the Polish Old Catholic movement in the USA. 1890BINGHAM, HIRAM, JR [18311908] American Congregationalist missionary who was born to missionary parents in Honolulu. In 1856 the American Board sent him out as a missionary to the Gilbert Islands where he published the first Bible portion in the native tongue four years later, and finished translating the whole Bible in 1890 having opened up missionary work in the Gilbert Islands. BRIGGS, CHARLES [18411913] American minister and scholar who on being appointed professor of theology at Union Seminary vigorously condemned the dogma of verbal inspiration. As a result he was tried for heresy and acquitted. However on appeal he was suspended from the ministry. Union Seminary ignored this and he was ordained into the Episcopalian Church in 1900. DE FOUCAULD, CHARLES EUGENE [1858-1916] Roman Catholic missionary and ascetic who was born in Strasbourg of a distinguished and devout family. He had a somewhat dissolute army career but was honoured by the Paris Geographical Society for his expedition work in North Africa. Impressed by the Moslems he gave himself to prayer and asceticism followed by residence in a Trappist monastery in search of increased poverty and self-sacrifice. He read theology in Rome 1897 and lived there until 1900 with the Poor Clares [see 1213] at Nazareth, and in 1901 returned to France for ordination. Thereafter he went to the Sahara establishing a hermitage. He was murdered in circumstances that remain obscure. GORDON, CHARLES WILLIAM [1860-1937] Canadian Presbyterian minister and writer. After ordination in 1890 Gordon carried out a mission work in the lumber camps and mines of western Canada, and then accepted a call to Stephens Church Winnipeg, where he remained apart from a period of chaplaincy service until his retirement in 1929. With considerable powers of description and an understanding of certain types of men, his stories found a large readership. His avowed reason for writing he stated was Not wealth, not enterprise, not energy, can build a nation into true greatness, but men and only men with the fear of God in their hearts. HUGHES, HUGH PRICE [1847-1902] Welsh Wesleyan who was trained for the ministry at Richmond College and graduated from London University. He served in various circuits, founding new churches wherever he went, and in 1885 launched the Wesleyan Forward Movement, a campaign of evangelism and social service characterised by the erection of central halls. Other related causes were the Wesleyan 20th Century Fund which he presented at the conference in 1898 for promoting the work including the construction of large halls which remain his most permanent memorial. PARKER, HORATIO WILLIAM [1863-1919] American composer who was the most distinguished composer of church music born in America at that time. He studied in Germany and held various organist posts in New York and Boston. He taught at Yale and had many distinguished pupils including Charles Ives. PILKINGTON, GEORGE LAWRENCE [1865-1897] Missionary to Africa who was born in Dublin and educated at Cambridge. He was a promising classical scholar who was converted in 1885. Although lacking theological training he felt called to Christian service and went to Uganda under the Church Missionary Society in 1890. He took on the task of translating the Bible into the Luganda language. In his personal ministry he stressed the need for the baptism of a Holy Spirit. He advocated the principle of self supporting and propagating indigenous churches and contended that most of the European missionaries should go to those areas where a strong aggressive national church was active. He was killed in a Sudanese militia uprising in Uganda. ROWE, SAMUEL EVANS [1834-1897] Rowe was a minister who reached high rank in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodist church before a distinguished period as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" \o "South Africa" South Africa, holding senior posts in the church, and founding an educational institution for girls. In 1857 he was accepted as a Candidate for the Ministry and eventually entered the Wesleyan ministry and preached in several towns in England. He served on the London Circuit before going to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" \o "South Africa" South Africa as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary. He was appointed to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietermaritzburg" \o "Pietermaritzburg" Pietermaritzburg, where he worked for twelve years. He founded the educational Institution for Native Girls and was also Chairman of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritzburg" \o "Maritzburg" Maritzburg Girls Collegiate School. In 1890, he was elected President of the Methodist Conference in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town" \o "Cape Town" Cape Town and five years later he was appointed to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrismith" \o "Harrismith" Harrismith Circuit. TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER [1856-1928] American evangelist and Bible scholar who graduated from Yale and also studied at German universities. He was ordained into the Congregational ministry in 1878 and became superintendent of the Congregational City Missionary Society of Minneapolis. Torrey had a long association with D.L. Moody [see 1886] and was the first superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute [1889 -1908]. He toured widely and from 1912 was dean of the Bible Institute of Los Angeles and pastor of the Church of the Open Door. Torrey wrote numerous devotional and theological books, the most important being What the Bible Teaches, How to Work for Christ, and The Person and Work of the Holy Spirit. TUCKER, ALFRED ROBERT [18491914]. Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa [1890-1898] and Uganda [1898 -1911]. Tucker renounced an artistic career for Anglican priesthood and after seven years in English parishes he joined the Church Missionary Society and reached East Africa in 1890. His main achievement was to consolidate and extend the Anglican Church in Buganda and neighbouring chieftains. He promoted educational and medical work and travelled widely to supervise established missions and pioneer new work. Tuckers progressive views on church government aroused opposition among European missionaries who rejected full integration with the local church. He also campaigned for a British protectorate over Uganda in 1894 and frequently championed the interests of its people. Ill health compelled his resignation in 1911 after which he became canon of Durham. TURNER, CUTHBERT HAMILTON [1860-1930] Anglican historian of early Christianity and New Testament scholar who came to Oxford as a student in 1879 and there remained until his death. He served as a research scholar, lecturer, and latterly as fellow of Magdalen College from 1889 to 1930 and Dean Irelands professor of exegesis from 1920-1930. His work centred on matters of chronology and textual criticism related to the Church Fathers and canon law. Turner failed to complete several major writing projects but published an extensive collection of documents relating to early Western canon law and a large number of essays, the most important being a classic study of New Testament chronology. TYNDALE-BISCOE, CECIL EARLE (1863 1949) An Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationalist" \o "Educationalist" educationalist, who ministered in Kashmir He was educated at Cambridge where he HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxswain_(rowing)" \o "Coxswain (rowing)" coxed the winning HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Boat_Club" \o "Cambridge University Boat Club" Cambridge crew in the 1884 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat_Race" \o "Boat Race" Boat Race. In 1890, after a short time working in Londons HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitechapel" \o "Whitechapel" East End, Tyndale-Biscoe was appointed to a missionary school in Kashmir by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Missionary_Society" \o "Church Missionary Society" Church Missionary Society. Seeing the squalid conditions and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system" \o "Caste system" caste system as a serious problem he aimed to use his own HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_values" \o "Christian values" Christian values and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" \o "Western world" western civic ideals to improve Kashmiri society. He did not actively pursue conversions as much as his missionary backers would have liked. His schooling placed emphasis on physical activities such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing" \o "Boxing" boxing, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boating" \o "Boating" boating and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football" \o "Association football" football which would stimulate senses of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courage" \o "Courage" courage, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity" \o "Masculinity" masculinity and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness" \o "Physical fitness" physical fitness. The pupils were also engaged in civic duties, such as street-cleaning, and in helping deal with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flooding" \o "Flooding" flooding and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera" \o "Cholera" cholera. Enforcing participation in team sports and activities in a highly socially-stratified culture had significance beyond the replication of his HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_public_school" \o "English public school" English public school educational experience. By his later years he had founded six schools with 1,800 students. 1891-1900 AD 1891BROOKS, PHILLIPS [18351893] American Episcopal preacher and hymn writer who became rector of the Holy Trinity Church Philadelphia in 1862. Early in 1877 he delivered his Lectures on Preaching before Yale Divinity School and three years later preached in Westminster Abbey in the presence of Queen Victoria. Brooks was an eloquent preacher who wrote the hymn O little town of Bethlehem. He was consecrated bishop of Boston in 1891 and died some 15 months later. EVANGELICAL FREE CHURCH OF AMERICA The Midwest churches coalesced to form the Evangelical Free Church and the eastern churches to form the Eastern Association in 1891 for fellowship and mutual aid. These two Norwegian-Danish groups merged to form the Evangelical Free Church in 1909. The Swedish Evangelical Free Church merged with this group at Medicine Lake Minnesota in June 1950 to form the Evangelical Free Church of America. GERASIMUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1891-1897] see 1882 and 1897. HARPER, WILLIAM RAINEY [1856-1906] Semitics scholar who was educated at Yale and became professor of Hebrew at the Baptist Union Theological Seminary in Illinois. Having returned to Yale to teach Semitics in 1886 he became head of the new University of Chicago in 1891. Over the next 14 years his enormous energies burnt out his life but not before he had created a great graduate University. INTERNATIONAL CONGREGATIONAL COUNCIL This was formed in London in 1891 for the purpose of obtaining greater co-operation among the Congregational churches around the world. It was the Congregational response to the emerging ecumenical movement of the latter part of the 19th century, and designed not only to bring greater unity among Congregationalists, but also to bring Congregationalism into greater co-operation with other Protestant churches in the task of evangelism. It proved however to be a suitable vehicle for the promotion of the Social Gospel and was increasingly used for that purpose by liberal theologians. LONGSTAFF, WILLIAM DUNN [1822-1894] Hymn Writer. For many years, William Longstaff was treasurer of Bethesda Free Chapel in Sunderland, England. He was friends with Salvation Army founder William Booth and evangelists Dwight Moody and Ira Sankey. He wrote Take time to be holy, speak oft with thy Lord after hearing a sermon at New Brighton on Be ye holy as I am holy, 1 Peter 1:15. First published in Gospel Hymns and Sacred Songs and Solos, in 1891, it was greatly used in encouraging holiness among the Lords people. It is usually sung to the tune Holiness by George C. Stebbins, written in 1890. PIERSON, ARTHUR TAPPAN [1837-1911] was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian pastor, an early HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentalism" \o "Fundamentalism" fundamentalist leader, and writer who preached over 13,000 sermons. He wrote over fifty books, and gave HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible lectures as part of a transatlantic preaching ministry that made him famous in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" \o "Scotland" Scotland and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England. He was a consulting editor for the original HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scofield_Reference_Bible" \o "Scofield Reference Bible" Scofield Reference Bible (1909) for his friend, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Scofield" \o "Cyrus Scofield" C. I. Scofield and was also a friend of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_L._Moody" \o "Dwight L. Moody" D. L. Moody, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_M%C3%BCller" \o "George Mller" George Mller (whose biography George Muller of Bristol he wrote), HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoniram_Judson_Gordon" \o "Adoniram Judson Gordon" Adoniram Judson Gordon, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Spurgeon" \o "Charles Spurgeon" C. H. Spurgeon, whom he succeeded in the pulpit of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Tabernacle" \o "Metropolitan Tabernacle" Metropolitan Tabernacle, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London, from 1891 to 1893. Throughout his career, Pierson filled several pulpit positions around the world as an urban pastor who cared passionately for the poor. Pierson was also a pioneer advocate of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_missions" \o "Faith missions" faith missions who was determined to see the world HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelism" \o "Evangelism" evangelized in his generation. Prior to 1870, there had been only about 2000 missionaries from the United States in full-time service, roughly ten percent of whom had engaged in work among HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" \o "Native Americans in the United States" Native Americans. A great movement of foreign missions began in the 1880s and accelerated into the twentieth century, in some measure due to the work of Pierson. He acted as the elder statesman of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Volunteer_Movement" \o "Student Volunteer Movement" student missionary movement and was the leading HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicalism" \o "Evangelicalism" evangelical advocate of foreign missions in the late 1800s. From the viewpoint of hymns he is known for his hymn With harps and viols there stand a great throng NEOPHYTUS VIII Patriarch of Constantinople [1891-1894] succeeded Dionysius V [see 1887]. There is no additional information readily available. PIERSON, ARTHUR TAPPAN [1837-1911] was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian pastor, an early HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentalism" \o "Fundamentalism" fundamentalist leader, and writer who preached over 13,000 sermons. He wrote over fifty books, and gave HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible lectures as part of a transatlantic preaching ministry that made him famous in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" \o "Scotland" Scotland and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England. He was a consulting editor for the original HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scofield_Reference_Bible" \o "Scofield Reference Bible" Scofield Reference Bible (1909) for his friend, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Scofield" \o "Cyrus Scofield" C. I. Scofield and was also a friend of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_L._Moody" \o "Dwight L. Moody" D. L. Moody, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_M%C3%BCller" \o "George Mller" George Mller (whose biography George Muller of Bristol he wrote), HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoniram_Judson_Gordon" \o "Adoniram Judson Gordon" Adoniram Judson Gordon, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Spurgeon" \o "Charles Spurgeon" C. H. Spurgeon, whom he succeeded in the pulpit of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Tabernacle" \o "Metropolitan Tabernacle" Metropolitan Tabernacle, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London, from 1891 to 1893. Throughout his career, Pierson filled several pulpit positions around the world as an urban pastor who cared passionately for the poor. Pierson was also a pioneer advocate of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_missions" \o "Faith missions" faith missions who was determined to see the world HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelism" \o "Evangelism" evangelized in his generation. Prior to 1870, there had been only about 2000 missionaries from the United States in full-time service, roughly ten percent of whom had engaged in work among HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" \o "Native Americans in the United States" Native Americans. A great movement of foreign missions began in the 1880s and accelerated into the twentieth century, in some measure due to the work of Pierson. He acted as the elder statesman of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Volunteer_Movement" \o "Student Volunteer Movement" student missionary movement and was the leading HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicalism" \o "Evangelicalism" evangelical advocate of foreign missions in the late 1800s. From the viewpoint of hymns he is known for his hymn With harps and viols there stand a great throng A leader in the Bible Conference Movement and Student Volunteer Movement [see 1886] he was also a consulting editor for the Scofield Bible, lecturer in the Moody Bible Institute from 1893, and was one of the few Americans to speak at Keswick. The Pierson Bible Institute of Seoul in South Korea was an outgrowth of his ministry. RAMABAI, PANDITA [1858-1922] Indian Christian Reformer who was the daughter of a Brahman who had a remote hilltop ashram. She lost both her parents during a pilgrimage to South India in 1874 and with her brother wandered on making a living by reciting the Hindu scriptures. After a short marriage she met Christians and discovered the Bible. She went to Poona organising womens societies for reform and pursuing her new interest in Christianity in which she was helped by father Nehemiah Gore, an Anglican who was a convert from her caste. The Wantage Sisters helped her to go to Britain for education in 1880 and she and her young daughter were baptised there. In 1886 she went to America studying kindergarten methods and getting support for a scheme to educate high-caste widows. Ramabais evangelical conversion in 1891 made her an ardent evangelist as well as a social worker and baptisms followed. Land purchased near Poona laid the ground for the rescue of hundreds of girls and women after the famines of 1896-97. She established the Mukti [Salvation] Mission which grew to a community of over 1300. During her last eighteen years Ramabai made a simplified Marathi translation of the Bible. 1892 COMMUNITY OF THE RESURRECTION Founded by six men at Pusey House Chapel after lengthy study of various orders. The distinctive feature of the rule was to be a communal life lived in simplicity. The community consists of lay as well as ordained brethren, undertakes mission work in South Africa and the West Indies, and has been active in ecumenical affairs while continuing to serve the church in missions and retreats. FIGGIS, JOHN NEVILLE [1866-1919] Anglican historian and son of a minister in the Countess of Huntingdon Connection in Brighton. Figgis in his youth reacted against his fathers evangelical religion. He had a brilliant Cambridge career as a student and teacher of history, pioneering interpretation of the transition from mediaeval to modern periods. Figgis surprised his friends by deciding to be ordained to the Church of Englands ministry in 1892 as he had not been noticeably religious. He was not very successful as a parish priest, but as vicar of Marnhall from 1902 to 1907 he had a middle age conversion from a humanitarian and moralist religion, to enter the Community of the Resurrection, and become a prophetic preacher of the Gospel and of the supernatural and disciplined redemption in Christ. He was more of an evangelist and apologist than a theologian. Figgis influence did not survive World War I and his death. GRENFELL, SIR WILFRED THOMASON [1865-1940] Medical missionary and author whose life of Christian service began in 1885 in response to a challenge presented by D.L. Moody at an East London tent meeting. After graduating in medicine he joined the Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen, became its superintendent in 1890, and cruised from the Bay of Biscay to Iceland ministering to the physical and spiritual needs of the fishermen. In 1892 he went to Labrador and devoted the rest of his life to the welfare of its inhabitants. Before he retired in 1935 Grenfell founded five hospitals, seven nursing stations, three orphanage boarding schools, co-operative stores, industrial centres, agricultural stations, and in 1912 the King George V Seamans Institute in St Johns Newfoundland. He was knighted in 1927. LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT [1830-1892] German Protestant theologian who was educated at Leipzig and became professor of systematic theology at Jena where he wrote extensively on dogmatics and the history of the Christianity. He attempted to harmonise scientific principles and methods with those of religion. In this he was opposed by the Lutheran Church and accused of theological liberalism. He was co-founder of the Evangelical Alliance and the Evangelical Protestant Missionary Union. MILLIGAN, WILLIAM [1821-1893] Scottish New Testament scholar educated at St Andrews Edinburgh and Halle. After ministering in parishes he became professor of biblical criticism at Aberdeen in 1860, a post he held until his death. He was moderator of the general assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1882, a member of the company formed for the revision of the New Testament in English in 1870, and the first president of the newly founded Scottish Church Society in 1892. He was a liberal in theology. MOBERLY, ROBERT CAMPBELL [1845-1903] Anglican theologian. The son of a bishop, he was educated at Oxford and after service in a parish and two theological colleges he returned as professor of pastoral theology at Oxford from 1892 until his death. One of the Lux Mundi [see 1889] school of liberal Anglo-Catholics, he wrote strongly from that standpoint. PEAKE, ARTHUR SAMUEL [1865-1929] English scholar and writer who after graduating from Oxford became a lecturer there and achieved the rarity for a Nonconformist of a theological fellowship at Merton College. He left to take up the position of tutor at the Primitive Methodist College in Manchester in 1892 and held the tutorship for the rest of his life transforming the college and its reputation. In 1904 he became the first Rylands professor of biblical exegesis at Manchester University and the first dean of its theological faculty. Best-known of his writings was a one volume commentary on the Bible which he edited in 1919 and which introduced thousands of students and laymen to biblical criticism. Peake was of an ecumenical spirit and worked hard for the union of the British Methodist churches but died before its consummation. SMITH, SIR GEORGE ADAM [1856-1942] Old Testament scholar who was born in India where his father was the editor of the Calcutta Review. He studied arts and theology at Edinburgh before pursuing further studies in German universities and in Cairo. He was minister of Queens Cross Free Church in Aberdeen for 10 years from 1882 before becoming professor of Old Testament at the Free Church College Glasgow [1892-1909] where he campaigned for proper labour conditions. His went on lecture tours of America and his 1901 lecture series at Yale threatened a heresy trail in Scotland. From 1909 to his retirement in 1935 he was principal of Aberdeen University. SPYRIDON Patriarch of Antioch [1892-1898] see also 1885 and 1899. WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS [1844-1918] German biblical critic who studied at Gottingen and after teaching there for two years went as professor of Old Testament to Greifswald in 1872 where orthodox Lutherans were alarmed at the doubts he cast on the inspiration of Scripture. Wellhausen resigned 10 years later and transferred to the teaching of oriental languages first at Halle and then as the professor at Marburg [1885] and Gottingen again commencing in 1892. His History of Israel published in 1878 gave him a place in biblical studies comparable, it was said to that of Darwin in biology, and he also contributed significantly to the Islamic and New Testament studies. WILDER, ROBERT PARMELEE [1863-1938] Missionary to India and virtual founder of the Student Volunteer Movement [see 1886]. Born in India he was studying and promoting missions at Princeton College when D.L. Moody called for the summer Bible conference out of which the Student Volunteer Movement came. In 1892 on his way to India he founded the British Student Volunteer Missionary Union. In India he worked with students through the YMCA. After ill health forced him to leave India in 1902 he spent 14 years in Europe promoting the World Student Christian Federation. Wilder was also the executive secretary of the new Near East Christian Council, residing in Cairo. 1893BOUNDS, EDWARD MCENDREE [18351913] American Methodist minister who studied law and was admitted to the bar at 21. At the age of 24 he was called to preach in the Methodist Episcopal Church South. During the Civil War he was a captain in the Confederate army and captured. He was editor of the St Louis Christian Advocate and author of Spiritual Life Books which had a wide influence in many denominations. CHAPMAN, JOHN WILBUR [1859-1918] was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian evangelist generally travelling with gospel singer HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_McCallon_Alexander" \o "Charles McCallon Alexander" Charles Alexander. Chapman grew up attending Quaker Day School and Methodist Sunday School. At age 17, he made a public declaration of his Christian faith and joined the Richmond Presbyterian Church. Having trained Chapman took on several pastorates before shifting to the evangelistic circuit. He began preaching with the legendary HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._L._Moody" \o "D. L. Moody" D. L. Moody in 1893, as well as leading many evangelistic events of his own. Among Chapmans disciples on the evangelistic circuit was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Sunday" \o "Billy Sunday" Billy Sunday. In late 1895, Chapman was appointed Corresponding Secretary of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presbyterian_General_Assembly&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Presbyterian General Assembly (page does not exist)" Presbyterian General Assemblys Committee on Evangelism, overseeing the activities of 51 evangelists in 470 cities. In 1905, John H. Converse, a wealthy Presbyterian philanthropist, offered to underwrite Chapmans expenses if he would re-enter the evangelistic field full time. Chapman accepted the offer and launched a campaign in 1908 in Philadelphia. In 1909, Chapman demanded that any field evangelist who doubted the inerrancy of Scripture be removed from ministry. In that year he undertook a world tour. In May 1918, Chapman was elected Moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly, a position which inundated him with such a high level of stress causing him to develop a serious enough case of gall stones to need emergency surgery on December 23, 1918 and died two days later, on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Day" \o "Christmas Day" Christmas Day, aged 59. He is remembered for his hymn One day when heaven was filled with His praises GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANOIS [1818-1893] French composer who is remembered today mainly for his popular opera Faust. He maintained throughout his career a great interest in sacred music. He spent several years in England, where he attained much popularity as a choral conductor and composer. His best-known oratorio was Redemption which is no longer performed, although parts of his St Cecilia Mass are still heard. GRAY, GEORGE BUCHANAN [1865-1922] English Old Testament scholar. Son of a Congregational minister he was educated at Exeter and London, becoming a schoolmaster. He was ordained as a Congregational minister in 1893 and from 1900 was professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis at Mansfield College Oxford. An independent and original thinker, his preaching and teaching were permeated by the devotional spirit of the Old Testament. MCGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN [1861-1933] American church historian and educator who graduated from the Union Theological Seminary and pursued studies in Paris, Rome, Berlin, and Marburg. Ordained as a Presbyterian he taught at Lane Theological Seminary before succeeding Philip Schaff [see 1870] as professor of church history at Union in 1893. He caused controversy with his book A history of Christianity in the Apostolic Age which caused him to withdraw from the Presbyterian Church and become a Congregationalist in 1899. MACHRAY, ROBERT [1831-1904] Anglican primate of Canada. Born in Scotland educated at Aberdeen and Cambridge and after three years of travel he returned to Sydney Sussex Cambridge as a dean. He also was appointed to a vicarage at Madingley in 1862. In 1865 he was consecrated the second bishop of Ruperts Land. He revived St Johns Anglican College in Winnipeg in 1866 as a prelude to the establishment of the University of Manitoba in 1877 of which he was the first Chancellor. In 1893 he became primate of Canada and helped the church in Canada pass from missionary status dependent on England to self-sustaining independence. NUTTALL, ENOS [1842 1916] He was first archbishop of the West Indies. Born in England he went to Jamaica first in 1862 as a Methodist but in 1866 was ordained in the Anglican Church. He was involved in the complex negotiations surrounding disestablishment in 1870 and 10 years later elected bishop of Jamaica. He became archbishop in 1893. He regarded the British Empire as, on the whole, a good thing and advocated an institutional connection with Canterbury and recruited clergy first in England but in 1893 founded the first diocesan theological college in Jamaica. He pioneered the founding of a church nursing home in 1893. He was primarily concerned with individual rather than social problems. RILEY, WILLIAM BELL [1861-1947] Baptist minister and educator who was ordained to the Baptist ministry in Kentucky and was pastor of several Indiana churches including Calvary Baptist Church in Chicago from 1893. Riley founded and was president of Northwestern Bible Training School and was strongly opposed to theological liberalism and evolution. SCUDDER, IDA SOPHIA [1870-1960] Missionary doctor and founder of the Christian Medical College at Vellore in South India. She was born in India where her father Doctor John Scudder was in the North Arcot mission of the Dutch Reformed Church of America. She was at first determined not to be a missionary. She was only on a short-term commitment to India to be near her sick mother when in 1893 she received a call which was not the least remarkable feature of a remarkable life. Three different men came to her door asking her to come and attend to their respective wives in childbirth. They refused the services of any male doctor such as her father preferring rather that their wives die. She could do nothing and the wives all died. The experience sent her home to America to study medicine and commit her life to service for India and its women. She returned to India in 1900 and opened up a hospital at Vellore. Later she founded a nursing school and then in 1918 the medical college for women. Eventually in 1950 the college was affiliated with the Madras University medical course as one of the outstanding interdenominational Christian institutions of Asia. SMITH, WALTER CHALMERS [1824-1908]. Walter Smith, was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymnist" \o "Hymnist" hymnist, poet and minister of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Church_of_Scotland_(1843-1900)" \o "Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900)" Free Church of Scotland and is chiefly remembered for his hymn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortal,_Invisible,_God_Only_Wise" \o "Immortal, Invisible, God Only Wise" Immortal, Invisible, God Only Wise. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen" \o "Aberdeen" Aberdeen and was educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He was ordained pastor of the Chadwell Street Scottish Church, Pentonville, Islington, London, on Christmas Day, 1850. He later served at a number of churches in Scotland. The Free Church of Scotland elected him its moderator during its Jubilee year in 1893. He was a distinguished preacher and a man of wide sympathies. He attained considerable reputation as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet" \o "Poet" poet. TUCKER, WILLIAM JEWETT [1839-1926] Congregational minister and educator. He was educated at Andover Theological Seminary and became a pastor at churches in New Hampshire and New York City before teaching at Andover. Influenced by Horace Bushnell [see 1866], he asserted that only humane theology or progressive orthodoxy would improve society. He founded Andover House in 1881 and was tried with others for heresy but acquitted. From 1893 until his retirement in 1909 Tucker was president of Dartmouth College. 1894GAEBELEIN, ARNO CLEMENS [1861-1945] Writer on prophecy. Born in Germany he went to America at eighteen and was later ordained in the Methodist Episcopal Church, holding pastorates including New York City where he began a remarkable ministry to the Jews. He founded and edited Our Hope magazine published 1894-1958 and a press by that name to provide literature for Jews, chiefly on their prophecy and biblical exposition. He wrote nearly 50 books and numerous pamphlets mainly on prophecy and lectured and preached widely and was active in the Bible Conference Movement. MATTHEWS, SHAILER [1863-1941] American theologian who graduated from Colby College and afterwards served on the faculty there from 1887 to 1894. He then joined the theological faculty at the University of Chicago teaching New Testament and then theology until 1933. He was leading voice of the Chicago School of Theology which was the champion of the modernist cause against American fundamentalism. He had a significant role in the formation of the Federal Council of Churches and the Northern Baptist Convention. POLLOCK, ALGERNON JAMES [1864-1957] Plymouth Brethren minister who was a banker until his late twenties when he was called to the ministry. The rest of his life he lived by faith without stipend and travelled the world as evangelist and teacher. A member of the Glanton Open Brethren his influence kept them from divisions. He studied Spiritualism and wrote articles, tracts, and books on devotion and prophecy as a Dispensationalist and for many years edited The Gospel Messenger. WHITE, JOHN [1866-1933] Wesleyan missionary who served in Southern Zimbabwe from 1894 to 1931 and was chairman of the district from 1903. White supervised a growing work south and north of the Zambesi. He was the founder of the Southern Rhodesia Missionary Conference and the translator of the Shona New Testament. He laid equal stress upon personal salvation and the social implication of the Gospel. Throughout his ministry he championed Shona interests, denouncing injustice, opposing discriminatory legislation, and earning much unpopularity among Europeans. His health broke down completely in 1931. ZWEMER, SAMUEL MARINUS [1867-1952] Apostle to Islam. He was the 13th of 15 children born to an American Dutch Reformed family. He became a Student Volunteer when Robert Wilder [see 1892] visited Hope College. With James Cantine he founded the Arabian Mission with Cantine going out to the Arabian Gulf in 1889 and Zwemer the following year. In 1894 the Reformed Church of America assumed responsibility for the mission. He worked across the Islamic world from Cairo to India and North-west China. In 1929 he began a teaching ministry first at Princeton then the Missionary Training Institute at Nyack after some time at Biblical Seminary in New York. He authored over fifty books. 1895ALEXANDER, CECIL FRANCES [18231895] Irish hymn writer and wife of the archbishop of Armagh. On a complaint from her godsons that they found the catechism difficult she started to write verses to assist them. In all she wrote almost 400 hymns many of them for her Sunday School class. They include All things bright and beautiful, Once in royal Davids city, There is a green hill far away and Jesus calls us! Oer the tumult. ANTHIMUS VII Patriarch of Constantinople [1895-1896] who succeeded Neophytus VIII [see 1891]. In 1895, he criticised the encyclical HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeclara_Gratulationis_Publicae" \o "Praeclara Gratulationis Publicae" Praeclara Gratulationis Publicae of Pope HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_XIII" \o "Leo XIII" Leo XIII [see 1878]. He died in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halki_(Turkish_island)" \o "Halki (Turkish island)" Halki, Turkey. There is no additional information readily available. BRIDGES, ROBERT [18441930] Poet who was educated at Eton and Oxford and practiced medicine until 1882 when he retired to devote himself to literature. His concern for church music led to him translating, writing, and publishing the Yattendon Hymnal in 1895 which included Ah Holy Jesus, how hast thou offended and All my hope on God is founded. He became Poet Laureate in 1913. CASSELS, WILLIAM WHARTON [1858-1925] Missionary, consecrated as the first bishop of Szechwan under the joint sponsorship of the Church Missionary Society and China Inland Mission. He was one of the four Cambridge undergraduates who formed the nucleus of the Cambridge Seven who went to China with the China Inland Mission in 1884. The other members of the group were Charles T Studd [see 1912], Dixon E Hoste, Stanley P Smith, Cecil and Arthur Polhill-Turner, and Montagu H P Beauchamp. DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER [1843-1922] French archaeologist and church historian. He read theology in Rome and was ordained a priest in 1867, lecturing in schools a further six years. He then served as a member of the French archaeological school of Rome [1874-1876] overseeing work in Epirus, Thessaly, Mt Athos, and Asia Minor. He returned to be the schools director in 1895, a post he held to his death. He resigned from holding the chair of church history in Paris because of opposition to his views on pre-Nicene doctrine and the founding of the French Church. HORNER, RALPH [1853-1921] Founder of the Holiness Movement Church in Canada. He was converted at a Methodist meeting in 1876 and began almost immediately preaching to his neighbours. After training at the Methodist seminary he embarked on an independent evangelical tent ministry. Because of mounting protests against the speaking in tongues which accompanied his preaching the Montral Annual Conference deposed him from its ministry in 1895. He organised his followers into a Holiness Movement Church in 1895 and at a convention held the same year in Ottawa attended by evangelists from Ontario, the Western Provinces, and Quebec, he was elected bishop. He held this position until he withdrew from the Holiness Movement Church in 1916 over the interpretation of sanctification and set up another church. Both churches declined rapidly after his death. JACKSON, SAMUEL MACAULAY [1851-1912] American Presbyterian Church historian, educator and philanthropist. He was educated in the USA and in Germany. From 1895 to 1912 he taught church history at New York University but declined to take any salary. He devoted much of his later life to philanthropic causes. RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL [1851-1939] Classical scholar and archaeologist who studied at Aberdeen and Oxford. During the 1880s and from 1900 to 1914 he was engaged in extensive exploration among the antiquities of Western Turkey. He was professor both at Oxford and Aberdeen, and also made important contributions to the study of the New Testament. Though he had earlier accepted the conclusions of radical German scholarship concerning the historicity of Acts, study led him to an increasingly high estimate of Paul, and Luke as a historian. His work on the New Testament served to fill in historical background for the life of Paul, establish the so-called South Galatia destination of the Epistle of Galatians, and commend the historical reliability of Lukes writing to scholars. STANFORD, SIR CHARLES VILLIERS [1852-1924] British composer who was born in Ireland and studied in England and Germany. A whole generation of significant figures were at some time his pupils among them Ralph Vaughn Williams. He wrote much music of every kind, but it is his church music that has lived. STUDENT CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT This is the British section of the World Student Christian Federation [see below] which was founded by John Mott [see 1948] in 1895. Each national movement preserved its autonomy as a fellowship of students who desired to understand the Christian faith and live the Christian life. It was the product of several student movements in the latter part of the 19th century in which the Student Volunteer Missionary Union was of special importance. It began in Cambridge in 1892 through the inspiration of the Cambridge Seven. Many of the leaders of the modern ecumenical movement sprang from on its ranks, J.H. Oldham [see 1921], William Temple [see 1942], and N. Soderblom [see 1914]. In 1929 the Student Christian Movement Press Ltd was set up to supply students with literature at low cost. WORLD STUDENT CHRISTIAN FEDERATION Uniting the 40 autonomous Christian student groups, the federation was formed in Sweden in 1895. Student leaders from Scandinavia, Europe, Great Britain, the United States, and nations receiving missionaries met under the leadership of John R. Mott [see 1948] the secretary of the International Committee of the YMCA. For Mott and many others this was the culmination of a movement which had been drawing together such organisations for some years. The Student Volunteer Movement had adopted the motto The evangelisation of the world in this generation, and the Federation reflected this evangelistic thrust in its stated purpose, to lead students to accept the Christian faith in God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, according to the Scriptures, and to live together as true disciples of Jesus Christ. 1896BLASS, FRIEDRICH [18431907] German philologist and grammarian who taught at the universities of Kiel and Halle. He published a grammar of New Testament Greek which was a foundational for work in that area. He argued that the so called Western and non Western texts of Acts originated as different editions by Luke himself but this view has little support in the academic realm. BOOTH, BALLINGTON [18571940] Born in Brighouse England, second son of William Booth. He founded the Volunteers of America in 1896 [see below]. This group had similar objectives as the Salvation Army but was more democratic. He was an outstanding orator, musician and leader. He was joint commander of the Salvation Army in Australia [18831887] and four years later he and his wife took over the work in the United States where his evangelistic style was very popular. He became naturalised and had conflict with his father over Salvation Army discipline. He was ordered to step down which he did and left the Salvation Army forming the Volunteers of America group. BRUCKNER, ANTON [18241896] Austrian composer and organist who in his earlier years was organist at Linz Austria where he was acclaimed for his playing. He wrote a considerable amount of church music including his famous Te Deum and Moto Propio and three great masses for soloists, chorus and orchestra. DOWIE, JOHN ALEXANDER [1847-1907] Faith healer and founder of the Christian Catholic Church. Born in Edinburgh and taken to Australia in 1860 by his parents, he was in business in Adelaide for seven years, then studied at Edinburgh University. Ordained as a Congregational minister in 1870 he served as pastor of churches in Alma and Sydney. In 1878 he resigned to become an evangelist and faith healer. He moved to Chicago in 1896 and founded the Christian Catholic Church, a theocracy headed by himself as Elijah III, the Restorer. By 1901 he moved his community to Illinois, and as first apostle after 1904, he ruled the theocratic community strictly and banned pork, alcohol, tobacco and drugs. HARTZELL, JOSEPH CRANE [1842 1929]. Hartzell was an American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary_Bishop_(Methodist_Church)" \o "Missionary Bishop (Methodist Church)" Missionary Bishop of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" \o "Methodist Episcopal Church" Methodist Episcopal Church who served in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States and in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" \o "Africa" Africa. He entered into ministry in 1866 and held various positions in the USA. When the retirement of Bishop HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Taylor_(bishop)" \o "William Taylor (bishop)" William Taylor made necessary a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Successor" \o "Successor" successor, the 1896 General Conference elected Dr. Hartzell Missionary Bishop for Africa. For the next four years he travelled 70,000 miles performing the duties of his office including numerous conferences and advancement of missions throughout much of sub Saharan Africa. For his service in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" \o "Africa" Africa Bishop Hartzell was made a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Commander" \o "Knight Commander" Knight Commander of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Order_for_the_Redemption_of_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Order for the Redemption of Africa (page does not exist)" Order for the Redemption of Africa by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Liberia" \o "Republic of Liberia" Republic of Liberia. He retired in 1916. He died in 1929 as a result of injuries sustained during a robbery at his home in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Ash,_Ohio" \o "Blue Ash, Ohio" Blue Ash, Ohio. He was 87. IRONSIDE, HENRY ALLEN [1876-1951] Canadian Bible teacher and author who was never ordained but began preaching when 14 years old. After a time as a Salvation Army officer he joined the Plymouth Brethren in 1896. For over 50 years he travelled widely as a missionary, evangelist, and Bible teacher. After 1924 he held meetings under the auspices of Moody Bible Institute, was visiting professor at Dallas Theological Seminary [1925-1943], and pastor of Moody Memorial Church, Chigago [1930-1948]. He was the author of over 60 books. MOFFATT, JAMES [1870-1944] Bible translator born and educated in Glasgow and was ordained in the Free Church of Scotland in 1896. He became professor of Greek and New Testament exegesis at Mansfield College Oxford in 1911 and went on to the United Free Church college in 1915 to teach church history for 12 years and then went to New York and taught church history in the Union Theology Seminary. His fame rests on the single-handed translation of the entire Bible. The New Testament was published in 1913 and the Old in 1924 and is known as the Moffatt Bible. It was the first unofficial translation to acquire widespread readership and popularity. PROBST, FERDINAND [1816-1899] German liturgical scholar who was educated at Tubingen and ordained into the Roman Catholic Church in 1840. Probst became a parish priest and later professor of pastoral theology at Breslau in 1864 and finally dean of Breslau Cathedral in 1896. He was a prolific writer though few if any of his works have been translated English. RIZAL, JOSE [1861-1896] Filipino physician and political writer who studied in various European universities where he was influenced by Masonry and theological and political liberalism. His parents were turned off their land by Dominican friars. He wrote much propaganda against the tyrannical Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines and against the corruption of the friars. He was strongly critical of much traditional Roman dogma which he regarded as superstition. He was branded a revolutionary and first exiled and later shot by a Spanish firing squad. His death was used by revolutionary leaders to arouse Filipino fury. Various cults worship him as a Second Christ and even look for his return. SHELDON, CHARLES MONROE [1857-1946] Congregational minister and writer who studied at Andover Theological Seminary and was ordained into the Congregational Church in 1886. He is best known as the author of In His Steps published in 1896 which became a religious bestseller because it poignantly challenged Christians to base their behaviour on the answer to the question What would Jesus do. Because Sheldon never copyrighted the work numerous publishers printed it. He was also editor-in-chief of Christian Herald from 1920 to 1925. SPEER, ROBERT ELLIOTT [1867-1947] Secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, a post he held for 46 years. As one of the early Student Volunteers he travelled for a year for the movement. After becoming mission secretary he made six extended visits to the fields, four to Asia and two to Latin America. A prolific writer he authored 67 books mainly on missions. In 1927 he became the second layman to be elected moderator of the Presbyterian Church in the USA. STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT The movement was dedicated to enlisting Christian college students for foreign missions. It originated in a summer Bible study conference in 1886 at Mount Hermon Massachusetts called by the YMCA and presided over by D.L. Moody. Students like Robert P. Wilder [see 1892] aroused concern for missions and before the conference ended 100 had signified their intent of becoming missionaries. The following school year Wilder and another toured other schools to stimulate more interest. In 1888 the movement was organised formally with John R. Mott [see 1948] one of the original hundred, as chairman, a position he held for 30 years. The movement was at its height in 1920 when nearly 7000 attended the meeting at Des Moines Iowa. During its lifetime the Student Volunteer Movement saw more than 20,000 of its members become foreign missionaries. SUNDAY, WILLIAM (Billy) ASHLEY [1862-1935] American evangelist who was a professional baseball player and worked between seasons as a fireman on the Chicago and North-western Railroad. He experienced evangelical conversion through the Pacific Garden Mission in 1886. He became assistant secretary of the Chicago YMCA and helped J. Wilbur Chapman [see 1882] in mass evangelism for two years. From 1896 he worked independently combining superb organisation with sensational preaching. His campaigns was held in many American cities and conducted in huge wooden tabernacles. Thousands of church members were recruited to assist in the running of campaigns and the churches were closed for the duration. Sunday developed a preaching style which combined crude humour with florid rhetoric. Nevertheless he called for a down-to-earth commitment to Christ and was strongly fundamentalist in theology and opposed evolution and advocated temperance. TEMPLE, FREDERICK Archbishop of Canterbury [1896-1902]. He was born in Santa Maura, one of the Ionian Islands, the son of Major Octavius Temple, who was subsequently appointed lieutenant-governor ofSierra Leone. On his retirement, Major Temple settled inDevonand contemplated a farming life for his son Frederick, giving him a practical training to that end. The boy was sent toBlundells School, Tiverton and won a Blundell scholarship atBalliol College, Oxford, before he was seventeen. In 1842 he took a double first and was elected fellow of Balliol, and lecturer in mathematics and logic. Four years later he was ordained, and, with the aim of improving the education of the very poor, he accepted the headship ofKneller Hall, a college founded by the government for the training of masters of workhouses and penal schools. The experiment was not successful, and Temple himself advised its abandonment in 1855. He then accepted a job as a school inspector which he held until he went to teach at Rugby in 1858. In the meantime he had attracted the admiration of the Prince Albert, and in 1856 he was appointed chaplain-in-ordinary toQueen Victoria. The following year he was selected preacher at his university. At Rugby, Temple strengthened the schools academic reputation in the classics, but also instituted scholarships in natural science, built a laboratory, and recognised the importance of these subjects. He reformed the sporting activities, in spite of all the traditions of the playing fields. His own tremendous powers of work and rough manner intimidated the pupils, but he soon became popular, and raised the schools reputation. His school sermons made a deep impression on the boys, teaching loyalty, faith and duty. In politics Temple was a follower of Gladstone, and he approved of the disestablishment of the Irish Church. He also wrote and spoke in favour of theElementary Education Act(1870) of William Edward Forster, and was an active member of the Endowed Schools Commission. In 1869 Gladstone offered him the deanery ofDurham, but he declined because he wanted to stay at Rugby. When later in the same year, however Henry Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, died, the prime minister turned again to Temple, and he accepted the bishopric of the city he knew so well. The appointment caused a fresh controversy but his real kindness soon made itself felt, and, during the sixteen years of his tenure, he overcame the prejudices against him, so that when, on the death of Dr John Jackson in 1885, he was translated to London. Dr Temples tenancy of the bishopric of London saw him working harder than ever. His normal working day at this time was one of fourteen or fifteen hours, though under the strain blindness was rapidly coming on. Many of his clergy and candidates for ordination thought him a rather terrifying person, enforcing almost impossible standards of diligence, accuracy and preaching efficiency, but his manifest devotion to his work and his zeal for the good of the people won him general confidence. In London he continued as a tireless temperance worker, and the working class instinctively recognised him as their friend. When, in view of his growing blindness, he offered to resign the bishopric, he was urged to reconsider his proposal, and on the sudden death of Archbishop Benson in 1896, though now seventy-six years of age, he accepted the see ofCanterbury. As archbishop he presided in 1897 over the decennial Lambeth Conference. In the same year Dr Temple and the archbishop of York issued a joint response to an encyclical of the pope which denied the validity of Anglican orders. In 1900 the archbishops again acted together, when an appeal was addressed to them by the united episcopate, to decide the questions of the use of incense in divine service and of the reservation of the elements. After hearing the arguments they decided against both the practices in question. He was zealous also in the cause of foreign missions, and in a sermon preached at the opening of the new century he urged that a supreme obligation rested upon Britain at this epoch in the worlds history to seek to evangelise all nations. In 1900 he presided over the World Temperance Congress in London, and on one occasion preached in the interests of womens education. In 1902 he discharged the important duties of his office at the coronation ofKing Edward VII, but the strain at his advanced age told upon his health. During a speech which he delivered in theHouse of Lordson December 2, 1902 on the Education Bill of that year, he was taken ill, and, though he revived sufficiently to finish his speech, he never fully recovered, and died onDecember 23 1902. His second son,William Temple, became archbishop of Canterbury some years later. He succeeded Edward White Benson [see 1883] and was succeeded by Randall Thomas Davidson [see 1903]. VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA An evangelical social welfare organisation founded in 1896 in New York by Barrington Booth son of Salvation Army leader William Booth. It retained the quasi military character of the Salvation Army. The volunteers hold nondenominational Protestant services and Bible classes, distribute Christian literature, comfort the aged in hospitals, and serve prisoners through the Volunteer Prisoners League. By the 1970s they were dispensing social and material aid to over two million people annually and had a membership of 33,000 WARNECK, GUSTAV [1834-1910] Founder of the science of the study of missions who was first a pastor and then an official of the Barmen [Rhine] Mission [1871-1877]. He initiated the practice of holding regular mission conferences in German churches and was the first professor of missiology in Germany at Halle [1896-1908]. In 1888 Warneck published a paper calling for the 10 year general missionary conferences supported by a continuing central committee which would co-ordinate Protestant missionary activity. This vision which was finally realised with the Edinburgh Conference of 1910 and the formation of the International Missionary Council in 1921. 1897BEDERWOLF, WILLIAM [18671939] American Presbyterian evangelist who was director of Winona Lake Bible School of Theology. He was ordained in 1897. BRAHMS, JOHANNES [18331897] German composer born in Hamburg but later like Beethoven settled in Vienna where he was active as a composer and choral conductor. He was one of the first to seek to perform the cantatas of Bach [see1723] in an authentic manner. His German Requiem, perhaps the greatest choral work of the 19th century has its words taken from the German Bible and have no relation to the Roman Catholic Requiem Mass. Brahms died in 1897. CHERRY, EDITH GILLING [1872 -1897] English Poetess, Edith Gilling Cherry was stricken with polio in infancy, and for the rest of her brief life she walked with the aid of crutches. Most of her poems were written before she was 15 years old. She was a deeply spiritual young woman, ever conscious of her spiritual failings. Edith Cherry gave the glory to God for her rich and insightful poetry. When she lay dying, after suffering a stroke, she said, It all seems so small, all I have tried to do, so small to Him. Her mother answered, There are your songs, dear, they will carry on your work. But Edith quickly replied, Ah, but they were not mine at all, they were just given to me all ready, and all I had to do was write them down. Her beautiful hymn, We Rest on Thee our Shield and our Defender, was sung on January 8th, 1956, by the five missionaries about to make contact with the Auca Indians of Ecuador. Shortly afterward, they were all martyred. Elisabeth Elliot, wife of Jim Elliot, one of the five, drew the title for her book, Through Gates of Splendour, from a line of Edith Cherrys hymn. CONSTANTINE V Patriarch of Constantinople [1897-1901] who succeeded Anthimus VII [see 1895]. His secular name was Constantinos Valiadis and he was born in Vessa, on the island of Chios. There is no additional information readily available. CREIGHTON, MANDELL [1843-1901] Bishop of London and historian. In 1884 he became Dixie professor of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge. He became bishop of London in 1897. His writing included his unfinished History of the Papacy. DAMIANUS Patriarch of Jerusalem [1897-1931] see 1891 and 1931. In 1918 Britain occupied Jerusalem. DENNY, JAMES [1856-1917] Scottish theologian who was educated at Glasgow University and was trained in theology at the Free Church College in that city. In 1886 he became minister of the East Church, Broughty Ferry. During his 11 years there he published commentaries on Thessalonians and Second Corinthians. In 1897 he took the chair of systematic theology at his former college transferring to the New Testament department in 1900. Denny was also a strong supporter of temperance and civic righteousness. FOSTER, GEORGE BURMAN [1858-1918] American Baptist scholar who taught at the McMaster University before becoming one of the early members of the Chicago School of Theology, where he was named professor of systematic theology in 1897, and of the philosophy of religion in 1905. For his views on the relationship between Christianity and such subjects as Darwinian evolution, comparative religion, and relativistic physics, he was excommunicated by fellow Baptists in the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy of the early 20th century. He even wrestled with the death of God concept despite criticism from conservatives. HAGUE, DYSON [1857-1935] Clergyman, educator, and author, who was educated at the University of Toronto and ordained in 1883. In 1897 he became professor of apologetics and pastoral theology at Wycliffe College. He wrote a series of books. MACKINTOSH, HUGH ROSS [1870-1936] Scottish theologian who was educated at Edinburgh, Freiburg, Halle, and Marburg and ordained to the ministry of the Free Church of Scotland in 1897. Professor of systematic theology at New College in Edinburgh [1904-1936] he was regarded as a liberal evangelical. He was the author of a number of books. OXYRHYNCHUS PAPYRI In 1897 and thereafter numerous fragments of Greek papyri were discovered at Oxyrhynchus, one of the chief cities of ancient Egypt, by two archaeologists B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt. The most important finds were three collections of the sayings of Jesus. SMITH, JOHN TAYLOR [1860-1937] Bishop and chaplain general who was converted at the age of 11. Smith was educated at St Johns Hall Highbury and sailed in 1891 to Sierra Leone as canon missionary becoming bishop in 1897. An honorary chaplain to Queen Victoria he was appointed chaplain general in time for World War I. He was called Everybodys Bishop and was jovial, rotund, saintly, and a constant helper of the Childrens Special Service Mission and the Keswick Convention. Early rising for prayer, reading, and physical exercise was his lifelong custom. He believed in and relied upon Gods minute ordering of his life. He died aboard ship in the Mediterranean and was buried at sea. WILKES, PAGET [1871-1934] Missionary to Japan who was a son of an Anglican clergyman and educated Oxford. Wilkes sailed to serve in Japan under the Church Missionary Society in 1897. He felt unduly restricted by orthodox Anglicanism and founded the interdenominational Japan Evangelistic Band, pledged to aggressive evangelism and the distinctive holiness doctrines associated with the Keswick Convention movement. The whole of Wilkes active life was spent in Japan but his name became widely known through his books. When he did visit England he went to Oxford and Cambridge and strongly urged students to offer for missionary service. 1898ACTION FRANCAISE is the name of the political league and its journal founded in 1898 as a result of the Dreyfus affair and with the purpose of restoring the monarchy in France. It attracted many Roman Catholic students, but public condemnation in 1926 spelled the eventual end of the group. BESANT ANNIE [18471933] British theosophist and educator who married Rev Frank Besant but this ended in divorce six years later. She moved successively from Anglican, atheist, spiritualist, through to theosophist. She founded a number of educational institutes in India such as the Central Hindu College of Benares in 1898 and the University of India in 1907. She returned to India in 1889 and spent most of the rest of her life there. She finally announced that she had adopted an Indian son as the Messiah and became the president of the Theosophical Society upon the death of its founder Madam Helena Blavatsky. CLARKE, WILLIAM NEWTON [1841-1912] American liberal Baptist whose combination of Christian theology and evolutionary thinking is best expressed in his major work An Outline of Christian Theology in 1898, the first theology of liberalism in America. DOUKHOBORS A group of so-called spiritual rationalist Christians which arose in Russia some time before the late 18th century when its members first appeared as the objects of persecution. The name spirit wrestlers originally intended by their enemies to suggest strife against the Holy Spirit, was taken by them to designate striving by means of the spirit. Christian doctrines were interpreted by them as manifested in the nature of man. The Trinity is light, life, and peace with which each man may be linked by memory, understanding, and will. The story of Jesus symbolises a spiritual development which anyone can undergo. Doukhobors were fiercely persecuted from the start. Tolstoy and English Quakers publicised their plight and arranged immigration to Canada in 1898. They also conflicted with authority in Canada with rows over land ownership, and registration of births, deaths, and marriages. In protest extremist sections of the group resorted to parading naked and to arson and dynamiting. The majority however have come to compromise with the authorities buying their land in the prairies and in British Columbia. Many who remained in the Soviet union were liquidated by Stalin. DWAYNE, JAMES MATA [1848-1916] South African independent church leader born of heathen parents he entered the Wesleyan Methodist ministry in 1875 and seceded in 1895 to the Independent Ethiopian church. In 1896 he visited the United States to arrange a union with the African Methodist Episcopal Church and was consecrated vicar bishop in 1898. Because of the difficulties with the American Negro control in the church he was convinced that his orders were invalid and requested Anglican ordination for his clergy. In 1900 the Anglican bishops agreed to constitute the Order of Ethiopia within the Church of the Province. He was ordained deacon in 1900, a priest in 1911 and held office as provincial of the order with one break until his death. GIDEONS INTERNATIONAL An association of Christian business and professional men that grew out of a meeting between John Nicholson and Samuel Hill in Central Hotel Boscobel Wisconsin in 1898. Participating in the evening devotions they discovered they shared a common Christian faith. The next year, with W.J. Knights, they organised an association of Christian travelling men, called the Gideons. From this beginning the membership has grown to more than 42,000 in 90 countries by the mid-70s. The work is supported primarily by voluntary offerings received in local churches. By 1971 more than 11 million Bibles and 91 million new Testaments in some 32 languages had been distributed. KITTEL, RUDOLF [1853-1929] German Old Testament scholar who studied at Tubingen and where in 1881 his prize criticism of J. Wellhausen [see 1892] impressed C.F.A. Dillmann of Berlin whose Old Testament handbook he was later to edit and whose commentary on Isaiah he revised. He became professor of biblical theology at Leipzig in 1898 until his retirement in 1924. He was a prolific author. NESTLE, EBERHARD [1851-1913] German biblical scholar and textural critic. He held several professorships and did a considerable amount of work on the text of the Septuagint, but it is for his edition of the Greek New Testament that he is best known today. First published in 1898 by the Wurttemberg Bible Society it has gone through numerous editions and is the standard text used by the majority of theological students and teachers, especially in Germany. RASHDALL, HASTINGS [1858-1924] Anglican moral philosopher and theologian educated at Oxford where he later taught philosophy. An advanced liberal and moderate High Churchman Rashdall tried to revive the inspiration of the Cambridge Platonists [see 1640] in the Anglican Church of his time. He was vice president of the Modern Churchmans Union from its foundation in 1898. SCHLATTER, ADOLF VON [1852-1938] Swiss New Testament scholar who studied theology at Basle and Tubingen. After a pastorate in Switzerland he became professor of the New Testament at a series of universities eventually in 1898 holding that position at Tubingen where he remained until his retirement in 1922. He was ecumenical in outlook and concerned to mediate between the liberals and Pietists. In his specific studies on the New Testament books he was one of the few to break with the trend of his times to continue support for the priority of Matthew. 1899BENDER, CARL [18691935] German born American Baptist missionary pioneer who emigrated to America at the age of 12. He was appointed to the Cameroons in West Africa under the Berlin based German Baptist Mission serving first at Doula. In Cameroon, which at that time was German colony, he founded a school, missionary rest station, and twenty four outstations in the Soppo district. The Benders were the only German missionaries allowed to remain in Cameroon during the First World War. When he left in 1919 the work was in indigenous hands. After piscopal in the United States he returned to Soppo where he supervised reconstruction until his death. FROST, HENRY WESTERN [1858-1945] Mission director. Frost as a young man joined his father in oil production. He was encouraged by his wife into an active Christian life and in the desire to evangelise and experience missionary outreach. He founded the North American branch of the China Inland Mission and served as its director for over 40 years. Presbyterian, pre-Millennial, and active in the Bible Conference Movement, Frost wrote numerous pamphlets and a dozen volumes on devotional, doctrinal and missionary subjects. The LIEBENZELL MISSION is a cluster of like-minded HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelism" \o "Evangelism" Evangelical mission organisations in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" \o "Austria" Austria, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" \o "Canada" Canada, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" Germany, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary" \o "Hungary" Hungary, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" \o "Japan" Japan, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea" \o "Korea" Korea, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands" \o "Netherlands" Netherlands, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" \o "Switzerland" Switzerland, and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States which was founded in 1899. With roots in German HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietism" \o "Pietism" Pietism, their HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionaries" \o "Missionaries" missionaries are involved in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_translation" \o "Bible translation" Bible translation, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_planting" \o "Church planting" church planting, education, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelism" \o "Evangelism" evangelism, pastoral ministry, media outreach, pastoral formation, medical care, and community development in 26 countries. There are about 220 missionaries. Liebenzell Germany is the largest of the organisations. They have a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seminary" \o "Seminary" seminary, a brother and sisterhood, a fellowship of deaconesses, a large retreat centre, and a literature distribution ministry headquartered in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Liebenzell" \o "Bad Liebenzell" Bad Liebenzell. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Bible_College" \o "Pacific Islands Bible College" Pacific Islands Bible College on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guam" \o "Guam" Guam and in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesia" \o "Micronesia" Micronesia was founded by and is still staffed by Liebenzell missionaries. MELETIUS II Patriarch of Antioch [1899-1906] see also 1892 and 1906. JOHANSSON, GUSTAF [1844-1930] Archbishop of Finland who after a career as a professor at the University of Helsinki and to two bishoprics became primate of Finland. His literary production was large and included a volume on dogmatics and publications of justification and on the Church of Finland. Chairman of the committee for a new translation of the Bible, he worked also towards a new church hymnal and catechism. As a conservative Johansson opposed the liberal movement especially the 1925 Stockholm conference chaired by Archbishop Nathan Soderblom of Sweden. According to Johansson the ecumenical trend was a great danger to the church because it opened the door to syncretism and co-operation with liberal theologians. He was a disciple of J.T. Beck [see 1836], whose Biblicism he tried to follow. He has had a significant effect on Christianity in Finland. MOORE, GEORGE FOOT [1851-1931] American Old Testament scholar educated at Yale and Tubingen in Germany. He became minister of a Presbyterian Church in Ohio in 1878 and then became professor of Hebrew literature and lectured in the history of religions at Andover Theological Seminary of which he became president in 1899. He then went to Harvard. 1900CAVEN, WILLIAM [1830-1904] Canadian Presbyterian leader, then strongly ecumenical, president of the Pan Presbyterian Alliance [1900-1904], who was an architect of the future United Church of Canada. Union with the Church of Scotland forming the Presbyterian Church of Canada came about when he was moderator of the general assembly in 1875. CHINA By 1900 there were 500,000 Catholic and 75,000 Protestants. In 1900 with the Boxer Uprising 181 missionaries and 49,000 Chinese Christians were killed. The Uprising was put down and China now entered into a 25 year period of change for which Christianity had paved the way with the leaders including the first president Dr Sun Yat-sen being the product of Christian schools. The period before the First World War was one of unprecedented prosperity for missions with further expansion in education and health. The Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921 after the Chinese government had been shunned in favour of the Japanese after World War I. In 1927 there were 8,500 missionaries in China but this dropped to 3,000 due to the war and communists and finally all missionaries withdrew from the mainland in 1950-51. It is thought however that the Christian underground church today is very strong in numbers [back see 1866]. FEGAN, JAMES WILLIAM CONDELL [1852-1925] English philanthropist. Converted at 17 as he read the epistle to the Romans he was involved in Ragged School work in London. At 21 he gave up a commercial career to rescue and care of children. His first home for boys was at Deptford. Boys were trained in farming and encouraged to go to Canada, and by 1980 some 3000 had emigrated. Mr. Fagans Homes was established at Stoney Stratford in 1900 and Goudhurst in 1912. The mission still survives today with family homes for boys and girls in south east England. GOODSPEED, EDGAR JOHNSON [1871-1962] New Testament scholar. He taught biblical and patristic Greek at Chicago University from around 1900 to 1937. He pioneered in collating New Testament manuscripts and in the study of Greek papyri in America. He wrote over 60 books during his career. He was an original member of the committee that produced the Revised Standard Version of the New Testament in 1946. LEPSIUS, JOHANNES [1858-1926] Founder of the German Orient Mission. Son of a noted Egyptologist his acquaintance with the East began as a child. A Lutheran pastor, he was deeply moved by the Armenian massacres of 1894-1895 and in 1895 established a German relief organisation to Armenia which soon consisted of orphanages, medical clinics, and a carpet factory to provide employment. In 1900 Lepsius transformed this into the German Orient Mission and endeavoured to evangelise Muslims but with little success. It lost most of its property in World War I but eventually was taken over by the Berlin Mission in 1937. PHOTIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1900-1925] see 1870 and 1926. TORREY, CHARLES CUTLER [1863-1956] American linguist who specialised in Old Testament Aramaic, Apocrypha, and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, as well as the Aramaic background of the New Testament and later Islam. He taught at Andover Seminary and was professor of Semitic languages at Yale University from 1900. His critical reconstructions of various Old Testament books and theories regarding alleged Aramaic originals of large portions of New Testament found little acceptance among scholars. UNITED FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND This body was formed in 1900 by the union of the majority of the Free Church of Scotland and the United Presbyterian Church. In 1929 the United Free Church united with the Church of Scotland to bring into being a church which had about 80% of the churchgoing population of Scotland. 1901-1910 AD 1901ASSOCIATIONS, LAW OF Defined the legal status in France of all voluntary societies including Catholic religious orders. It formed a part of a new wave of secular anti Catholic legislation during the Third Republic culminating in the rupture of relations between France and the Vatican 1904 and the church and state the following year. Application of the law was so vigorous that its provisions were extended to prohibit teaching by any religious order. By 1904 the government boasted that it had closed down 13,904 schools. AUSTRALIA which became a Commonwealth in 1901 was first settled by Europeans in 1788 with the origins of Christian ministry being in New South Wales with the chaplain to the first fleet Richard Johnson. Until 1830 all education in the colony was in the hands of the Church of England. In 1836 W G Broughton [see 1836] became the first bishop of the diocese of Australia thus severing a connection with the diocese of Calcutta. In the early days ministrations by Roman Catholic priests to convicts were prohibited. Many Irish Catholics entered Australia in the gold rush of the 1850s. The first synod of the diocese of Sydney was held in 1866 however it continued to import bishops from England with the first Australian born archbishop not being made bishop of Sydney until Marcus Lawrence Loane in 1966. Today the Church of England has organised itself into twenty seven diocese. The church has come under strong criticism for allegedly neglecting aboriginal customs and civil rights on missions over the years. However anthropologists suggested that the full blooded aborigines would have died out in the 1930 if the missions had not sustained them with food and medicine at a time when the majority of Australians were expressing very little concern. There are various Christian ministries to remote areas of the country. Theological training is now Australian based with few seeking training overseas. The training tends to be conservative with the evangelical tradition of the Anglican diocese of Sydney and the influence on the Roman Catholic Church by the Irish. BIBLE American Standard Version of the Bible published BIGG, CHARLES [1840-1908] Classical scholar and theologian who had a varied career from being a teacher in Oxford, as a minister, and as professor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford University from 1901. He authored a number of books including commentaries on Peter and Jude as well as The Origins of Christianity which was published posthumously. CABLE, MILDRED [18771952] Missionary to China [19011952] who with colleagues built up a flourishing work in Hochow including one of the first girls schools in China. From 1928 they moved to the extreme north west city of Suchow, the City of Criminals where they made repeated evangelical journeys through central Asia, preaching and distributing Scriptures. FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR [1848-1921] Congregationalist theologian. A postmans son in Aberdeen he was educated at the university there then studied at Gottingen. After several pastorates he became in 1901 principal of Hackney College London, a post he retained until his death. He took part in the Leicester Conference which had aimed for a better, freer, larger church and was suspected in his domination of heterodoxy in 1877. In his later life he was increasingly respected as a Congregational leader. He developed a high doctrine of the church, ministry, and sacraments, and was very critical of the tendency to non-doctrinal religion prevalent in the Free churches. GAIRDNER, WILLIAM HENRY TEMPLE [1873-1928] Anglican missionary and scholar. Born in Scotland and educated at Oxford he was associated with John Raleigh Mott [see 1888] in work among British students. He went with the Church Missionary Society to Cairo in 1898, with a special view to work among students and others of the educated classes of Muslims. He was ordained in 1901 and was a gifted linguist. He broke new ground by teaching missionaries and native teachers colloquial Arabic, produced a handbook on phonetics and two textbooks on the subject, and wrote hymns, poems, plays, and popular biblical literature in Arabic. He worked to make the Arabic Anglican Church into a welded group of believers, to train indigenous leaders, and to improve relationship with the Coptic Church [see 1517]. He believed that Islam could be won by a living exemplification of Christian brotherhood. Zest characterised his life and his faith; he seemed to have the ability to enjoy everything intensely. GORDON, SAMUEL DICKEY [1859-1936] American devotional writer. Born and educated in Philadelphia, he became state secretary of the Ohio YMCA. He began to preach and lecture on religious subjects in America, and travelled for four years in the Orient and Europe holding Bible conferences and missionary conventions. He wrote more than 20 devotional books under the title Quiet Talks such as Quiet Talks on Power in 1901 and on Prayer in 1904. HABERSHON ADA RUTH [1861-1918] English Author and Hymn Writer. Ada was the youngest daughter of Dr. Samuel Osborne Habershon. She was brought up in a Christian home by believing, praying parents, and her whole life was devoted to Gods service. She was a prolific author specialising in types. In 1901, she began writing poetry while ill and wrote Apart with Him. She met Dwight Moody and HYPERLINK "http://www.cyberhymnal.org/bio/s/a/n/sankey_id.htm" Ira Sankey when they visited London in 1884, and visited America at their invitation to deliver lectures on the Old Testament, which were later published. During the 1905 Torrey Alexander Mission, Charles Alexander asked her to write some Gospel songs; with in a year, she supplied him with 200 including When I fear my faith will fail. MOULE, HANDLEY CARR GLYN [1841-1920] Bishop of Durham who was educated at home and after a brilliant career at Cambridge taught at Marlborough in 1865 and was ordained in 1867. He became the first principal of Ridley Hall Theological College at Cambridge and professor of divinity in 1899. In 1901 he succeeded Wescott as bishop of Durham. Moule was a convinced evangelical who was able to understand other views and in 1908 chaired the missionary section of the Pan-Anglican Congress. He was closely associated with the Keswick Convention and wrote many hymns, poems, and commentaries on nearly all the epistles, as well as a down-to-earth work called Outlines of Christian Doctrine. 1902AGGREY, JAMES [18751927] Ghanian born Christian orator and educator completed his training in the U.S.A. He was an advocate of cooperation between the races and a mediator between African and Western cultures. AGLIPAY, GREGORIO [1860-1940] Bishop of Philippines Independent Church who was a Catholic priest in Manila accepting a military chaplaincy in 1898 in the revolutionary army of General Aguinaldo. The lack of response from Rome for the naming of a native Philippine bishop caused the founding of the Philippine Independent Church with him as bishop, a position he held until his death. ALEXANDER, CHARLES [18671920] American evangelist song leader. Educated at the Moody Bible Institute he started conducting evangelistic meetings with R Torrey [see 1900] and J Chapman [see 1893] in Europe, America and Australasia. Alexander was noted for warming up the audience with jovial humour and lively singing before the evangelical appeal. HALLESBY, OLE KRISTIAN [1879-1961] Norwegian theologian brought up in Lutheran piety, he studied theology and adopted the outlook of the liberal school. In 1902 he experienced a conversion and reverted back to biblical faith and the piety of his fathers. For some years he worked as an itinerant lay preacher causing revivals in several places. He was called to the chair of dogmatics at the Free Faculty of Theology and took the post after acquiring his doctorate in Berlin. From 1909 to 1952 he lectured on dogmatics and in a sense became the teacher of a whole generation of Norwegian ministers. He was a leading light in the opposition of conservative pastors to the liberal theology. During the Second World War he was one of the nations leaders in resistance of the Nazis. He was arrested in 1943 and lived in a concentration camp until liberation came in 1945. JAMES, WILLIAM [1842-1910] American psychologist and philosopher. After a career, first as an artist, then as a medical student, James developed an interest in experimental psychology and taught at Harvard. Even though he was plagued by ill health from 1865, he was very active in lecturing both in America and Europe, and in writing what were to become classics of American philosophy. Among his most important books are The Varieties of Religious Experience published in 1902. He stressed the richness, the pluralism of experience, including religious experience, against what he took to be the rigidity of scientific or religious orthodoxy. Religious experience is universal, it endures; there must therefore be truth in religion. He was the brother of Henry James and novelist. KENSIT, JOHN [1853-1902] Protestant preacher and controversialist, born of working-class parents, and was successively drapers assistant, stationer, and sub-postmaster. From his youth an ardent Protestant, he was deeply incensed by the Romanising trend within the Anglican Church. He fought against the consecration of liberal and ritualistic bishops, and was charged by his enemies, especially Bishop Creighton of London with fanaticism. While conducting a Protestant crusade in Liverpool in 1902 he was assaulted by a Catholic mob and died in hospital a few days later. He is generally regarded as the founder what is known in Britain as Political Protestantism. MCNICOL, JOHN [1869-1956] Bible College principal who was born in Canada and educated at Toronto University and Knox College. He was a leader in the Student Volunteer Movement [see 1886]. He began lecturing in Toronto Bible College where he was principal from 1906 to 1946. His writings contained much on the Holy Spirit. MEYER, EDUARD [1855-1930] German historian and one of the greatest authorities on the ancient world. He was professor of ancient history at the University of Berlin from 1902 to 1923. Meyer wrote a number of works in the area of Jewish and early Christian studies. In one of his last works he argued for the historical value of Luke-Acts and for its early date. POLLARD, ADELAIDE ADDISON [1862-1934] Adelaide Pollard was a Bible teacher and missionary, and the author of over 100 hymns and gospel songs. Only one of her hymns is in common use today, and the incident that led to its composition is interesting. She believed the Lord wanted her to go to Africa as a missionary. It was a noble cause, but for some reason the funds for the trip did not come in. As she waited on the Lord to provide, her discouragement grew. Then, one evening in 1902 she attended a small prayer meeting. In the group was an elderly woman whose prayer pricked Adelaides doubting, troubled heart. The woman said, Its all right, Lord. It doesnt matter what you bring into our lives. Just have Your own way with us. Letting God have His way, the would-be missionary pondered that. Could it be she was insisting the Lord accept her way instead of submitting to His? Adelaide Pollard considered what she had heard that evening, and before retiring to bed she composed a hymn of dedication called Have Thine Own Way, Lord. She went on to become an itinerant Bible teacher, and she taught for eight years at the Missionary Training School in New York City. Ironically, she did get to serve in Africa for a short time, just before the outbreak of the First World War. SMITH, EDWIN WILLIAM [1876-1957] Missionary, writer and anthropologist. Born of missionary parents in South Africa he entered the Primitive Methodist ministry. Between 1902 and 1915 he worked among the Ila people of Zambia producing a grammar, dictionary, and New Testament translation. He served the British and Foreign Bible Society from 1916 to 1939 and also taught in various American Negro colleges. Although he had little academic training he achieved international recognition as an anthropologist and became president of the Royal Anthropological Institute [1933-1935]. Smith published numerous books on topics related to African religion and missions. 1903 CARMICHAEL, AMY WILSON [1867-1951] Missionary to India. She served for a while in Japan before moving to South India with the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society where she was a colleague of Thomas Walker [see 1885]. In 1903 Amy wrote the book Things as they Are which influenced many towards missionary work. Two years earlier the Dohnavur Fellowship was founded with the purpose of rescuing children devoted to temple service with its attendant corruption. She remained the centre of the life of the Fellowship for the next 50 years. DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS Archbishop of Canterbury [1903-1928]. He studied at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrow_School" \o "Harrow School" Harrow and Oxford, and served as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaplain" \o "Chaplain" chaplain to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Campbell_Tait" \o "Archibald Campbell Tait" Archibald Campbell Tait when Tait was archbishop of Canterbury. He married Taits daughter. After Taits death he remained at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambeth_Palace" \o "Lambeth Palace" Lambeth Palace as chaplain to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_White_Benson" \o "Edward White Benson" Edward White Bensonwhen he became archbishop of Canterbury. A favourite of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria" \o "Queen Victoria" Queen Victoria, Davidson was appointed dean of Windsor at a very young age. He was subsequently bishop of Rochester and bishop of Winchester before becoming archbishop of Canterbury in 1903. He played a major part in the funeral ceremonies for Queen Victoria in 1901, taking care, along with Dr. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Reid" \o "James Reid" James Reid, of the wake at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osborne_House" \o "Osborne House" Osborne House, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" \o "Isle of Wight" Isle of Wight. Rodger Lloyd, Church of England historian, thought that Davidson was one of the two or three greatest archbishops of Canterbury. He was the first archbishop of Canterbury to retire, all his predecessors having died in office. Davidson reacted to the papal bull HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolicae_Curae" \o "Apostolicae Curae" Apostolicae Curaeby stressing the strength and depth of the Protestantism of England and regarded other differences with Rome as much more important than its views on Anglican orders. This view seems to have been widely held at the time, judging from the reaction of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Vaughan" \o "Herbert Vaughan" Herbert Cardinal Vaughan, Roman Catholic archbishop of Westminster. Davidson succeeded Frederick Temple [see 1896] and was succeeded by William Cosmo Gordon Lang [see 1928]. KNOX, EDMUND ARBUTHNOTT [1847-1937] Bishop of Manchester who was educated at Oxford and made bishop of Manchester in 1903. He was a prominent evangelical who strove vigorously against liberal and High Church tendencies in the Anglican Church. PIUS X Pope [1903-1914]. He became bishop of Mantua in 1884 and patriarch of Venice nine years later. He continued reforming the Catholic Church and fighting against modernism which eventually resulted in the clergy in 1910 taking an oath against modernism. He followed Leo XIII in recommending Thomism as the Catholic philosophy and founded the Pontifical Bible Institute in Rome in 1909. To strengthen the faith of the ordinary believer he promoted renewal in worship and personal devotion. He improved church music including the revival of Gregorian chant and a new devotion to Mary, more frequent Mass for the faithful, an earlier first communion for children and better religious instruction as well as commencing the codification of Canon Law. The Catholic struggle with the secularist Third Republic of France reached a new stage with the break in diplomatic relations in 1904. The French law of Separation of 1905 terminated the Concordat of 1801 and resulted in the confiscation of church property and transformed its semi favourable legal stance towards the church into legal active antagonism. He succeeded Leo XIII [see 1878] and was succeeded by Benedict XV [see 1914]. RYLE, HERBERT EDWARD [1856-1925] Anglican bishop and preacher who was son of bishop J.C. Ryle [see 1880] which gave him a strong evangelical home background and outlook. Educated at Cambridge he won distinction as a moderate and cautious Old Testament higher critic. He held a number of positions including professor of divinity at Cambridge in 1888. He was successively bishop of Exeter in 1900 and Winchester in 1903. Ryles fame rests on his preaching and leadership at Westminster during World War I after he had retired from the faculty and accepted the deanery of Winchester due to ill health in 1911. TOMLINSON, AMBROSE JESSUP [1865-1943] Church of God leader and revivalist who was converted in 1892 and served as an American Bible Society colporteur in North Carolina. He joined the Pentecostal Church of God movement in Tennessee in 1896 and rapidly rose to leadership. He assumed the title of general overseer in 1903 and maintained that position for 20 years. His authoritarian rule however created friction, and factions developed by 1917. Some forty religious groups can be traced to his movement nowadays. TRUMBULL, CHARLES GALLAUDET [1872-1941] Evangelical writer and journalist who graduated from Yale and joined The Sunday School Times founded by his father in 1893. He became editor in 1903 and later director. He was for a long time staff writer for the Toronto Globe and also wrote the weekly Sunday school lesson for several daily newspapers. His main interests included membership of the Victoria Institute, the Palestine Exploration Fund, and the Archaeological Institute of America. A supporter of missions, he wrote books that were evangelical and prophetic. WACE, HENRY [1836-1924] Dean of Canterbury who was educated at Oxford and ordained in 1861. He held a variety of positions in London from 1863 to 1903 some of which overlapped: chaplain and preacher at Lincolns Inn; professor of ecclesiastical history and principal, Kings College; rector of St Michaels Cornhill; and royal chaplain. In 1903 he was appointed dean of Canterbury and held that post until his death. Wace was a strong exponent of Reformation principles. He wrote a number of books. WEYMOUTH NEW TESTAMENT The New Testament in Modern Speech, translated into everyday English, it was the work of Richard Francis Weymouth [1822-1902]. Weymouth, a classical scholar said that his translation was not intended to supplant the versions then in general use but to act as a compressed running commentary on them. His own intention was to be free from doctrinal and ecclesiastical bias. 1904ANDREWS, CHARLES [18711940] Missionary to India. In 1904 he went to the Cambridge Mission in Delhi. He met Sadhu Sundah Singh [see 1905] whose biography he wrote. Andrews became unhappy about the Anglican creed and was greatly influenced by the writings of Albert Schweitzer [see 1913]. He spent time in South Africa helping the Indian indentured labourers and while there he met Ghandi. Andrews returned to India where he left the Anglican mission and joined the Indian poet Tagore in his ashram. BASHFORD, JAMES [18491919] American Methodist missionary to China who was the first resident bishop of the American Episcopal Church in that country. When he was elected bishop he asked to be sent to China. He mainly used interpreters but had a major effect on the Christian church in that country [19041918] as well as assisting organising relief measures for famine sufferers. CAIRD, EDWARD [1835-1908] Scottish philosopher and one of the leading representatives of the Neo Hegelian movement in British philosophy during the latter part of the 19th century. Caird who succeeded Jowett [see 1860] as master of Balliol College Oxford accepted the prevailing concept of the progressive evolution of thought and produced two major works on Kant [see 1770] and a monograph of Hegel [see1818]. CRAWFORD, DANIEL [1870-1926] Missionary to central Africa who joined the Plymouth Brethren in 1877 and in 1879 went to central Africa with F Arnot [see 1881]. He journeyed alone reaching Katanga in 1890 and undertook much travel in the next five years eventually settling in Luanza on Lake Mweru where apart from a visit overseas he remained for the rest of his life. He was a strong individual who preferred to rely on unsolicited gifts and working alone. Education in his village schools concentrated on the Scriptures which, by 1904, he had translated the New Testament into Luba, finishing the Old Testament in the year of his death. His converts were encouraged to participate in teaching, preaching and church affairs. FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND This group represents a minority of the former Free Church of Scotland who in 1900 refused to enter in the union with the United Presbyterian Church to form the United Free Church of Scotland. The present Free Church is conservative in theology and affirms its loyalty to the whole of the Westminster Confession of Faith. It has no instrumental music and uses only the metrical psalms in congregational praise. MEYER, FREDERICK BROTHERTON [1847-1929] Born in London to a wealthy family of German ancestry he was educated at London University and completed his theological training at Regents Park Baptist College. He helped launch the then unknown D.L. Moody [see 1886]. Meyer moved from Liverpool to Leicester and in 1881 opened Melbourne Hall, a centre of social and evangelistic activity which was Meyers abiding memorial. He was president at the Free Church Council in 1904 and retired in 1921. His devotional studies on biblical characters are still widely read. ROBERTS, EVAN JOHN [1878-1951] Welsh revivalist who was the ninth of fourteen children of a pitman. Roberts was educated at the parish school and at 12 years of age he accompanied his father to the coal mine. In 1902 he was apprenticed as a blacksmith but two years later was accepted as a candidate for the ministry by the Calvinistic Methodist Church. He had a remarkable prayer life for 11 years devoting himself to intense intercession for an outpouring of the Holy Spirit. He also had visions and vivid experiences of the divine presence. By 1904 in many parts of Wales there was an indication that revival was about to happen and in that year Roberts received a profound spiritual experience. He returned to his home church of Moriah and held prayer meetings where on successive nights the meetings drew ever larger crowds and within a matter weeks the revival had swept across Glamorganshire with tremendous power. Soon Roberts and a group of young friends began to make revival tours throughout Wales between November 1904 and January 1906. It was a national revival not just limited to the places visited by Roberts. It is calculated that there were 100,000 conversions during the revival and it had worldwide publicity. Physically the revival broke Evan Roberts and he retired from public life. TILAK, NARAYAN VAMAN [c.1862-1919] Marathi hymn writer and poet. He was born a high caste Brahman and even before his break from Hinduism, due to his poetic gift and strong religious spirit made him almost a sadhu. On a train journey a foreigner gave him a New Testament and thus began the road to Christianity. Tilak was baptised in Bombay and ordained in 1904 after which he worked as a preacher at Ahmadnagar. Writing was his great ministry and he composed many hymns for the Marathi Church. His greatest work was to be a life of Christ in verse but only the first part had been completed by his death. In 1917 he left the mission service in order to form a brotherhood of the baptised unbaptised disciples of Christ with an ashram at Satara. 1905BAPTIST WORLD ALLIANCE which is a world wide fellowship of Baptist churches founded in 1905 to show according to its constitution the essential oneness of the Baptist people in the Lord Jesus Christ, to impart inspiration to the brotherhood and to promote the spirit of fellowship service and co-operation among its members. The womens department organises an annual Baptist Womens day of prayer. BURKITT, FRANCIS CRAWFORD [18641935] Biblical scholar, educated at Cambridge and professor of divinity at Cambridge [19051935]. Burkitt did important work on the Syriac text of the New Testament and published a two volume edition of the Old Syriac Gospels. His most famous work was The Gospel History and its Transmission [1906]. He followed Johannes Weiss [see 1914] in rejecting the views of liberal Protestantism and was a person of great range of academic interests. FRANCE [see also 1793] A phenomenon known as Catholic atheism made its appearance among those who remained within the church, but who had lost their faith. Leo XIII tried to accommodate Catholicism to the increasingly liberal and secular mood of the nation without much success. The anticlericalism of the period climaxed with the legislation of the early part of the 20th century, including the Law of 1905 which decreed complete separation of church and state. France today is deeply secular, but no longer is it as hostile to Christianity as it was previously. LIETZMANN, HANS [1875-1942] German church historian who trained at Jena and Bonn and became professor at Jena from 1905 to 1924 and then at Berlin until 1942. His academic interests bridged all the disciplines related to early church history, New Testament exegesis, classical archaeology, Hellenistic religion, canon law, and the like. NIELSEN, FREDRIK KRISTIAN [1846-1907] Danish bishop and theologian who found his permanent position in the conservative and ecumenically minded tradition of N.F.S. Grundtvig [see 1825]. In 1877 he became professor of church history at Copenhagen University and there was characterised more by a staggering amount of knowledge and great narrative skill than by a sense of historical and doctrinal coherence and development. He became bishop of Aalborg in 1900 and was transferred to the see of Aarhus in 1905. SUNDAR SINGH, SADHU [1889-1929] Indian Christian and mystic who was the youngest of four children of the wealthy Sikh family from the North Punjab who was very distressed when his mother died in 1902. For a time he attended the American Presbyterian Mission School but was bitterly opposed to Christianity and publicly burned a copy of the Gospels. Two days later he had a vision of Christ and was converted. Driven from home by his father he became a preacher wearing the saffron robe of a holy man and endeavoured to evangelise the Hindus. In 1905 he was baptised into the Church of England but later refused to be restricted to a particular denomination. He travelled widely in Asia and visited the West but was saddened by the love of comfort and luxury evident there. Despite ill health he persisted in evangelising Tibet and disappeared there in 1929. WALMSLEY, ROBERT [1831-1905]. English jeweller and Hymn Writer. Robert Walmsley was an English jeweller by profession, but he also wrote some hymns. As a Christian layman he was connected for 28 years with the Manchester Sunday School Union, and many of his hymns were written for the annual Whitsuntide Festival. The one hymn that remains of Walmsleys is Come, Let Us Sing of a Wonderful Love. 1906BERKHOF, LOUIS [18731957] Dutch born American Calvinist theologian and teacher who specialised in systematic theology. He was called to teach at the Calvin Seminary in Michigan in 1906 and was there for three decades. He wrote the influential Manual of Reformed Doctrine in 1933 which was used extensively in Reformed Christian schools while his last book was The Second Coming of Christ in 1953 when he was eighty. BOHMER, HEINRICH [18691927] German church historian who was successively professor at Bonn in 1906, Marburg, and Leipzig, establishing himself as an authority on Luther and the Reformation. He wrote a number of books including two on Luther, studies on Loyola and the Jesuits, and the mediaeval church. BROWN, WILLIAM [18651943] American liberal theologian who was educated at Yale and the University of Berlin. He taught theology at Union Seminary from 1892 to 1930 when he became research professor in applied theology until 1936. He published his widely used book Christian Theology Outline in 1906. Brown declared that the centre of ones faith should be the life and teaching of the historical Jesus rather than the orthodox teaching of the incarnation, atonement and resurrection. CARPENTER, JOSEPH ESTLIN [1844-1927] Unitarian minister who became principal at Manchester College Oxford until 1915. He had a wide knowledge of near eastern studies and translated Ewalds major work [see 1827] into English. ETHICAL MOVEMENT A quasi religious movement having the motto Need, not Creed, and its goal was a society embracing the ideas of love, loyalty, brotherhood, and peace. Instigated in 1876 by Felix Adler as the New York Society for Ethical Culture, its central purpose was stated in the constitution, adopted in 1906 at the international conference at Eisner: to assert the supreme importance of the ethical factor in all relations of life, personal, social, national, and international, apart from theological considerations. From this came the International Humanist and Ethical Union formed in 1952 which was to promote an alternative to the religions which claim to be based on revelation. GREGORY IV Patriarch of Antioch [1906-1928] see also 1899 and 1928. HOLL, KARL [1866-1926] German scholar who was born in Tubingen and was made professor of church history there in 1901 and from 1906-1926 he held a similar chair in Berlin. One of Germanys most influential church historians of both Eastern and Western churches whose studies on Luther created a revival in the Evangelical Church. MARIAVITES A Polish sect founded in Warsaw in 1906 by Jan Kowalski and Maria Felicja Kozlowska who both founded communities under the Franciscan rule but because of their suspected mysticism had been excommunicated from the Roman Church. The new union took its name from devotion to the Virgin Mary and was recognised by St Petersburg and the Duma. They eventually joined the Oid Catholics in 1909. With Kowalskis death, fanaticism within the sect increased noticeably and took the form of mystic marriages between priests and nuns whose children were considered to be without original sin, destined to found a new sinless race. In 1924 the Old Catholics renounced them. MARITAIN, JACQUES [1882-1973] French philosopher who is noteworthy both as an interpreter of Thomas Aquinas and as an independent thinker. Reared in liberal Protestantism he was converted to the Roman Catholic Church in 1906, and in 1914 was appointed to the chair of modern philosophy at the Institute Catholique in Paris. From 1945 until 1948 he was French ambassador to the Vatican, and followed this by teaching at Princeton until his retirement in 1956. In his philosophy Maritain used not only Aristotle and Aquinas but insights from other philosophical sources. He refashioned the Five Ways of Thomas Aquinas and added his own sixth way. NAZARENE, CHURCH OF THE An international denomination which was formed largely as the result of the merger of approximately 15 religious groups originating from the 19th century Wesleyan Holiness Movement and whose organisation, within the USA, took place at Pilot Point Texas in 1908. Originally known as the Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene, the term Pentecostal was dropped from the title in 1919 due to its association with speaking in tongues a practice not in favour with the churchs members. The Church of the Nazarene began in Britain in 1906 through the ministry in Glasgow of George Sharpe who had been profoundly influenced by the Holiness movement while in the United States. The Church of the Nazarene combines congregational autonomy with superintendence in a representative system. Its major emphasis is of entire sanctification as a work of grace following conversion and stands firmly in the Wesleyan tradition. VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH [1872-1958] English composer who was the son of a clergyman and was educated at the Royal College of Music, and at Berlin. For a time he was church organist but soon gave it up and devoted himself primarily to composition. Although his personal views bordered on agnosticism he was the only major 20th-century composer for whom religious music was a highly significant part of his total output throughout his career, from the earlier and unconventional oratorio The Holy City, to his large Christmas cantata Hodie which he wrote at the age of 82. He was musical editor of The English Hymnal in 1906 and shared in editing Songs of Praise and the Oxford Book of Carols. A festival setting for congregation, choir, organ and full orchestra of All hail the power of Jesus name is the most ambitious of all his pieces based on hymns. There were several compositions based on Pilgrims Progress, culminating in the full scale opera of 1951 which he called A Morality. 1907AMERICAN BAPTIST CHURCHES is a group who were known as the Northern Baptist Convention and is the 4th largest denomination with 6000 congregations in the USA. Before that time the churches were joined in a local or state association. Northern Baptist Convention in the 1920s shared in the fundamentalist-modernist controversy. The group has a greater diversity of theologies than any other American denomination with main areas of difference being the deity of Christ and His Second Coming. In the mid west and west they are outnumbered by the Southern Baptists. They have numbers of overseas missionaries who have encouraged Protestantism and many have participated in the ecumenical movement. ARGUE, ANDREW [18681959] Canadian pioneer of Pentecostalism received an ecstatic experience in Chicago in 1907 including speaking in tongues which he interpreted as baptism of the Holy Spirit. He became an apostle of this experience and had a large evangelistic ministry in his home country and in the United States which included the establishment of a number of churches. DIVINE, MAJOR J. (Father Divine) [1865?-1965] He founded the Peace Mission movement. He was born into a poor Negro family in Georgia and was a former Baptist but in 1907 claimed to be God in the sonship degree. He travelled for a while and then settled in New York City. The movement grew rapidly in the 1930s and 1940s. He spoke across the country and published his magazine The New Day. As Father Divine he ran a massive co-operative agency and employment service providing low-cost meals and lodgings in his heavens. The interracial movement regard him as a god and by the 1960s had over 1 million members in several states and foreign countries. On his demise the work was continued by his widow Mother Divine. OMAN, JOHN WOOD [1860-1939] Presbyterian theologian educated at Edinburgh and Heidelberg and in 1907 joined the staff at Westminster College Cambridge where he was later the principal [1925-1935]. Oman developed an early interest in Schleiermacher [see 1804] who held that religious experience is self authenticating and that it was the direct feeling of the supernatural. 1908DEISSMANN, ADOLF [1866-1937] German New Testament scholar who taught at Heidelberg [1895-1908] and Berlin [1908-34]. In the light of secular Greek inscriptions and papyri, first intensively studied in the late 19th century, Deissmann showed the New Testament language to be popular rather classical. He gave a picture of primitive Christianity as a popular cult, growing from mystical personal reaction to Jesus; it was not therefore to be explained in terms of the coherence of the development of doctrine. For him, Paul was not a theologian but a man of the people responding to the impact of the Damascus Road encounter. He was active in the early ecumenical movement. FOSDICK, HARRY EMERSON [1878-1969] American Baptist minister. He was a pastor from 1904 to 1915, and taught practical theology at Union Theological Seminary from 1908 to 1946. He promoted evangelical liberalism, biblical criticism, psychology of religion, and psychologically orientated personal religion. Fosdick greatly influenced American preaching through his problem-centred homiletical style. He authored over 30 books which were widely read. FULLERTON, WILLIAM YOUNG [1857-1932] Fullerton was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist preacher, administrator and writer. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast" \o "Belfast" Belfast, Ireland and as a young man he was influenced by the preaching of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Spurgeon" \o "Charles Spurgeon" Charles Spurgeon, who became his friend and mentor. Fullerton served as President of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist_Union" \o "Baptist Union" Baptist Union and Home Secretary of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist_Missionary_Society" \o "Baptist Missionary Society" Baptist Missionary Society. He was a frequent speaker at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keswick_Convention" \o "Keswick Convention" Keswick Conventions starting in 1908. His published works include biographies of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bunyan" \o "John Bunyan" John Bunyan, Charles Spurgeon, James William Condell Fegan and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Brotherton_Meyer" \o "Frederick Brotherton Meyer" Frederick Brotherton Meyer; missionary histories and devotional writings. He also compiled several HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymnals" \o "Hymnals" hymnals. He is remembered for his hymn entitled I cannot tell why He, Whom angels worship, which he set to the traditional Irish melody HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londonderry_Air" \o "Londonderry Air" Londonderry. LOISY, ALFRED FIRMIN [1857-1940] Founder of Roman Catholic modernism in France. He studied in Paris and remained there as professor of Hebrew and exegesis from 1884 to 1893 until dismissed because of his liberal views on biblical inerrancy. Much shaken his faith by 1886 he had rejected all traditional dogma and turned to pantheism. Excommunication came in 1908 when he publicly renounced his faith as he had done his priestly functions in 1906. A student of biblical criticism with some extraordinary insights, he shifted too often in his views to have any permanently solid conclusions. MOULTON, JAMES HOPE [1863-1917] Greek and Iranian scholar, the elder son of William Moulton [see 1872]. He entered the Methodist ministry in 1886 and in 1902 was appointed New Testament tutor at the Wesleyan College in Manchester. In 1908 he became professor of Greek and Indo-European philology at the University of Manchester. His work was especially important to showing the kinship between the Greek of the New Testament and that of the recently discovered papyri. Moulton died from exhaustion after the ship on which he was travelling was torpedoed in the Mediterranean. NUELSEN, JOHN LOUIS [1867-1946] Methodist bishop, born of American parents in Zurich and educated at Halle and Berlin. He was ordained as a Methodist and held pastorates in Missouri and Minnesota, lectured in ancient languages and exegetical theology, and was made a bishop in 1908. From 1912 he was in charge of the Methodist Churchs work in Europe with Zurich as his headquarters. In 1936 he organised the first Methodist Central Conference of Germany at Frankfurt. He wrote widely on Methodism and biblical criticism and was an editor of major theological works. WESTON, FRANK [1871-1924] Bishop of Zanzibar. Weston had been brought up as an evangelical but during university he became an extreme Anglo-Catholic. He served in various churches in London before going to Africa under the auspices of the Universities Mission to Central Africa. In 1908 he was made bishop of Zanzibar in which country he served until his death. Weston is best remembered for his opposition to the tentative scheme of reunion, proposed at Kikuyu for the Protestant churches in East Africa. 1909BIEDERWOLF, WILLIAM EDWARD [1867-1939] American Presbyterian evangelist and educator who was probably the best educated evangelist of his time. Ordained in 1897 he was a chaplain in the Spanish American War. The rest of his life he spent in evangelism and direction of the Winona Lake Bible School of Theology. In 1909 he organised the Family Altar League. He authored The Millennium Bible and The New Paganism. BILLING, EINAR MAGNUS [18711939] Swedish theologian who was born in Lund and was a professor in dogmatic and moral theology from 1909. He was a leader of the Luther Renaissance in Sweden laying down the lines for the distinctively Scandinavian method of Luther study in the form of a historical systematic approach . BUCK, DUDLEY [18391909] American composer, the first American born church musician to be trained in Europe. A distinguished organist he wrote many cantatas, anthems and secular music. He contributed significantly to church music in the period in which he lived and as an organist increased the popularity of that instrument in his recitals. CONYBEARE, FREDERICK CORNWALLIS [1856-1924] Armenian scholar who became interested in church history in the textural criticism of the Septuagint. He discovered a manuscript with the last 12 verses of Mark [16:9-20]. He was generally sceptical about Christianity as shown in his Myth, Magic and Morals a Study of Christian Origins published in 1909 though he refuted those who denied the historicity of Christ. DISPENSATIONALISM A dispensation is defined as a period of time during which man is tested in respect of obedience to some specific revelation of the will of God according to CI Scofield [see below]. Some variety exists among dispensationalists but a scheme of seven dispensations is widely accepted. They are Innocence, Conscience, Human Government, Promise, Law, Grace, and the Kingdom. The close of the Millennium ushers in the eternal state. J. N. Darby [see 1845] is usually regarded as the founder of Dispensationalism, although some of the elements are found in Augustine. Its fullest theological expression, while popularised in the Scofield Bible, are in the works of Lewis Sperry Chafer [see 1924] with the hyper dispensational form of it due to the work of E W Bullinger. HAUSRATH, ADOLF [1837-1909] German Lutheran theologian who was a leading liberal scholar and served as a pastor and later professor at Heidelberg and belonged to the Baden state church. Stimulated by the ideas of the Tubingen School [see 1826] he transformed and popularised its historical picture of primitive Christianity. MADSEN, PEDER [1843-1911] Danish bishop and theologian who in his youth studied theology and was strongly influenced by F.H.R. Frank [see 1857] and the theology of experience. In 1874 he became lecturer and in the following year professor of Christian dogmatics and New Testament exegesis at Copenhagen University. In 1909 he was appointed bishop of Zealand. The theology he taught was a mixture of biblical conservative and orthodox Lutheran with tendencies of the subjective including some unnecessary concessions to biblical criticism. However he was the most influential Danish theologian of his time. PIDGEON, GEORGE CAMPBELL [1872-1971] First moderator of the United Church of Canada [see 1925]. He was educated at McGill University and Presbyterian College, and served as pastor of influential churches in Ontario for over 50 years except for the time teaching practical theology from 1909 to 1915. He was a scholar, preacher, and writer, vitally concerned with the application of the Social Gospel to the poor of the cities. SCOFIELD, CYRUS INGERSON [1843-1921] American biblical scholar who won the Confederate Cross of Honour while serving with Lees army. After the Civil War he turned to law and was admitted to the Kansas bar in 1869. After his conversion he was ordained to serve a small Congregational church in Dallas [1882-1895]. At Moodys request he took over Moody Church in Massachusetts from 1895 to 1902 and returned to the Dallas church 1902-1907 before taking on Bible conference work at home and in the British Isles, and founding the Central American Mission. In 1909 his dispensational premillennial Bible was published which he edited with the financial assistance of prominent businessmen. STONE, JOHN TIMOTHY [1868-1954] Presbyterian minister who held Presbyterian pastorates in New York State, Baltimore, and Chicago [1909-1930]. His work in Chicago became the basis of the New Life Movement in the Presbyterian Church nationally while his own congregation showed remarkable growth. He served as a chaplain of World War I. WHYTE, ALEXANDER [1836-1921] Scottish Minister who is often described as the last the Puritans. Whyte was educated at Aberdeen and the Free Church of Scotlands New College Edinburgh. Most of his ministry was set in Edinburgh were over a 40 year period he established a reputation as a graphic and compelling preacher to an extent probably unparalleled even a nation of preachers. In 1909 Whyte became principal of New College and taught New Testament literature there. He wrote a number of books. ZAMORA, NICOLAS [1875-1914] Filipino Methodist pastor who was the grand nephew of the martyred priest Jacinto Zamora [see 1872 Mariano Gomez]. He was born into a Christian family and his father was exiled for smuggling a Bible and Nicolas continued Bible study secretly as a student of arts and then law. As a soldier in the Revolutionary Army, he translated the Spanish Bible into his dialect and read it to the men. When the Methodists began evangelistic meetings in Manila in 1899, he was invited to speak because the Spanish interpreter failed to arrive. He became the first Protestant Filipino clergyman being ordained as a deacon in the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1900. From 1904 he became the pastor of the largest Protestant church in Manila where he preached in the local dialect. Zamora eventually came to agree with those who wished to have an independent church and set up the Evangelical Methodist Church of the Philippines. He died in a cholera outbreak in 1914. 1910ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT The ecumenical movement itself is normally dated from the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910. This was the first really international conference of a multi-denominational character, and although its theme was mission, it was inevitable that the degree to which the various bodies represented could cooperate, converge, or even merge was always part of the agenda. From this conference sprang further international organisations, which eventually merged into the World Council of Churches in 1948. The whole concept of ecumenism has been a source of theological division, some of which remains. Those bodies which have made exclusive claims to truth have been unable to meet with others in any such way as to suggest that they recognise others as holding the truth. This meant that the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholics and a large part of the Evangelicals initially stood aside from the movement. In more recent time however the Orthodox have become fully involved, the Catholics participate in various ways and the Evangelicals remain divided on the issue. EDINBURGH MISSIONARY CONFERENCE This 10 day gathering for discussion was significant for its representative character, its leadership, the range of its discussions, and its outcome. Previous conferences on the missionary task of the church had been un-denominational in character; this was interdenominational. All churches, with the exception of the Roman Catholics, were represented. There were 1355 delegates, places being allocated on the basis of the missionary society incomes. Less than a score of the representatives were from the younger churches. During the discussions the need became apparent for a permanent representative body, able to coordinate missionary cooperation and to speak to governments. This conference is regarded as the beginning of the modern ecumenical movement. FUNDAMENTALS, THE These were a series of twelve small books published from 1910-1915 containing articles and essays designed to defend fundamental Christian truths. Three million copies were sent out free of charge to every theological student and Christian worker whose address was obtainable. Convinced that something was needed to reaffirm Christian truths in the face of biblical criticism and modern theology, the project was conceived by Lyman Stewart in California. Sixty four authors were chosen to contribute. [See also Fundamentalism 1920] JOWETT, JOHN HENRY [1864-1923] English Congregationalist preacher who studied at Oxford and held a number of pastorates in northern England. He became chairman of the Congregational Union in 1906 and president of the National Free Church Council in 1910. He delivered the Yale lectures on preaching in 1912 and wrote many devotional books. He was made a Companion of Honour in 1922. THOMAS, WILLIAM HENRY GRIFFITH [1861-1924] Anglican scholar and teacher who was educated at Oxford and ordained in 1886. After appointments in England he became principal of Wycliffe Hall Oxford before migrating to Canada where he was professor of Old Testament at Wycliffe College Toronto from 1910 onwards. Thomas was a Dispensationalist and was a founder of Dallas Theological Seminary and would have lectured there but for his sudden death. He was a supporter of the Keswick movement, and assisted the Victorious Life Testimony in America. CHAPTER 7 CHURCH: LAODICEA The Apostate Church 1911 onwards LAODICEA REVELATION 3: 14-22 14 And unto the angel of the church of the Laodiceans write; These things saith the Amen, the faithful and true witness, the beginning of the creation of God; 15 I know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot: I would thou wert cold or hot. 16 So then because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue thee out of my mouth. 17 Because thou sayest, I am rich, and increased with goods, and have need of nothing; and knowest not that thou art wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked: 18 I counsel thee to buy of me gold tried in the fire, that thou mayest be rich; and white raiment, that thou mayest be clothed, and that the shame of thy nakedness do not appear; and anoint thine eyes with eyesalve, that thou mayest see. 19 As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten: be zealous therefore, and repent. 20 Behold, I stand at the door, and knock: if any man hear my voice, and open the door, I will come in to him, and will sup with him, and he with me. 21 To him that overcometh will I grant to sit with me in my throne, even as I also overcame, and am set down with my Father in his throne. 22 He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches. INTRODUCTION Here we have the final of the seven churches. The name Laodicea comes from laos (the people) and dike (rights). Thus the human rights church. The apostasy of this church is found in that it was lukewarm. The cooling of love for Christ begun in Ephesus had now become total apostasy and indifference. This church prided itself on its wealth, riches, programs, and buildings; but Christ was completely left out Revelation 3:20. Jesus Christ vomits from His mouth this apostate organisation (vs. 16). Yet still the offer of grace was extended to anyone, who would receive it (vs. 18, 20). Historically Laodicea represents the modernistic church. Whatever the name or designation, it places a premium on riches, programs, buildings, and, above all, human rights. The social church has become man-centred and has pushed Christ out of His rightful place in the midst of the churches. In this age of complacency, Christ continues to call His people out from apostasy and into the true riches of His grace and fellowship. The city to which this letter is addressed was famous as a centre for the eye doctors and eye ointment or salve in the ancient world. It also had the latest in water supply technology with water being piped using stone pipes from the hot springs at Therme. As a result when the water arrived at Laodicea the water was luke warm. The people ruling is set in contrast with the Spirit ruling the church. It is a church ruled entirely by men and as such the Holy Spirit is not present in His role of empowering and guiding. Ephesians 5:18. This becomes a good illustration of the apostate church which began in the early 1900s and continues until this day in the West. Cold is the unbeliever, hot is the spirit filled believer. If the person is hot they are a believer who is controlled by the Holy Spirit and can be used by the Lord Jesus Christ in His service. If the person is cold they are an unbeliever who can listen to the gospel and accept the Lord Jesus Christ as Saviour and become a hot believer. This is in contrast with the lukewarm person who is the carnal Christian of verse 16 who is of no use at all. The Greek word for luke warm in verse 16 is chliaros and is only used once in the Scriptures. To spue is a word meaning to vomit. In the Greek it is emeo from where we get the English word emetic. The luke warm believer, the carnal Christian, makes the Lord sick and want to disassociate from them. The people here are rich in worldly goods but are self deceived because they are spiritually poor blind and naked. The Sermon on the Mount contrasts this with those who will be blessed Matthew 5:3. Those who are rich often do not see the need for spiritual things or salvation. They believe that money can buy you everything. Are we rich in goods but spiritually destitute? This is a good picture of the apostate church. An apostate can be defined as a person who has departed from the truth he may professed to have had. Seldom however does the apostate have and hold the full truth. The form that apostasy takes is given in 1 Timothy 4:1-3, 2 Timothy 3:5, 2 Peter 2:1-22. There would be apostasy in the church in the latter times [2 Thessalonians 2:1-3, 1 Timothy 4:1]. In verse 18 there is a call to sanctification, they are counselled to seek spiritual wealth in Christ. Secondly, because they are spiritually naked they are urged to put on imputed righteousness that can only be obtained at the Cross Revelation 3:4, 3:5, 6:11, 7:9, 13-14. Thirdly, because they are spiritually blind they are exhorted to spiritually see. As Christians even having been saved we can be poor of sight. We need to receive imputed righteousness and live in the knowledge of that. The love mentioned in the Greek in verse 19 is phileo which is a friendship type love rather than agapao unconditional love whilst repent means to change your mind. Those who Christ loves are those who follow His commandments. The Lord disciplines those who are his friends so that they may change their minds and become zealous for the faith. Hebrews 12:7-12 In verse 20 Christ is outside the church, knocking. Christ is not in this church because it is basically an out of fellowship church. Notice the word to sup means to take a meal indicating a person is going to have fellowship. The exhortation is to any individual in the apostate church to hear Christs voice and open his heart to Him. If he does so Christ will come in and have fellowship with him. Christ is at the right hand of the Father which is the place of commendation. To be seated is one of appointment. God invited Jesus Christ to sit at His right hand until he made His enemies His footstool. Whilst the majority of the Laodicean type church will go through the Tribulation as unbelievers the believers will sit with Christ in a place of honour. We as believers are at the right hand of the Father in Christ. It is a place of great security. NOTE - It should be noted that in a general form the Chronology in this volume terminates in the decade of the 1960s as it is not clear historically the effect of certain people or trends of the Church Age is significant. A few like the Popes and Archbishops of Canterbury have been extended into the 21st century. CHRONOLOGY 1911-1920 AD 1911CHAMBERS, OSWALD [1874-1917] Scottish Bible Teacher converted hearing C H Spurgeon [see 1856]. He commenced training for a Baptist ministry in 1897 and there met William Quarrier [see 1871] founder of the Orphan Homes from whom he learned simplicity of faith and prayer. Chambers became travelling missionary for the Pentecostal League of Prayer and from 1911 was principle of the Bible Training College at Clapham. His last ministry was to the troops in Egypt as superintendent of the YMCA huts in Ismailia. His My Utmost for His Highest is a devotional classic. GLOVER, TERROT REAVELEY [1869-1943] English Baptist scholar who was educated at Cambridge and went to Ontario in 1896 as professor of Latin at Queens University, Kingston. Returning to Cambridge in 1901 he later became university lecturer in ancient history from 1911 to 1939. He wrote extensively and loved the classics yet was willing to assist in the editing of Scripture for Little children in 1924. He also wrote The Jesus of History [1917] and The World of the New Testament [1931]. GORE, CHARLES [1853-1932] Anglican bishop who was educated at Oxford, ordained in 1875 and worked at Oxford. He exercised a strong influence on the religious life of the university mainly through personal relationships. He was a lifelong Anglo-Catholic. He was active on behalf of the Christian Social Union. He supported the Workers Educational Association. In 1911 he became bishop of Oxford but found it more resistant to his masterful personality. He was the most versatile, and probably the most influential churchmen of his generation. INGE, WILLIAM RALPH [1860-1954] Dean of St Pauls who was educated at Cambridge and lectured at Hertford College Oxford before becoming vicar of All Saints Knightsbridge and professor of divinity at Cambridge. He went to St Pauls in 1911 and held the post until 1934 despite differences with a theologically conservative and mainly Anglo-Catholic chapter. He held that Platonic philosophy and Christianity belong together. Theologically he is regarded as a liberal but he strongly opposed the Catholic modernists holding strongly to the importance of the historical in Christianity. PATON, WILLIAM [1886-1943] Missionary organiser and writer who worked as a minister of the Presbyterian Church of England. He was educated at Oxford as well as at Cambridge and from 1911 to 1921 travelled Britain as missionary secretary of the Student Christian Movement [see 1895] then went to India with the YMCA. He was there for the formation of the National Christian Council of India, Burma, and Ceylon and became general secretary for its formative seven years until brought back to be the joint secretary of the International Missionary Council [see 1921]. The rest of his life was spent based in Britain. He helped prepare the important conferences at Jerusalem in 1928 and Madras in 1938 and was one of the architects of the World Council of Churches [see 1948] although he died before its inception. During World War II he did much for the Orphaned Missions Fund which helped the survival of missionaries cut off from their home bases. RUSSELL, CHARLES TAZE [1852-1916] Founder of Jehovahs Witnesses. As a young man he built up a chain of drapery shops in Pennsylvania. He reacted against the doctrine of hell and was attracted by date fixing for the Second Coming of Christ which he estimated first as 1874 and then in 1914. He held that Christ was the first created being. In 1879 he launched a magazine called Zions Watchtower and Herald of Christs Presence. He produced six volumes of Studies in the Scriptures 1886-1904, in which are set out what has remained basically the Jehovahs Witnesses theology. In 1911 Russell advertised the so called miracle wheat in his magazine and sold it to aid society funds. The Brooklyn Eagle challenged his claims and Russell sued for libel and lost. He also lost a libel case against the Rev J.J. Ross who attacked his doctrines and scholarship. During the hearing Russell committed perjury by asserting under oath that he knew the Greek alphabet but could not name the Greek letters when he was shown them in court. 1912AZARIAH, VEDNAYAKAM [18741945] First Indian Anglican bishop in the Telegu area. He became YMCA secretary in 1895 and his concern for evangelism showed in his helping to form the indigenous Indian Missionary Society of Tinnevelly in 1903 and the non denominational National Missionary Society two years later. He was consecrated as missionary bishop in 1912. He was chairman of the National Christian Council [19291945] and host at the World Missionary Conference in Madras in 1938. He had a special place in Indian Christian leadership. GHEON, HENRI [1875-1944] French Roman Catholic writer. He lost his faith in adolescence, regaining it on the death of his niece and friends in 1914. His first play was a popular tragedy first performed in 1912. He devoted himself to developing a Christian theatre, producing his own plays and founded the company of young Catholics in 1924. Many of the works had kinship with the 15th century miracle plays having as subjects the lives of saints and other sacred themes. HROMADKA, JOSEPH LUKI [1889-1969] Czech Reformed theologian. In 1912 he became pastor of the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren. From 1920-1939 he was professor of systematic theology at the Jan Hus Theological Faculty in Prague, and during the war taught at Princeton. On his return home in 1947 he became a controversial figure urging reconciliation between Christians and Communists. He was a founder of the World Council of Churches and served on its central committee. He was also founder and chairman of the Christian Peace Conference, and received the Lenin Peace Prize in 1958. Because of his protest against the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia he was forced to resign and died six weeks later. THEOSOPHY Groups of Gnostic ideas that appeared in such movements as the Rosicrucianism, Spiritualism, and Anthroposophy. Their concepts include reincarnation and the development of psychic and occult powers, the belief in karma, the influence of spirits of several grades. The term Theosophy however is most commonly identified with the Theosophical Society founded in New York in 1875 by Colonel H S Olcott and Mme H P Blavatsky. They claimed to have been prompted by the latters Himalayan Mahatmas. The founding pair were succeeded by Annie Besant [see 1898] who was assisted for a time by C W Leadbeater who later became bishop of the so-called Liberal Catholic Church. In 1912 Mrs Besant and Leadbetter proclaimed a Hindu boy Krishnamurti as the reincarnation of the Supreme World Teacher. The stated aims of the society are, firstly, to form the nucleus of the universal brotherhood of humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or colour, and secondly, to encourage the study of comparative religion, philosophy, and science, and thirdly, to investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent in man. Annie Besant was a prolific writer. 1913CHARLES, ROBERT HENRY [1855-1931] Anglican scholar and author whose main interest was in Judaism especially the inter testament period culminating in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English published in 1913. He also produced commentaries on Revelation [1920] and Daniel [1929]. HYPERLINK "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Patriarch_Germanus_V_of_Constantinople" GERMANUS V Patriarch of Constantinople [1913-1918] succeeded Joachim III [see 1878]. There is no additional information readily available. The see of Constantinople was vacant from 1918 to 1921. KIKUYU CONTROVERSY A dispute within the Anglican church about the nature of the church and its ministry, which arose from the proceedings of a conference of missionary bodies working in Kenya, held on the Church of Scotland mission station at Kikuyu new Nairobi in 1913. The conference discussed the scheme of federation under which all Christian missionary work in Kenya would be brought together. Opposition to the scheme came from missionaries holding Baptist views who wished to re-baptise those baptised in infancy, and from Anglican delegates who wish to insist on Episcopal confirmation. However, both parties withdrew their opposition and the conference closed with a communion service according to the Anglican Rite conducted by Bishop William Peel of Mombasa, in which all members took Communion except the Friends. When the Anglo Catholic bishop in Zanzibar Frank Weston heard of the proceedings he wrote a letter of protest to the archbishop of Canterbury Randall Davidson [see 1903]. He objected to what he regarded as the inadequate view of the church and its ministry reflected in the scheme of federation, especially the lack of emphasis on the historic episcopate, and the admission of non-Episcopal confirmed Christians to a communion service conducted by an Anglican bishop. After some delay due to the outbreak of war in the archbishop delivered his findings at Easter 1915 advising caution about intercommunion in the future. LIGHTFOOT, ROBERT HENRY [1883-1953] English biblical scholar who was educated at Oxford and became a minister in 1909 at Haslemere. He served as examining chaplain to the archbishop of Canterbury from 1913 to 1953. Among his mature studies were volumes on the Gospels of Mark [1950] and John published posthumously in 1956. SCHWEITZER, ALBERT [1875-1965] German theologian, medical missionary, and musician. At the age of 30 he gave himself to his own study achieving much in theology and music becoming an expert on J.S. Bach and organs. From 1905 he studied medicine, and in 1913 loosely associated with the Paris Missionary Society went to Gabon to found a hospital at Lambarene. Except for interruptions in and after World War I and for money raising lecture and recital tours, he gave the rest of his life to developing the hospital, incurring criticism sometimes for old-fashioned paternalism and sometimes for his slowness to make Western standards normative for his people. As a theologian he followed the tradition of historical and critical theology at the time of its high prosperity. He maintained that Jesus was dominated throughout his career by the world-negating expectation of the imminent coming of Gods kingdom. He believed that Jesus finally tried to force its coming by seeking his death. This view implied that Jesus life was centrally directed by His mistaken expectations. Schweitzer showed just how much humanism and liberal Protestantism remained in his life. He was uncertain about additional Christian dogma and moved between theism and pantheism. In his last years Schweitzer was much honoured, notably in the award of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1952. STEINER, RUDOLF [1861-1925] The founder of Christian mystical philosophy called Anthroposophy at Dorach near Basle. He held that the story of evolution represented the various stages by which man as a created spiritual being became clothed in flesh. Though spiritual man was made in Gods image this image was soon distorted and Christ often intervened, e.g. by giving man an upright posture, to aid his restoration. Steiner held that the Parousia, which heralded the completion of mans redemption, started in the 20th century with the appearance of Christ in the etheric sphere. WEC INTERNATIONAL is a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_mission" \o "Christian mission" mission agency which focuses on church planting, and emphasises the importance of shared life in a local church as a vital expression of Christian life. WEC prioritises the planting of churches among HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_people" \o "Indigenous people" indigenous people groups and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreached_people_group" \o "Unreached people group" Unreached people groups, who have little or no access to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel" \o "Gospel" gospel of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ" \o "Jesus Christ" Jesus Christ. WEC was founded in 1913 by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Studd" \o "Charles Studd" Charles Studd (see 1885]. The organisation began as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_Africa_Mission" \o "Heart of Africa Mission" Heart of Africa mission, changing its name to Worldwide Evangelisation Crusade. Later, recognising the misunderstandings of using the word HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade" \o "Crusade" crusade, the mission was re-named as Worldwide Evangelisation for Christ(WEC International). Studds son-in-law HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Grubb" \o "Norman Grubb" Norman Grubb took over the leadership in 1930, expanding the organisation and establishing recruitment bases in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto" \o "Toronto" Toronto, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh" \o "Pittsburgh" Pittsburgh, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle" \o "Seattle" Seattle, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte" \o "Charlotte" Charlotte, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand" \o "New Zealand" New Zealand, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" \o "Australia" Australia, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" \o "Japan" Japan, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay" \o "Uruguay" Uruguay and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" \o "France" France. Grubb continued to lead the movement until retiring from the position of International Secretary at the end of 1965. WEC International believes that God can provide for their needs without standard fundraising, and that He will be able tell his servants to give the needed money. Hence, their policy is to ask only God, and not people, to supply their needs. 1914BENEDICT XV Pope [1914-1922] He succeeded Pius X [see 1903]. His pontificate was largely overshadowed by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" \o "World War I" World War I and its political, social and humanitarian consequences in Europe. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" \o "World War I" World War I which he labelled the suicide of civilised Europe and its consequences were the main focus of Benedict who declared the neutrality of the Holy See and attempted from that position to mediate peace in 1916 and 1917. Both sides rejected his initiatives. German Protestants rejected any Papal Peace as insulting while French politician HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" \o "Georges Clemenceau" Georges Clemenceau regarded the Vatican initiative as anti-French. Having failed with diplomatic initiatives, the pope focused on humanitarian efforts to lessen the impact of the war, such as care for prisoners of war, the exchange of wounded soldiers and food deliveries to needy populations in Europe. World War One caused great damage to Catholic missions throughout the world so Benedict revitalised these activities encouraging Catholics throughout the world to participate. His last concern was the emerging HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution" \o "Persecution" persecution of the Church in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Russia" \o "Soviet Russia" Soviet Russia and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famine" \o "Famine" famine there after the Revolution. Benedict was an ardent HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Mariology" \o "Roman Catholic Mariology" mariologist, devoted to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary_(Roman_Catholic)" \o "Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic)" Marian veneration and open to new perspectives of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Mariology" \o "Roman Catholic Mariology" Roman Catholic Mariology. He supported the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediatrix" \o "Mediatrix" mediatrix theology and authorised the Feast of Mary Mediator of all Graces. After just over seven years in office, Pope Benedict XV died on 22 January 1922. He succeeded Pius X [see 1903] and was succeeded by Pius XI [see 1922]. BURNEY, CHARLES FOX [1868-1925] Anglican bible scholar who was educated at Oxford where in 1893 he was ordained and lectured in Hebrew and was university librarian until 1908. In 1914 he became Oriel professor of the interpretation of Holy Scriptures. His many publications include An Outline of Old Testament Theology and a commentary on Judges. FELLOWSHIP OF RECONCILIATION Probably the most significant of the peace organisations created during the First World War. It was founded in England in December 1914 by Henry Hodgkin, a Quaker, and rapidly spread to the United States in 1915. It is now international, and the leading American pacifist organisation. GASQUET, FRANCIS NEIL AIDAN [1846-1929] Benedictine scholar educated at Downside and made a prior there in 1878 but resigned in 1885 because of ill-health. Convalescence led him to historical research. He was abbot-president of the English Benedictine congregation 1900-1914 and the first president of the International Commission for the Revision of the Vulgate in 1907. He was created cardinal in 1914, negotiated for a British minister in the Vatican, and became prefect of the Vatican Archives in 1917 and a librarian there two years later. HILLIS, NEWELL DWIGHT [1858-1929] Presbyterian clergyman and author who was born into a Quaker home in Iowa. After graduating from McCormick Seminary he served Presbyterian churches from 1887 to 1899 and organised Sunday schools in the West each summer for the American Sunday School Association, and became pastor of the Plymouth Congregational Church in Brooklyn. He organised the Plymouth Institute in 1914 as a social service agency to provide educational opportunities to young people. He resigned as pastor at 1924 because of health. LAKE, KIRSOPP [1872-1946] British biblical scholar who was educated at Oxford and after brief curacies in England held professorships at the Universities of Leyden [1904-1914] and Harvard [1914-1937]. He co-edited a book on the Acts of the Apostles but had a more sceptical view of the historical value than the majority of other contributors. MACHEN, JOHN GRESHAM [1881-1937] American Presbyterian scholar and apologist. Educated in the United States and in Germany he was ordained in 1914 and taught New Testament at Princeton Seminary from 1906 to 1929. He was a defender of the classical reform position and was influenced by his teacher B.B. Warfield [see 1887]. He resigned from Princeton in 1929 due to the liberal realignment of the seminary. He then founded the Westminster Theological Seminary and served as president and professor of New Testament there [1929 1937]. In 1935 he was tried and found guilty of insubordination on charges brought by the general assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the USA citing association with an independent mission board. He was forbidden to defend himself. Machen is regarded by friend and foe as a leading conservative apologist. MANALO, FELIX [1886-1963] Founder of the Church of Christ in the Philippines. Born near Manila in a devout Catholic home he was converted to Protestantism in1902. After studying with the Methodists and Presbyterians he became first a Disciple and then a Seventh-day Adventist preacher. In 1912 he turned to agnosticism but after special revelations during Bible Study in 1913 he began to preach his own doctrine and in 1914 founded the Church of Christ. He denied the divinity of Christ and justification by faith, argued that the Church did not exist between 70 and 1914 and claimed that salvation was only to be found in his church. He personally appointed all his clergy and wrote their sermons, and dictated to his members how they should vote in state elections. NICHOLSON, WILLIAM PATTERSON [1876-1959] Irish evangelist who after a wild misspent youth at sea was converted in 1898 and trained at the Bible Training Institute in Glasgow serving as an evangelist with the Lanarkshire Christian Union. In 1914 he was ordained as an evangelist in the Presbyterian Church in the United States and subsequently joined the staff of the Bible Institute of Los Angeles. His greatest work however was done in Ulster where his preaching, uncompromising and unconventional, brought about a significant spiritual awakening in the 1920s. Thousands were converted and the moral tone of the Belfast dockland was raised. He also campaigned in Australasia, South Africa and had a very successful mission to Cambridge University with another evangelist, William Temple, a future Archbishop of Canterbury. PENTECOSTAL CHURCHES A number of Protestant sects that emphasise Spirit baptism as an experience different from conversion and evidenced by speaking in tongues. They also teach the inspiration of the Bible, salvation by conversion and revival, instantaneous sanctification, divine healing, and claim to be a restoration of original Christianity. Early Pentecostal meetings were characterised by outbursts of ecstatic enthusiasm featuring healings and speaking in tongues. It began as an outgrowth of a Holiness Movement [see 1840]. In 1901 a Bible school called Bethel College was started at Topeka Kansas by Charles F. Parham who drilled his students in Spirit baptism teaching. As a result William J. Seymour brought the teaching to Los Angeles in 1906 where he founded the Apostolic Faith Gospel Mission on Azusa Street. He was said not to be a very charismatic personality nevertheless the results of the Azusa revival attracted nationwide attention. Publications were issued from this group which caused a rapid growth of the movement. Thomas Barrett, a Cornishman came to the United States in 1905 to solicit funds so that he might build a larger church in Norway and experienced a spirit baptism and spoke in tongues. He returned to Norway and became an evangelist of Pentecostalism. He also was influential in spreading the Pentecostal work in Denmark and Sweden. As a result of an Anglican clergyman Alexander Boddy visiting Barrett he returned to England determined to promote a similar Pentecostal awakening. The Assemblies of God, the largest of its groups, was founded in Hot Springs Arkansas in 1914. The Church of God in Christ is another large black Pentecostal Church, and the International Church of the Four Square Gospel was organised in 1927 centred in Los Angeles by Mrs Amy McPherson. SHEPPARD, HUGH RICHARD LAWRIE [1880-1937] Anglican minister and pacifist who trained at Cambridge and Cuddesdon for theological training. Ordained in 1907 he held various positions in the London diocese before his appointment as vicar of St Martin-in-the-Fields in 1914. He had a deep concern to reach people and made St Martins one of the best-known churches in Britain. With the advent of broadcasting he was one of the first to appreciate and use its immense possibility as a means of Christian influence. Because of ill-health he resigned from St Martins in 1926 and held appointments at Canterbury and St Pauls. In his last years he was an ardent pacifist forming the Peace Pledge Union in 1936. SODERBLOM, NATHAN [1866-1931] Archbishop of Uppsala and ecumenist. He was a son of a Pietistic pastor and educated at Uppsala where he proved to be a brilliant student. He was ordained as a Lutheran minister in 1893 and held a number of positions before he was elected as archbishop and primate of Sweden in 1914. Despite his fathers misgivings Soderblom never forgot his upbringing and told his daughter that he could not live one day without unceasing prayer and once electrified an American dinner audience by interrupting his address to deliver himself of all five verses of There were Ninety and Nine. His concept of ecumenicalism was to emphasise the importance for the movement of its being nurtured by worship and prayer rather than an alliance of secretaries. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [see also 1607 and 1776] Turmoil was created by the influx of German Idealism, Charles Darwins evolutionary theory, and Higher Criticism, which sought to undermine the foundation of supernaturalism. Positive or negative attitudes toward these new views of the Bible paved the way for the controversy involving modernists and fundamentalists after the turn of the century. Bible conference movements rallied many conservatives attempting to stem the tide of liberal views of Scripture. Revivals became organised movements through the ministry of D.L. Moody and Ira Sankey. This combination of revivalism and biblical conservatism fashioned the cradle of twentieth century fundamentalism. The fundamentalist-modernist debate of 1920s resulted in a fundamentalism largely interdenominational in character with Protestant leaders more concerned with programs of action than theological soundness. The 1930s disclosed a deepening criticism of modernisms basic statements in the writings of Reinhold Niebuhr. It was popularly called Neoorthodoxy and reasserted the sovereignty of God, repudiated the notion that man has almost unlimited potential for good, and stressed the central importance of the Bible and Christ as indispensable mediators of Gods special revelation to man. The years between the two world wars witnessed the growth of the ecumenical spirit through interdenominational co-operation and confederation. The 1960s saw a secular theology arise on the one hand with the churchs primary mission being to humanise the social order, and the conservatives on the other hand who poured their energies into support for Billy Graham Crusades with the hope that the world could be changed by the conversion of masses of individuals. WEISS, JOHANNES [1863-1914] He was a German Protestant New Testament critic and son of Bernhard Weiss [see1877] the famous conservative scholar. He was educated in a number of German universities and taught New Testament during a university career. Weiss work marked the end in Germany of the older liberal interpretation of Jesus and his message, which had interpreted the kingdom of God as an inward spiritual experience or system of ethics. Weiss paved the way for the work of Bultmann [see 1921] and his associates. WILLAN, HEALEY [1880-1968] English musical composer who spent most of his professional life in Canada and became the organist at St Pauls Anglican Church Toronto in 1914 but soon transferred to the High Church atmosphere of St Mary Magdalene where he served the rest of his life. He wrote quite a number of pieces for his own choir including a number of hymns some of which were based on traditional melodies. Willan taught for many years at the conservatory in Toronto and exerted a wide influence. WINDISCH, HANS [1881-1935] Biblical scholar who was born in Leipzig and began his teaching career as a private tutor in his home city. In 1914 he became a professor of biblical literature at Leyden and in 1929 moved to Kiel. His publications were either commentaries on the books of the New Testament, expositions on parts of the Bible or studies of early Christian thought. 1915BERNARD, JOHN [18601927] Archbishop of Dublin [19151927], who was born in India, the son of a civil engineer and educated in Dublin and later was a lecturer at Trinity College Dublin. He was appointed archbishop of Dublin in 1915. He was the author of twenty books including a commentary on the Gospel of John and was a popular preacher in his university sermons. BREMOND, HENRI [18651933] French Catholic scholar and author who encouraged modernism among the Catholics although he was not one himself. He was a member of the Society for Jesus from 1882 to 1904 when he left on account of incompatibility of temperament. He was influenced by Maurice Blondel, and J. H. Newman [see 1845] who he wrote about in his controversial The Mystery of Newman. He was particularly interested in the close relation between mysticism and poetry. DIBELIUS, MARTIN [1883-1947] German New Testament scholar and theologian. He taught in Berlin [1910-15] and Heidelberg [1915-1947]. In his opinion the Gospels are to be regarded as popular rather than high literature, and the Evangelists as compilers of traditional material rather than independent authors. As a leader of the Faith and Order movement he worked for an adequate theological basis for the ecumenical movement as a whole. KERR, ALEXANDER [1885-1970] First principal of Fort Hare, South Africa. Born in Scotland he took charge in 1915 of Fort Hare the first institution of higher learning for Africans in Bantu-speaking Africa. It resulted from co-operation between the churches, the state, and the effort of the African people. Initially pioneered for African secondary education, it eventually prepared students from South, Central and East Africa for degrees at the University of South Africa. Although a layman, Kerr was moderator of the general assembly of the Presbyterian Church of South Africa in 1942. He retired from Fort Hare in 1948 and opposed its transfer to government control in 1960. KNOX, WILFRED LAWRENCE [1886-1950] Anglican churchman and New Testament scholar who was the son of Edmund Knox bishop of Manchester [see 1903] and the brother of Ronald Knox [see 1919]. He was educated at Oxford, ordained in 1915 and moved to Cambridge in 1920 where he remained until this death. His early writings were primarily apologetic in nature and aimed at a defence of the liberal Anglo-Catholicism. 1916BAUER, WALTER [18771960] German evangelical theologian and lexicographer who was professor at Gottigen [19161945]. Bauer was responsible for a N.T. lexicon which was the basis of the Arndt and Gringich lexicon of 1957. JACKSON, FREDERICK JOHN FOAKES [1855-1941] Anglican theologian educated at Cambridge who was dean of Jesus College from 1895 to 1916. In 1916 he became a professor at the Union Theological Seminary of New York, a position held until 1934. He was a prolific author. LATIN AMERICA [see also 1844] The turning point in Protestantism in Latin America came with the convening of the Conference of Christian Work in Latin America in Panama in 1916. This group convened subsequent conferences in Montevideo in 1925 and in Havana in 1929. Latin Americans then assumed the initiative and convened the first Latin American Evangelical Congress in Buenos Aires in 1949 and a second in Lima in 1961. The social conditions in Latin America strongly influenced the development of Christian theology and a group of theologians both Catholic and Protestant rallied to the cause and developed the theology of liberation. There has been a great expansion of Pentecostalism in Latin America with the majority of Protestants now being aligned with those groups. RAMSEY, BENJAMIN MANSELL [1849-1923]. Benjamin Ramsey was for many years a well known teacher near Bournemouth, England. He wrote choral music, and music for the piano, as well as hymns and carols. Also he was a prolific composer of part-songs, piano pieces, and carols. In addition, he produced works on music theory and a number of hymns. He retired in 1916. In the last year of his life he was in poor health, but at the age of 74 he organised and conducted a choir in Chichester. His fine hymn Teach Me Thy Way, O Lord, echoes the words of the psalmist, Teach me Your way, O LORD; I will walk in Your truth (Psalm 86:11) 1917BALFOUR, ARTHUR [18481930] British statesman whose Christian views were influential because of his political position. He was a communicant of both the Anglican and Scottish Presbyterian churches. In 1917 he produced the Balfour Declaration committing Great Britain to securing a national homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine. INTERDENOMINATIONAL FOREIGN MISSION ASSOCIATION Composed of inter-denominational faith missionary societies, this was founded in 1917 by 7 societies to provide spiritual fellowship and co-operation. The organisation has a conservative creedal statement, provides member societies with relevant information, helps churches to set up missionary programmes, and promotes co-operation among evangelical missionaries who rely mainly on prayer and grace giving. JONES, RUFUS MATTHEW [1863-1948] Quaker scholar and professor who was born in South China. Born into a Quaker family Jones at 24 had a mystical experience which reshaped his life entirely. By mysticism he meant a kind of Pauline experience and understanding of Christianity. Considered a prophet of Quakerism he was as prominent in Britain as in America and lectured more widely still. He helped to found the American Friends Service Committee in 1917 and served as its chairman for over 20 years. He was a prolific writer. MAIER, WALTER ARTHUR [1893-1950] American Lutheran scholar and radio preacher who graduated from Boston University and went to Concordia Theological Seminary and was ordained in 1917. He taught Old Testament languages and studies at Concordia from 1922. He gained international prominence as the regular speaker of the Lutheran Hour from 1935 until the late 1940s. At his death the broadcast was being transmitted to 1200 stations worldwide. OTTO, RUDOLF [1869-1937] German theologian who was educated at Gottingen where he taught theology from 1907 to 1914. He also taught for 3 years at Breslau from 1914 and Marburg from 1917 to 1937. He wrote books on the philosophy of religion as well as extensively on Hinduism after travel in the East. RAUSCHENBUSCH, WALTER [1861-1918] Baptist minister and educator who was educated in Germany but emigrated and graduated from Rochester University in 1884. He was pastor at the Second German Baptist Church in New York City and was affected by the plight of the socially and economically disadvantaged. He taught New Testament and church history at his former seminary from 1897 to 1917 and soon gained a national reputation for strong views on social change. He distinguished his brand of (Christian) socialism from the socialism of Marxism. He gained the title Father of the Social Gospel in America. ROWLEY, HAROLD HENRY [1890-1969] English Bible scholar who was educated at Bristol and Oxford and after being a minister at Wells from 1917 became professor at Shantung Christian University in China. Rowley, from 1924-1929 lectured in Hebrew at University College Cardiff and afterwards held other professorships until 1959. In the post-war years he served as foreign secretary to the British Society for Old Testament Study. He gained worldwide esteem for his scholarship. RUSSIA [see also 1589] After the abdication of Nicholas II, an all Russian church council met in Moscow in 1917 and began a programme of church reform which eventually restored the patriarchate and elected Tikhon [see below ] to the office in November of that year. After the Bolshevik Revolution the Soviet government decreed the separation of church and state as well as school from church. The Living Church was organised with Communist recognition and was used by the regime for political purposes. Following Tikhons death in 1925, Stalin attacked the church directly, closing churches and monasteries. The League of the Militant Godless was formed in the same year and grew in size claiming a membership of five million in 1932. The Soviet constitution of 1936 guaranteed freedom of religious worship but at the same time granted freedom of antireligious propaganda. With the coming World War II the regime eased its antireligious campaigns in order to get the church to cooperate with the war effort. Since the fall of the Communists access into Russia for Christian ministry became easy but as we entered the 21st century many former Soviet states are making missionary access more difficult. TIKHON, VASILI BELAVIN [1866-1925] Patriarch of Moscow who trained with the priesthood in St Petersburg and subsequently became bishop of Lublin before going to North America where he held various posts from 1899 to 1907 and was finally archbishop. He returned to Russia and after holding two more posts became in 1917 metropolitan of Moscow then patriarch of Moscow. When the Bolsheviks commandeered church land, withdrew church subsidies, decreed civil marriage only, and took over schools, Tikhon pronounced an anathema on the countrys new rulers and their supporters. Four days later church and state were officially separated, giving the signal that the priest and congregation were to be attacked. During the famine in 1922 the government declared confiscation of all church treasurers to relieve the hungry, although Tikhon had already called for all unconsecrated objects of value to be disposed of for this purpose. Priests who resisted the plundering were murdered or jailed. Tikhon himself was taken into prison and released only because of the pressure of international opinion in 1923. During his imprisonment he concluded from Romans 13 that since the Soviet government was now the divinely sanctioned government the church should be obedient to it, a view approved even by the Communists. However this viewpoint was not shared by a section of his clergy and it caused great divisions. 1918Patriarch of Constantinople see was vacant until 1921 LIBERAL CATHOLIC CHURCH A body that may be dated from 1918 when it appeared in London as a synthesis of theosophical and old Catholic doctrines and practices. Four members of the English Theosophical society were ordained 1913-14 as priests within the miniscule British Old Catholic church. A lapse in the Old Catholic bishopric led to the recognition in 1916 of J.I. Wedgwood as bishop who in turn ordained C.W. Leadbeater the leading London Theosophist since 1895 as bishop of Australasia. They compiled a new liturgy and named it the Liberal Catholic Church in 1918. The Church does not hold to a firm doctrine, believing that there are many paths to the truth. Instead it stresses liturgy, whereby the living Christ is experienced, and reincarnation. 1919DEARMER, PERCY [1867-1936] Anglican scholar who was educated at Oxford and was influenced by Charles Gore [see 1911] in the direction of Christian Socialism. He was vicar of St Marys, Primrose Hill, London [1901-1915] and professor of ecclesiastical art at Kings College, London [1919-1936]. He edited the Anglo-Catholic English Hymnal [1906] with Ralph Vaughan Williams as musical editor. DUNCAN, GEORGE SIMPSON [1884-1965] Scottish biblical scholar and one of the translators of the New Testament for the New English Bible. Duncan is associated with a theory that all Pauls prison epistles were written from Ephesus and that Galatians is the earliest of Pauls letters. He was professor of biblical criticism from 1919-1954 at the University of St Andrews. In 1949 he was moderator of the general assembly of the Church of Scotland. EASTON, BURTON SCOTT [1877-1950] American Episcopalian theologian and New Testament scholar. Educated at the universities of Pennsylvania and Gottingen, and at Philadelphia Divinity School, he taught in Chicago before going to the General Theological Seminary of New York from 1919-1948. His works include commentaries on Luke and the Pastorals. ENGLAND, CHURCH OF [see also 1750] Since the mid-19th century, due to the activity of Christian Socialist movement, the church had become increasingly aware of its social responsibilities, and a number of Anglicans, particularly Archbishop William Temple [see 1942], have played a prominent role in this area. Having both Catholic and Protestant features the Anglican Church has had an important function within the ecumenical movement, but to date her attempts at union and negotiation with other churches have not achieved success. Theologically, neo-biblicalism dominated the church from the 30s until the early 60s but radicalism has had a growing influence since, as has conservative evangelicalism which has grown numerically since World War II. INDIA [also see 1793] The strength of feeling among Indians was detected in a manifesto issued by a meeting of ministers at Tranquebar in 1919 deploring denominational disunity as something foreign and a brake on evangelism. V.S. Azariah [see 1912] was a leader on that occasion. An important point conceded at the meeting was that acceptance of the historic episcopate was necessary if Anglicans were to be in union, and when the Church of South India [1947] and the Church of North India [1970] were formed, it was on this basis. KAGAWA, TOYOHIKO [1888-1960] Japanese Christian leader who was the illegitimate child of a wealthy cabinet minister and a geisha. His father took a liking to him and formally adopted him however both his parents died before he was five. His harsh life in the ancestral home was loveless and it was not until he was at school that the first ray of hope and love entered his life through the friendship of a Japanese Christian teacher and two missionaries. His conversion at 15 brought disinheritance from his family but the overpowering experience of the love of Christ moved him to dedicate his life to serve the destitute in the slums. While training in college he suffered tuberculosis. The appalling conditions of prostitution, poverty, and exploitation impelled him to his God-given mission, and for 15 years from 1919 he toiled in the slums striving to improve labour conditions and the labourers themselves. Fired by a passion for social righteousness, Kagawa preached, wrote, and worked unceasingly for the cause of Christian socialism. In 1925 trade unions were given legal right to organise and in 1926 legislation was finally passed abolishing the slums. He once stated his desire: the salvation of 100,000 poor, emancipation of 10 million labourers, and the liberation of 20 million tenant farmers. He has been called Japans apostle of love. KNOX, RONALD ARBUTHNOTT [1888-1957] Roman Catholic scholar. The son of the bishop of Manchester, Edmund Knox [see 1903]. He became a strong Anglo-Catholic and a bitter critic and satirist of modernism within the church. He became a Catholic in 1917 and was ordained in 1919. He was Catholic chaplain at Oxford [1926-1939]. Thereafter he devoted himself to his translation of the Bible into English. His collected sermons are very highly by the English Catholics. MORGAN, GEORGE CAMPBELL [1863-1945] Bible teacher and Preacher born in Gloucestershire, the son of a Baptist minister who had resigned his living to start up a faith mission. He preached his first sermon at 13 years of age. Without academic training he joined the staff of a Jewish school learning much from the headmaster who was a rabbi. After rejection by the Salvation Army and the Methodists he was accepted by the Congregationalists as a full-time minister and was a pastor of many churches. Morgan travelled much especially during 1919 to 1932, his preaching and Bible expositions attracting great crowds with numerous conversions. His literary output of Bible notes, sermons and commentaries was immense. PAGE, KIRBY [1890-1957] Social evangelist and author who was a Disciples of Christ minister and after service with the YMCA in World War I turned to writing and lecturing to combat what he assumed were societys ills: war and capitalism. Pacifist and socialist he represented many Protestants in the period from 1919 to 1941 notably those who had been disillusioned by the Versailles Treaty and modern industrialism. The rise of neo-Orthodoxy and welfare capitalism in the 1930s however left Page with an ever diminishing audience. PURDIE, JAMES EUSTACE [1880-1977] Canadian Anglican Pentecostal educator who graduated from Wycliffe Theological College and was ordained in 1907 as an Anglican. He was noted for his deeper life and healing ministries. While rector of St James Saskatoon in 1919 he received a Pentecostal spiritual experience including speaking in tongues. This brought him into contact with the leaders of the emerging Pentecostal assemblies of Canada and subsequently he became principal of the first Pentecostal Bible college in Canada, a post in Winnipeg he retained until his semi retirement in 1950. His theological materials formed the basic curriculum for other Pentecostal colleges at home and overseas. He deserves much of the credit for the stability and basic orthodoxy of much of the early 20th century charismatic revival in Canada. SCHWARTZ, EDUARD [1858-1940] German scholar who studied at Gottingen and Berlin and showed great ability in the ancient languages. He held chairs in six universities before settling in Berlin in 1919. Initially he studied the history and literature of the church while later he worked on Athanasius, Nestorius and others in the early church but his greatest work was the publication of an edition of the Greek councils of which Ephesus and Chalcedon were of the greatest importance. 1920 ALEXANDER, SAMUEL [1859-1938] Jewish philosopher who was born in Sydney Australia, studied at Oxford and became professor of philosophy at Manchester. His best known work was Space, Time and Deity published in 1920 in which he sought to reconcile philosophy with the ideas of the day dominated by materialism, evolution, belief in progress, and relativity. He concluded that God exists only in the sense that the universe tends, in evolution, to produce a deity-quality. CZECHOSLOVAK CHURCH The national church of Czechoslovakia was founded in 1920 as a result of their seeking the introduction of the Czech language into the church services and other areas such as the removal of celibacy, and the involvement of laity in church government. Their demands were rejected by the Roman Catholic Church. In 1920 they became independent and were recognised by the secular government. Since 1946 bishops are appointed for seven years. It is a rationalistic church rejecting the doctrines of original sin, purgatory, and veneration of the saints. In 1972 its name was changed to Czechoslovak Hussite Church to emphasise its incorporation of Hussite reforms. It is a member of the WCC, has about 650,000 members, its priests being trained at the Hussite Faculty of Theology at Charles University in Prague. FUNDAMENTALISM A conservative theological movement in American Protestantism, which rose to national prominence in the 1920s in opposition to modernism. Fundamentalism should be understood primarily as an attempt to protect the essential doctrines of the Christian faith from the eroding effects of modern thought. Such doctrines include the Virgin Birth, the Resurrection and the Deity of Christ, his Substitutionary Atonement, the Second Coming and the Authority and Inerrancy of the Bible. A significant offensive against modernism was launched in 1910 with the publication of the first of The Fundamentals [see 1910]. HEIM, KARL [1874-1959] Lutheran theologian who studied at Tbingen and was a pastor and schoolmaster. He taught at Halle and Munster and returned to his university in 1920 as professor of theology. Recognised as one of Germanys leading post-war theologians he defended his theological system against both scientific secularism and Nazi perversions of the Christian faith. HENSON, HERBERT HENSLEY [1863-1947] Bishop of Durham who was educated at Oxford and was ordained in 1884. In 1918 he was consecrated bishop of Hereford, but was translated Durham in 1920, retiring in 1939. A man of liberal churchmanship, his appointments to Hereford was strongly opposed by the Anglo Catholics. A supporter of the establishment, he changed his views after the rejection of the revised Prayer Books by Parliament in 1927 and 1928. A man of courage and wit he was noted for his pungent utterances on a variety of subjects. RICHTER, JULIUS [1862-1940] German missiologist. After serving 15 years as a pastor in Germany he became professionally interested in the science and history of missions. He presided over various missionary committees and organisations and succeeded Gustav Warneck as editor of a missions periodical. In the 1920s Richter was appointed to the first chair of missions at the University of Berlin. His most significant work was a five volume history of Protestant missions [1906-1932]. RODEHEAVER, HOMER ALVAN [1880-1955] Song evangelist and publisher who learned the cornet during his boyhood and studied music at the Ohio Wesleyan University between 1896 and 1904. He was music director for evangelists W. E. Biederwolf [see 1909] and Billy Sunday [see 1896] effectively using lively non-doctrinal gospel songs such as Brighten the corner. After 1920 he conducted a sacred music conference annually at Winona Lake Indiana. His Rodeheaver Publishers of Sacred Music (1910-35) and the Rodeheaver Hall-Mack Company (since 1935) became the worlds largest gospel music publishers by the middle of the 20th century. SHEPHERD, ROBERT HENRY WISHART [1888-1971] Missionary to South Africa who was born in Scotland and after being ordained in 1918 went to South Africa in 1920 as a missionary for the United Free Church of Scotland. After seven years in Tembuland he moved to Lovedale as chaplain and then principal, serving there from 1927 to 1955. On his retirement Lovedale passed into government control. As director of Lovedale press and literary secretary of the Christian Council of South Africa he encouraged African authorship and promoted Christian literature. He was elected moderator of the general assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1959. TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, PIERRE [1881-1955] Roman Catholic Jesuit priest and palaeontologist who advocated an evolutionary hypothesis that synthesised modern science and traditional Christian theology. Educated in Jersey and Hastings he was ordained in 1911 and worked at the Museum of Paris as a palaeontologist. He served as a stretcher bearer in World War I and in 1922 departed to China to serve as a consultant to a geological survey where he was involved with some archaeological discoveries. He returned from China after World War II but the Jesuits prohibited him from accepting a chair in his area of study in France because of his teachings and ideas concerning cosmogenesis and Christogenesis. He moved to the USA and spent his last years working with the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research in New York. 1921-1930 AD 1921BARTH, KARL [18861968] Swiss theologian and the leader of the Dialectical Theology [see below]. Barth taught at Gottigen [1921], Munster [1925] and Bonn [1930]. He wrote over 500 books, his main work being Church Dogmatics. His teaching changed and evolved over the years but the theme of Gods sovereignty in revelation through His Word can be traced from his commentary on Romans through to his final works. His teaching has had significant effect in the Reformed Churches in Europe and the Church of Scotland. BULTMAN, RUDOLF [1884-1976] German theologian who studied at Marburg, Tubingen and Berlin and became professor of New Testament at Marburg [19211951]. He did pioneering work on the form-criticism of the gospels and had a sceptical view of the authenticity of the gospels as to their historical content. DIALECTICAL THEOLOGY The title used to characterise the theological methodology of Karl Barth [see above] to distinguish his dogmatic principles from those of the liberal traditions. The first phase of the Barthian movement was termed the theology of crisis. It was born out of disillusionment with World War I and expressed theologically the historical and cultural pessimism. It was concerned with the judgement of God, not in particular concrete situations, but with the divine No to all human efforts, and especially to the religious search for righteousness. Dialectical Theology sought its method and principles in the theology of the Reformation and especially in John Calvin. The influence of Dialectical Theology has been extensive, especially in the Reformed Churches in Europe and in the Church of Scotland. The Church of England and the Free Churches in Britain have also been affected. FAULHABER, MICHAEL VON [1869-1952] Archbishop of Munich. He was ordained in 1892 after having studied at Wrzburg and was professor of Old Testament at Strasbourg until becoming bishop of Speyer in 1911. He was appointed archbishop of Munich in 1917 and cardinal in 1921. In World War I he ministered to Bavarian forces in the field and later became the leader of the right-wing German Catholics. He emphasised the Jewish background in Christianity and attacked anti-Semitism. INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL Founded at Lake Mohonk, New York in 1921, it was designed to be a council of councils, and was an outgrowth of the great World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh in 1910, responding to the increasing desire for more co-operation among Protestant Christian missions. After the formation of the World Council of Churches in Amsterdam in 1948 the International Missionary Council came under increasing pressure to become the missionary arm of that body. This occurred in New Delhi in 1961. LATOURETTE, KENNETH [1884-1968] Church historian who was born and raised in a devout Baptist family in Oregon and studied at Yale. He taught in China until invalided home in 1912. After recovering he began his lifes work of teaching and writing church history, especially the history of missions, and Far Eastern history. He returned to Yale in 1921 continuing to live on campus after his retirement from full-time teaching in 1953. He served as president of the American Historical Association and the Association of Asian studies. He wrote a number of books. MALINES CONVERSATIONS A series of meetings between Anglican and Roman Catholic theologians at the Malines in Belgium extending over a five year period from 1921. The prime movers were D J Cardinal Mercier [see 1907] and Lord Halifax a High Church Anglican. Such groups inevitably found substantial areas of agreement after the manner of ecumenical exchanges. Mercier did raise the possibility of the Church of England uniting with Rome as a uniate body with a patriarch. These conversations ended with Merciers death in 1926. Low Church Anglicans always entertained grave suspicions about these exchanges. MELETIUS IV HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1921-1923] succeeded Germanus V [see 1913]. He was also HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_Orthodox_Patriarchs_of_Alexandria" \o "List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Alexandria" Greek Patriarch of Alexandria from 1926 until 1935 as Meletius II. He was the only HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" \o "Eastern Orthodox" Eastern Orthodox leader in history to serve successively as the senior bishop of three autocephalous churches as before his election to the ecumenical patriarchate he had briefly headed the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Greece" \o "Church of Greece" Church of Greecein Athens. A known supporter of the Greek prime minister he served as bishop in Cyprus, until he was elected archbishop of Athens following the abdication of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I_of_Greece" \o "Constantine I of Greece" Constantine I of Greece replacing Archbishop Theocletus I, a known Royalist. Two years later King Constantine I was restored to the throne, Archbishop Meletius was ousted, and former Archbishop Theocletus I was reinstated. In 1921 he was elected ecumenical patriarch. He resigned in 1923 following the defeat of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Army" \o "Hellenic Army" Hellenic army in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919-1922)" \o "Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)" Greco-Turkish War. Some years later he was elected Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa. He died in 1935. MERCIER, DESIRE JOSEPH [1851-1926] Belgian cardinal and philosopher who was ordained in 1874 and became professor of philosophy at Malines [1882-1906]. He was appointed archbishop of Malines and primate of Belgium in 1906 and made cardinal the following year. Believing that in the long run reason will lead to the same conclusion as faith he worked to create a synthesis between Thomist philosophy and the experimental sciences. He attacked modernism in general. He was a fearless spokesman for the Belgian people during the German occupation of World War I. Mercier was the Roman Catholics chief representative in the Malines Conversations [see above] from 1921 to 1926. MULLINS, EDGAR YOUNG [1860-1928] Southern Baptist theologian and educator who graduated from Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College and in 1885 from Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. He intended becoming a foreign missionary but poor health altered that plan. He held pastorates until 1899 and then joined the faculty of his own seminary and subsequently became its president. He was president also of the Southern Baptist Convention from 1921 to 1924. These were the stormy years of the Fundamentalist Modernist Controversy that divided the Baptist groups and also a financial crisis. His theology was clearly conservative and his main interest was apologetics. OLDHAM, JOSEPH HOULDSWORTH [1874-1969] Ecumenical pioneer who was educated at Edinburgh Academy and Oxford. A warm hearted evangelical, he became secretary of the Student Christian Movement [see 1895] in 1896. Oldham was secretary to the World Missionary Conference which paved the way for the famous Edinburgh Conference of 1910. He was joint secretary of the International Missionary Council [see above] from 1921 to 1938 closely working with J.R. Mott [see 1948] as chairman. He founded and edited the International Review of Missions from 1931 to 1938. His later years were mainly devoted to improving the education and social standards of the native African people. OXFORD GROUP Later called the Moral Rearmament. The movement was used by Frank Buchman [see 1938] as a moral and spiritual force to transform men and societies. The founder promoted spiritual conversion through the techniques of confession, surrender, guidance, and sharing. The application of these principles through the Moral Rearmament movement has brought Buchman decorations from France, Germany, Greece, Japan, the Republic of China, Philippines, Thailand, and Iran, for outstanding services rendered. Prime Minister Holyoake of New Zealand said of Buchman, He has done as much as any man of our time to unite the peoples of the world by cutting through the prejudices of colour, class, and creed. Peter Howard [see 1961] assumed the leadership of the worldwide operations upon the death of Buchman in 1961. Howard died in 1965 and the organisation was taken over by a group of directors. The Oxford Group has world wide support. The greatest appeal has been from the very wealthy although many people of more modest incomes have participated. ROBINSON, HENRY WHEELER [1872-1945] English scholar educated at Edinburgh and Oxford as well as at continental universities. He held Baptist pastorates before becoming tutor at Rawdon Baptist College in 1906 and for 14 years he showed the teaching skill and administrative gifts which would develop even further when he was appointed principal of Regents Park College in 1921, a post he held until his retirement in 1942. Robinson was a prolific author. 1922BENSON, CLARENCE [18791954] American Presbyterian minister and author who became in 1922 the director of Christian Education at Moody Bible Institute. Between 1925 and 1933 he supervised the development of the All Bible Graded Series of Sunday school literature. He helped to found what became the Evangelical Teacher Training Association in 1930. BROADCASTING, RELIGIOUS Began in the British Isles in 1922 when the Rev J Mayo gave a ten minute talk just forty days after the inauguration of the wireless. In 1924 the first worship service was broadcast from St Martin in the Fields and since 1928 there has been a daily service on radio without a break. No programme regularly succeeded in reaching mass audiences until Yorkshire Televisions Stars on Sunday in 1969. The first endeavours of individual clergyman to broadcast a church service came from the Calvary Episcopal Church in Pittsburgh in 1921. Within two years several ministers had regular programmes from various cities. D Barnhouse [see1927] purchased programme time on the CBS network and the Catholic Hour commenced about the same time. In 1943 Billy Graham began the popular programme Songs in the Night which has had many imitators. His even more widely heard Hour of Decision was launched in 1950. These early broadcasts have now been complemented by numerous television religious programmes. BULGAKOV, SERGEI NIKOLAEVICH [18711944] Russian Orthodox theologian who was ordained in 1918 but was expelled from Russia in 1922. He became professor of theology at the Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris. He believed that the world was animated by a world soul and that God had created it out of nothing and as an emanation of His own nature. Mediating between God and the cosmos and uniting them is a third being, the Sophia of Divine Wisdom. ELIOT, THOMAS STEARNS [1888-1965] Poet, dramatist and critic. Educated at Harvard, Oxford, and the Sorbonne, he settled in England and worked first as a teacher and a bank clerk, afterwards turning to journalism which led to publishing. He edited The Criterion throughout its existence from 1922 to 1939, but his work as a critic began before this with The Sacred Wood published in 1920. He is best known for his poetry wherein he expresses modern mans loneliness and isolation, his falling short of a high ideal, the need for repentance, his hapless search without God, and that prayer is mans occupation even in a place of defeat. In his later years, drama became Eliots main creative work and the need to sacrifice featured in his works, starting with Murder in the Cathedral in 1935 through to perhaps its most powerful expression in The Cocktail Party of 1950 which emphasised that it must be sacrifice to the right reasons. Eliot argues boldly for an elitist ideal in modern mediocre and egalitarian society. FELLOWSHIP OF INDEPENDENT EVANGELICAL CHURCHES [UK] This body was founded by the Rev E.J. Poole-Conner in 1922 and was originally named the Fellowship of Undenominational and Unattached Churches and Missions. It was intended to bring together in evangelical unity isolated ministers and churches, pastors desiring legal recognition as ministers of religion and professional qualifications, and others disturbed by the spread of liberalism within their own denominations. In 1970 it embraced more than 400 churches and the number was increasing. GIRGENSOHN, KARL [1875-1925] Protestant religious psychologist who was successively professor at different universities including Leipzig in 1922. Concerned with the challenge of modern psychoanalysis to the Christian faith, he strove to establish the study of religious psychology on a firmly empirical basis. IHMELS, LUDWIG HEINRICH [1858 1933]. Lutheran theologian and churchmen who was appointed professor of systematic theology at Erlanger in 1894. He moved to Leipzig University in 1902 and was named bishop of the church in Saxony in 1922. He took a leading part in promoting the Lutheran union movement and presided over the first Lutheran World Congress at Eisenach in 1923. KRAEMER, HENDRIK [1888-1965] Educator, ecumenist, and writer on missions. Born in Holland and having specialised in oriental languages and cultures, the Dutch Bible Society sent him to serve the Dutch Reformed Church in Indonesia [1922 to 1937] as a linguistic and Bible translation consultant. He was involved in the Third Missionary Conference at Tambaram in 1938 and in his study guide for the conference emphasised the uniqueness of the biblical message in missions. He became the first director of Ecumenical Institute of the World Council of Churches at Bossey near Geneva in 1948. MCPHERSON, AIMEE SEMPLE [1890-1944] Canadian born evangelist who was converted through the ministry of Robert J Semple and later married him. She went with him to China in 1908 as a missionary but he died there of malaria after only three months. Returning to Canada she married and divorced then became an evangelist with her mother, and between 1918 and 1923 crossed the continent eight times. By 1922, the 5000 seat Angelus Temple had been built in Los Angeles and she developed her foursquare gospel of Christ as Saviour, and Healer, the baptism of the Holy Spirit with speaking in tongues, and the Second Coming. She disappeared for a time in 1926 claiming she had been kidnapped. The Los Angeles grand jury challenged her story of kidnapping but the charges were finally dismissed. She died of a heart attack shortly after trips to the Holy Land and the British Isles. MOWINCKEL, SIGMUND OLAF PLYTT [1884-1965] Norwegian biblical scholar who was the son of a pastor. He studied theology and Assyriology. He taught Old Testament theology at Oslo University from 1917 to 1954. Some of his most influential work was done on the Psalms. PIUS XI Pope [1922-1939]. He earned three doctorates and before election as pope was archbishop of Milan He significantly advanced Catholic formulation of the churchs role in the secular post World War I era. With the Lateran treaties of 1922 the long and complex question of the end of papal temporal power dating back to 1859-60 and 1870 attained a new status by mutual agreement between Mussolini and the papacy. In it the State of Vatican City was established, an Italian Vatican concordat signed and Italy paid the Vatican a large indemnity. Mussolini through this won papal support for his emerging totalitarian regime while it gave the Vatican the independence it sought. In the 1930s Pius XI condemned the principles of Fascism, German Nazism, and Soviet Communism. In education he argued against exclusive state control of education promoting catholic schools. Pius concluded many concordats with foreign countries and in missions promoted the concept of indigenous leadership by appointing six Chinese bishops in 1926 and a Japanese bishop the following year. He succeeded Benedict XV [see 1914] and was succeeded by Pius XII [see 1939]. SHIELDS, THOMAS TODHUNTER [1873-1955] Baptist minister who was born and educated in Bristol and migrated to Ontario where he preached in various towns from 1897. In 1910 he began his 40 year ministry at Jarvis Street Baptist Church Toronto. A militant fundamentalist he founded and edited in 1922 the Gospel Witness which he used to attack modernism. The strength of his popular and controversial sermons drew a vote of censure against him by the Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec, and he therefore founded the Ontario Quebec Association of Regular Baptist Churches which in turn was soon split by his anti-dispensational views and the Independent Baptist Fellowship was formed. He was president of the Baptist Bible Union of North America 1923 to 1930. Jarvis Street was the home of the Toronto Bible Seminary of which he became president in 1927. THOMAS, NORMAN MATTOON [1884-1968] American Presbyterian minister and frequent presidential candidate who was born in Ohio and studied at Princeton University and the Union Theological Seminary. He was ordained in 1911 and held pastoral positions before becoming secretary of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation [see 1914] until 1921. He was co-director of the League of Industrial Democracy [1922-1937]. Thomas left the ministry in 1931 gradually assuming leadership of the Socialist Party. He ran unsuccessfully for several political offices including the United States presidency on six occasions. In later years he turned to the problem of international peace. WOOLLEY, SIR CHARLES LEONARD [1880-1960] Biblical archaeologists and author. His early life was spent in poor surroundings in Bethnal Green London and was dependent on scholarships for his education at St Johns School Leatherhead and New College Oxford where he studied theology. His interest rapidly turned to biblical archaeology and for over 40 years he was to excavate ancient sites remaining a freelance worker throughout although he received support from the British Museum and other institutions. In 1907 Woolley excavated in Nubia, and in 1914 with T E Lawrence studied the ancient routes between Egypt and Palestine. He was a prisoner from 1916 to 1918 of the Turks and when released worked on the ancient Sumerian civilisation. Woolley is best known for his excavations in Ur of the Chaldees from 1922 to 1934 where he discovered the royal cemetery. He had a remarkable flair for knowing where to dig. 1923CHISHOLM, THOMAS OBADIAH [1866-1960]. Chisholm was born in a log house in Lake Spring community and taught in a local school from the age of 16. He became associate editor of Franklin Favorite and later edited the Pentecostal Herald, He was ordained to the Methodist ministry and served in nearby Scottsville. Chisholms unstable health caused his work to vary from journalism to insurance and to evangelistic pursuits. He wrote poems through the years of which some 800 were published and many set to music. With musician William Runyan, Chisholm wrote Great is Thy faithfulness, O God my Father in 1923 GREGORY VII Patriarch of Constantinople [1923-1924] succeeded Meletius IV [see 1921]. He imported the New Style Calendar to the Church of Constantinople. He died suddenly of a massive HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" \o "Myocardial infarction" heart attackin 1924. HEADLAM, ARTHUR CAYLEY [1862-1947] Anglican bishop and theologian, educated at Oxford who, after a time of regius professor of divinity at Oxford, became bishop of Gloucester in 1923. His early work was concentrated in the area the New Testament where he is best known for his collaboration with W Sanday [see 1912] in a classic commentary on Romans in 1895. His theological position was that of a moderate conservative; one of his chief concerns was Christian unity. MILLIGAN, GEORGE [1860-1934] Scottish New Testament scholar and son of William Milligan [see 1892]. He was educated at Scottish and German universities before ministering at Edinburgh and Caputh [1883-1910]. He then held the chair of divinity and biblical criticism at Glasgow until his retirement in 1932. He interested himself in promotion of Christian education and was moderator of the general assembly in 1923. SCHMIEDEL, PAUL WILHELM [1851-1935] New Testament scholar who was professor of New Testament exegesis at the university of Zurich [1893 1923]. Schmiedel tended toward a very radical criticism of the New Testament and is best known for his famous thesis concerning the nine pillar-passages foundational for a truly scientific life of Jesus, which was set out in the lengthy article on the Gospels which appeared in the Encyclopaedia Biblica in 1901. 1924ASSEMBLIES OF GOD The largest denomination to stem from the Pentecostal movement of the early 20th century. In Britain, the sole Pentecostal organisation until 1924 was the Pentecostal Missionary Union of 1909. The name Assemblies of God was coined in 1924 and the following year both organisations merged under that name. They support a large missionary force which has established assemblies in most parts of the world. They describe themselves as Pentecostal in experience, evangelical in outlook, and fundamental in their approach to the Bible. They include baptism in the Holy Spirit with the initial evidence of speaking in tongues among the fundamental truths of Christianity. AUBURN AFFIRMATION Issued by a group of Presbyterian ministers in Auburn New York stating that it was not necessary for ordination candidates to confirm the inspiration and inerrancy of the Scriptures, the virgin birth of Christ, the Atonement, the Resurrection, and the miracles of Jesus. This was seen as the start of liberalism within this denomination. BARNES, ERNEST [18741953] Bishop of Birmingham [19241953]. A modernist with views that seriously questioned the historic Christian faith on matters such as the Virgin Birth and the Resurrection, provoking criticism from Archbishop Fisher in public. BERDYAEV, NIKOLAI [18741948] Russian philosopher who was born in Kiev and was early attracted to Marxism. He was a member of the Russian Orthodox Church who is often referred to as a Christian existentialist. He founded a school of philosophy in Paris in 1924 having been expelled from Russia in 1922. He was indebted for some of his ideas to Boehme [see 1600], Kant [see 1770], Nietzsche [see 1889], and Dostoevsky [see 1880]. BRUNNER, EMIL [18991966] Swiss professor of theology at Zurich [19241953]. Brunner was one of the most influential scholars of the interwar years. He believed that Christ came as one who fulfilled the law, as mediator, revealer, and reconciler. Faith he saw essentially as obedience. World War I caused him to reappraise Christianity and in a publication in 1924 stressed the priority of divine revelation over human knowledge, reason and experience. He saw revelation essentially in terms of personal encounter with God who communicates Himself. He opposed evangelical orthodoxy with its concept of revealed truth on the grounds that God Himself is a personal subject who cannot be reduced to an object. Brunner did not believe in the existence of Hell. CAESAREAN TEXT The name given by B H Streeter [see below] to a family of manuscripts of the Greek New Testament texts related to those used by Origen at Caesarea. The text seems to have been a compromise between the Western and Alexandrian texts, and due to its similarity to the Syrian text escaped detection as a separate form. Its leading representatives are the Koridethi Manuscript [see below] and the two families of minuscules, fam.1 and fam.13. CHAFER, LEWIS SPERRY [1871-1952] Presbyterian minister and educator who entered into ministry as a gospel singer and evangelist. He became professor of music at Mount Hermon School for Boys in 1903. In 1914 he joined Philadelphia School of the Bible which had been founded by C I Scofield [see 1909] and remained there until he went to Dallas in 1923, founding Dallas Theological Seminary the following year. He is best known for his 8 volume Systematic Theology published in 1947, a detailed discussion of dispensational pre millennial theology. CONSTANTINE VII Patriarch of Constantinople [1924-1925] who succeeded Gregory VII [see 1923]. He was ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_17" \o "December 17" December 17, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1924" \o "1924" 1924 until HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_30" \o "January 30" January 30, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925" \o "1925" 1925, for 43 days. He served in an acting role following the death of Patriarch Gregory VII in 1924. He was exiled to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece" \o "Greece" Greece by the Turkish government under the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_People%27s_Party_(Turkey)" \o "Republican People's Party (Turkey)" Republican Peoples Party in 1925 and resigned the patriarchate. HALLEY, DR. HENRY H. Author, minister, and Bible Lecturer who was born in Kentucky, USA. In 1895 he was graduated from Transylvania College and the College of the Bible. He was ordained to the ministry in 1898, and had ten years of pastoral service in Michigan, during which he developed a fondness for memorising favourite passage of the Bible. This habit grew upon him until he could recite from memory entire books from the Bible, in abridged, connected form and in their own words. For many years his life work was the giving of these Bible Recitals, each one preceded by an introductory statement about the historic setting of the book. This unusual ministry found him filling engagements in thirty-five states of the USA. In connection with these Scripture presentations, Dr. Halley issued some of the material from his lectures in booklet form. That was in 1924, and it was the beginning of Halleys Bible Handbook. HALLEYS BIBLE HANDBOOK One of the most prized and used guide books to the Bible. It was born out of the conviction of Henry H. Halley that everyone ought to read the Bible daily, and it grew to become accepted as a standard Bible study guide in hundreds of schools in the USA. From its first edition in 1924, a small give-away booklet, it has grown into a world almanac of biblical information including an abbreviated Bible Commentary, Archaeological Discoveries, How We Got Our Bible, An Epitome of Church History, Maps, and Photos. Its circulation includes foreign language editions in Spanish, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Italian, Greek, Cambodian, Chinese, Thai, and other languages. JONES, BOB [1883-1968] American evangelical born in an Alabama who held his first evangelistic meeting at the age of 14 and a year later was licensed to preach by the Methodist Church. In 1924 Jones decided to start his own college to promote unflinchingly fundamentalism. By the time of his death the university had a student enrolment of 4000. He travelled widely throughout the world in his evangelistic campaigns. MOFFATT BIBLE James Moffatts [see 1896] single-handed translation of the Bible completed in 1924. SCHEEL, OTTO [1873-1954] German church historian who studied at Halle and Kiel and was appointed professor of church history at Tubingen in 1906. Scheel accepted a new chair in local history at Kiel in 1924. He became interested in his homeland, especially the influence of Pietism and the social history of the peasantry, and was active in organisations that promoted cultural identity among them. STREETER, BURNETT HILLMAN [1874-1937] Biblical scholar who was educated at Oxford. In 1899 he was ordained as a deacon in the Church of England despite doubts about aspects of his Christian faith. The liberal cast of his mind was shown by the fact that he was one of seven contributors to Foundations in 1912. In his latter years he came under the influence of Frank Buchman [see 1938] and the Oxford Group [see 1921] and it was during his return from staying in Switzerland with members of the group that he was killed in an air crash. His most famous work is The Four Gospels: the Study of Origins published in 1924. UNAMUNO, MIGUEL DE [1864-1937] Spanish scholar and writer who was educated at Madrid and became professor of Greek at Salamanca where he was later rector at different times and where he spent most of his working life. His political opinions clashed with those of the ruling dictatorship and he was exiled to the Canary Islands in 1924. He spent some time in France and did not return to Spain for six years. In due course however he became as much the critic of the socialists as of the monarchists. He was a controversialist who said his job was to irritate people. We must sow in men the seeds of doubt, of distrust, of disquiet, of even despair. The world contained much that he disliked and although a religious man who called himself a Catholic and denounced 20th century materialism, he was regarded with alarm by the Roman Catholic Church and two of his books were placed on the Index. 1925ALTHAUS, PAUL [1888-1966] Lutheran scholar who taught at Gottingen, Rostock and in 1925 Erlangen. He contributed greatly to New Testament studies by his expositions on the Pauline Epistles. The doctrines of justification by faith in the theology of Martin Luther, law and gospel, and the problem of the relationship between church and state were some of his major concerns. He was also interested in eschatology. BASIL III Patriarch of Constantinople [1925-1929] who succeeded Constatine VI [see 1924]. There is no extra material readily available. BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS [18601925] American secretary of state who was educated in Illinois and called to the bar in 1883. From 1891 to 1895 he was a congressman for Nebraska. He was a folk hero for rural America because of his conservative Protestantism and concern for the Midwest. He prosecuted in the trial of J T Scopes in 1925 who was convicted of teaching evolution in the classroom in Tennessee. [See below] COOK, STANLEY ARTHUR [1873-1949] Biblical and Semitic scholar who was professor of Hebrew at Cambridge from 1932. He gave the Schweich Lectures at the British Academy in 1925 entitled The Religion of Ancient Palestine in the Light of Archaeology. In his studies he explored the close cultural links between Israel and its neighbours. DALMAN, GUSTAF HERMANN [1855-1941] Biblical scholar of a Moravian background who was a director of the German Protestant Institute of Archaeology in Palestine 1902-17, and again in Jerusalem as the director of his own Institute for the Study of Antiquity in the Holy Land 1925-41. His many writings are a mine of information for the student of the New Testament. GRAY, JAMES MARTIN [1851-1935] American author and Bible teacher. He served as director of the First Reformed Episcopal Church, Boston [1879-1894] as well as lecturing at Gordon College, Boston. He also worked at the Moody Bible Institute summer sessions from 1893-1904. He was president of the Moody Bible Institute in the nine years from 1925. Gray was one of the editors of the Scofield Reference Bible and produced a number of popular hymns. JAPAN [see also 1862] The rise of militarism in 1930s led to increasing curtailing of religious freedom until 1941 when 32 major Protestant groups were forcibly amalgamated into the United Church of Christ in Japan. In the war years many Christians suffered greatly for their faith and many compromised. After the war many Protestant missionaries returned to Japan and with the dissolution of State-Shintoism and emperor-worship, Christians began to reorganise spurred by this new wave of missionaries in a climate of unprecedented religious freedom. However Christianity remains a very minor portion of the Japanese nation. LIDDELL, ERIC [1902-1945] Athlete and missionary to China. While a student at Edinburgh University he became the most popular and most widely known athlete Scotland had produced. Rugby football internationalist, Olympic champion and world record breaker, he established a national reputation also as an evangelist before returning to his birthplace at Tientsin to join the staff of the Anglo-Chinese Christian College there in 1925. Interned by the Japanese in China in 1942 he was highly regarded by people of all ages and races because of his Christian life and unremitting self-denying service in the internment camps where he died of a brain tumour just before he would have been released. SCOPES TRIAL Named after the defendant John T Scopes a Tennessee high school science teacher who was charged with teaching biological evolution contrary to the recently enacted state law. The trial was however transformed into a sensationally publicised national contest between William Jennings Bryan, a famous agrarian politician and champion of fundamentalism, against Clarence Darrow, a leading criminal lawyer representing Scopes and modern scepticism. Although Scopes was found guilty and fined $100 the trial helped to discredit fundamentalism in the public mind. Perhaps as a result, the strength of fundamentalism in major American churches declined very sharply after 1925. SHOEMAKER, SAMUEL MOOR [1893-1963] Episcopal clergyman and writer who studied at Princeton University and was ordained priest after he graduated from Union Theological Seminary in 1921. He served two years as YMCA secretary in China and from 1925 he was rector of the Calvary Episcopal Church in New York. Attracted by Frank Buchans Moral Re-armament Movement [see 1921 Oxford Group] he later left it but without loss of his evangelical enthusiasm. He assisted the founders of Alcoholics Anonymous in the formulation of their useful Twelve Steps. He also wrote a number of books. SIMPSON, JAMES YOUNG [1873-1934] Scottish natural scientist who studied at Edinburgh and became involved in the evangelical work of the day, such as Moody mission. Strongly influenced by Henry Drummond [see 1884] who persuaded him to take up science as a Christian work, Simpson became professor of natural science at Edinburgh. He wrote five books on science and religion the best-known being Landmarks in the Struggle between Science and Religion which was published in 1925. STOCKHOLM CONFERENCE An ecumenical gathering in August 1925 called by Universal Christian Confederation of Life and Work. The conference was promoted by Archbishop Soderblom [see 1914] who through the First World War and after had sought to keep the ecumenical ideal alive. The conference dealt with the relationship between Christ and economics and industry, social and moral problems, and international relations and education. There were 600 delegates from 37 countries. There was some tension on the question of war guilt but more concerning the question of whether the kingdom of God can or should be sought for here on earth. It was a step in the formation of the World Council of Churches. UNITED CHURCH OF CANADA The union negotiations within the Methodist Church and the Presbyterian Church in Canada were initiated in 1902 when the highest courts of these two prominent Protestant denominations agreed to initiate joint discussions. The union was consummated in a solemn assembly in Toronto in 1925 and also included the Congregationalist Churches in Canada and some 3000 union churches, most of which had existed in the West for some time prior. A large number of Presbyterian churches reorganised immediately to form the Presbyterian Church of Canada. Nevertheless the union proved to be a successful one. 1926 COFFIN, HENRY SLOAN [1877-1954] Liberal theological educator who from 1926 became a New York Presbyterian pastor at Madison Avenue and became professor at the Union Theological Seminary. He was a proponent of the Social Gospel, and a participant in the ecumenical movement, calling himself an evangelical liberal. KITTEL, GERHARD [1888-1948] German biblical scholar who was the youngest son of Rudolf Kittel [see 1898]. He taught at Leipzig but his main work was that of professor of New Testament at Tubingen from 1926 until his death. In 1931 he launched a major composite project where he insisted that a lexicon of the New Testament must trace the history of each word with reference to its secular usage in Classical and Koine Greek as well as its religious connotations derived from the Septuagint and the Hebrew background. MELETIUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1926-1935]. See 1900 and 1936. Meletius IV was HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople" Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 1921 till 1923 and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_Orthodox_Patriarchs_of_Alexandria" \o "List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Alexandria" Greek Patriarch of Alexandria from 1926 till 1935 as Meletius II. He was the only HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" \o "Eastern Orthodox" Eastern Orthodox hierarch in history to serve successively as the senior bishop of three autocephalous churches (before his election to the Ecumenical Patriarchate he had briefly headed the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Greece" \o "Church of Greece" Church of Greece in Athens). A known supporter of Greek Prime Minister HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" \o "Eleftherios Venizelos" Eleftherios Venizelos, he served as Bishop in Cyprus, until he was elected HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Athens" \o "Archbishop of Athens" Archbishop of Athens following the abdication of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I_of_Greece" \o "Constantine I of Greece" Constantine I of Greece, replacing Archbishop Theocletus I, a known Royalist. Two years later King Constantine I was restored to the throne, Archbishop Meletius was ousted, and former Archbishop Theocletus I was reinstated. In 1921 he was elected Ecumenical Patriarch. He resigned in 1923 following the defeat of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Army" \o "Hellenic Army" Hellenic Army in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919-1922)" \o "Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)" Greco-Turkish War. SANGSTER, WILLIAM EDWYN ROBERT [1900-1960] Methodist preacher and scholar who was educated at Richmond College Surrey and served in World War I. He was ordained into the Methodist ministry in 1926 and ministered at various places in England and Wales. He was 16 years minister of Westminster Central Hall in London where his passionate preaching drew large crowds. Sangster was president of the London Free Church Federation from 1944 to 1946 and president of the Methodist Conference in 1950. He became secretary of the home mission department of the Methodist Church and wrote a number of books. 1927BARNHOUSE, DONALD GREY [18951960] American Presbyterian minister and radio preacher who was a missionary to Belgium heading up a Bible school in Brussels from 1919-1921, and ministering to a number of French Reformed churches before returning as pastor of the 10th Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia from 1927 to 1960. From 1949 to 1960 he spoke solely on the book of Romans in his weekly radio broadcasts. Barnhouse was also the author of numerous books. BRENT, CHARLES HENRY [1862-1929] Canadian bishop and ecumenist, educated in Toronto and ordained in 1887. After serving a parish in Boston he was elected bishop of the missionary district of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Philippines where he was a leader in the fight against the opium trade. Returning to North America he gave much time to Christian unity and at the Edinburgh Missionary Conference [see 1910] he commended a World Conference on Faith and Order and was subsequently elected president of it when it convened in Lausanne [see below]. INTER-VARSITY FELLOWSHIP This movement was founded in 1927 to further cooperation between evangelical Christian unions in the University Colleges of Great Britain. Four Christian unions in the teaching hospitals had united in 1873 to form the Medical Prayer Union. The Cambridge Intercollegiate Christian Union began in 1877 and later became affiliated with the Student Christian Movement. This was broken in 1910 because of the broadening outlook of the SCM. In 1919 the first annual intervarsity conference was held to encourage evangelical and missionary activity in the colleges and its growth led to the formation of the Inter-Varsity Fellowship. A wide range of Christian Literature has been produced by the IVF which is affiliated to the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students. LAUSANNE CONFERENCE [1927] First conference of the Faith and Order movement held at Lausanne largely through the initiative of Bishop C H Brent and Robert H Gardiner. Over 400 delegates from about 90 churches participated, notable absentees being the Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox churches and several Baptist groups. The concluding statement which is called the Lausanne Message stated that The joyful message of redemption both here and hereafter, the gift of God to sinful man in Christ. The delegates were unanimous in their assent and part was incorporated in the message of the Jerusalem Conference the following year. SOUTER, ALEXANDER [1873-1949] Scottish New Testament scholar who was educated at Aberdeen and Cambridge where he was influenced by W M Ramsay [see 1895] and J B Mayor respectively. He was professor of New Testament Greek and exegesis at Oxford from 1903 to 1911 which was followed by a professorship at Aberdeen University from 1911 to 1937. He was widely known for his three handbooks for the study of the Greek New Testament published from 1910 to 1916. Souters most important work was done in the study of the Latin Fathers including the earliest Latin commentaries on the apostle Paul in 1927. SWEET, WILLIAM WARREN [1881-1959] Methodist historian and scholar who was born in Kansas, studied at a number of seminaries and at the University of Pennsylvania, and is considered The dean of the historians of Christianity in America because of his prolific publications. He taught at various establishments from 1911 then from 1927 in the Divinity School of the University Chicago until 1946. His fundamental concern was to give such a reputation to church history that secular historians could no longer ignore its role in history. 1928ALEXANDER III Patriarch of Antioch [1928-1958] see also 1906 and 1958. ERDMAN, CHARLES ROSENBERG [1866-1960] Presbyterian minister who graduated from Princeton and was ordained in 1891. He was professor of practical theology at Princeton Seminary and at the same time pastor of the First Church and president of the Board of Foreign Missions 1928-1940. Balancing academic interests with keen pastoral concern, Erdman was a popular preacher who aided the Bible Conference Movement. He published 35 books and all of his New Testament expositions were translated into Korean and other languages. JERUSALEM CONFERENCE [1928] World missionary conference gathered on the Mount of Olives at Easter 1928. This first conference held since formation of the International Missionary Council [see 1921], which was itself the outgrowth of the World Missions Conference at Edinburgh [see 1910]. Its purpose was to re-examine the Christian mission in the light of the spread of secularism. It was widely represented with people from Asia, Africa and Latin America. The agenda included urbanisation and industrialisation in Asia and Africa, rural problems, race relations, medical work, religious education and relations between younger and older churches. Fears were expressed, especially by European representatives, that this agenda signified the triumph of the Social Gospel and might lead to a syncretistic compromise. LANG, WILLIAM COSMO GORDON Archbishop of Canterbury [1928-1942]. He was an Anglican prelate who served as archbishop of York (19081928) and archbishop of Canterbury(19281942). His rapid elevation to archbishop of York, within 18 years of hisordination, is unprecedented in modernChurch of Englandhistory. As archbishop of Canterbury during theabdication crisisof 1936 he took a strong moral stance, and comments he made in a subsequent broadcast were widely condemned as uncharitable towards the departed king. The son of a Scots Presbyterian minister, Lang abandoned the prospect of a legal and political career to train for the Anglican priesthood. Beginning in 1890, his early ministry was served in slum parishes in Leeds and Portsmouth, except for brief service as an Oxford college chaplain. In 1901 he was appointed suffragan bishop of Stepney in London, where he continued his work among the poor. He also served as a canon of St Pauls Cathedral, London. In 1908 Lang was nominated archbishop of York, despite his relatively junior status as a suffragan rather than a diocesan bishop. His religious stance was broadly Anglo-Catholic. He entered the House of Lords as a lord spiritual and caused consternation in traditionalist circles by speaking and voting against the lords proposal to reject David Lloyd Georges 1909 Peoples Budget. This apparent radicalism was not, however, maintained in later years. At the start of the First World War, Lang was heavily criticised for a speech in which he spoke sympathetically of the German emperor. This troubled him greatly and may have contributed to the rapid ageing which affected his appearance during the war years. After the war he began to promote church unity, and at the 1920 Lambeth Conference was responsible for the Churchs Appeal to All Christian People. As archbishop of York he supported controversial proposals for the revision of the Book of Common Prayer, but after acceding to Canterbury he took no practical steps to resolve this issue. Lang became archbishop of Canterbury in 1928. He presided over the 1930 Lambeth Conference, which gave limited church approval to the use of contraception. After denouncing the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 and strongly condemning Europeananti-Semitism, Lang later supported the appeasement policies of the British government. On retirement in 1942 he was created Baron Lang of Lambeth and continued to attend and speak in House of Lords debates until his death in 1945. Lang himself believed that he had not lived up to his own high standards. However, others have praised his qualities of industry, his efficiency and his commitment to his calling. He succeeded Randall Thomas Davidson [see 1903] and was succeeded by William Temple [see 1942]. NIEBUHR, REINHOLD [1893-1971] American Neo-orthodox theologian and older brother of Helmut Niebuhr [see 1931]. He was an evangelical pastor who left a Detroits industrial parish in 1928 to begin 32 years on the faculty of Union Theological Seminary, New York. He struggled throughout his life with the question he raised in lectures at Edinburgh in 1939, Man has always been his most vexing problem. How shall he think of himself? Niebuhr thought of man as both nature and spirit, neither damned nor perfectible, but capable of transcending himself. Always sensitive to problems of church and nation he chose the ministry in 1915 after theological studies at Yale Divinity School because he wanted to work in society rather than toward the advanced theological degree. He ran for Congress as a Socialist in 1930. After the war he helped to create Americans for Democratic Action to keep Communists out of liberal Democratic affairs. TERESA, MOTHER [1910-1997] Born in Yugoslavia, the daughter of an Albanian grocer, she went to India in 1928 as a teacher under the Roman Catholic Church. Her heart soon went out to the poor of Calcutta and after nursing training she moved into the slums. In 1948 she founded the Order of the Missionaries of Charity and organised schools and dispensaries. She became an Indian citizen and adopted the sari as the habit of her order, which received sanction from Pius XII in 1950. A Leper colony was built, and the blind, crippled, aged, and dying were served. In 1964 Paul VI on his visit gave Mother Teresa a vehicle which she promptly disposed of, giving the proceeds to aid her leper work. In 1971 she received the first Pope John XXIII Peace Prize and this was followed by the Nobel Peace prize in 1979. She stepped down from leading her order only a few months before her death. 1929BELL, GEORGE [18831958] Bishop of Chichester [19291958]. Ordained in 1907 he was a prominent ecumenist. Bell was present at the Oud Wassenaar Conference in Holland regarding reconciliation after World War I. He became bishop of Chichester in 1929, was prominent in the Life and Work movement, and elected an honorary president of the World Council of Churches in 1954. HEILER, FRIEDRICH [1892-1967] German Roman Catholic theologian who studied at Munich. Under the influence of N. Soderblom [see 1914] he became a Protestant joining the Lutheran Church at Uppsala in 1919. He became a leader of the German High Church Union from 1929. He founded an evangelical order of the Franciscan Tertiaries. LATERAN TREATY The treaty concluded between the Vatican and the Italian kingdom in 1929 to restore the relations which were ruptured by the seizure of Rome in 1870. It acknowledged the Holy Sees independence and sovereign jurisdiction over Vatican City and rights over several churches and buildings elsewhere. Italy affirmed that Catholicism was the sole religion of the state, while the papacy formally recognised the Italian Kingdom and Rome as its capital. Italy agreed to compensate the apostolic see for the loss of the Papal States. LAUBACH, FRANK CHARLES [1884-1970] American Congregational missionary and linguist. He was educated at Princeton, Columbia, and Union Seminary, ordained in 1914 and did literacy work in the Philippines. In 1929 he began his famous educational project of teaching reading by phonetic symbols and pictures, eventually developing literacy primers for some 300 languages and dialects in over 100 countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The Laubach Method, now world-famous is essentially each one teach one in which each new literate teaches another the language. Out of his efforts grew the Committee on World Literacy and Christian Literature of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America. PHOTIUS II HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1929-1935] succeeded Basil III [see 1925]. He was born in 1874. He studied theology at the Athens University and philosophy at the University of Munich. Spoke Greek, Turkish, French, German and Bulgarian. In 1902 he was named deacon. He remained in the Metropolis of Philippoupolis and was named patriarchal exarch there for the period 1906-1914. In 1915 were elected assistant bishop of Eirinoupolis. On 7 October 1929 was elected ecumenical patriarchand assigned to his post on the same day. During his patriarchy the relations between Greece and Turkey improved thanks to the political actions of Venizelos andAtaturk. He died on 29th December 1935. RAS SHAMRA TABLETS The cuneiform documents discovered by archaeologists from 1929 onwards at the tell of Ras Shamra in northern Syria. The site was a major Canaanite city of the third and second millennia BC. For Old Testament study in general, the most valuable Ras Shamra documents are the mythological texts which have greatly increased our knowledge of Canaanite religious beliefs and practices. YOANNIS XIX Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1929-1942] see 1874 and 1944. He joined the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paromeos_Monastery" \o "Paromeos Monastery" Paromeos Monastery in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrian_Desert" \o "Nitrian Desert" Nitrian Desert as a monk and then was sent by the Pope to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece" \o "Greece" Greece to study HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" Theology after which he was appointed the Metropolitan of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Buhayrah_Governorate" \o "Al Buhayrah Governorate" Al Beheira in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt and thus became the first ever Bishop or Metropolitan of an Eparchy to become a Pope in the history of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" \o "Coptic Orthodox Church" Coptic Orthodox Church. Before him the tradition was to nominate a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk to the Papal position. There was argument that the choice of Bishop as Pope and Bishop of the City of Alexandria was not canonical citing Canon 15 of Nicea and other Church councils and canons. This issue caused an ongoing dispute since 1928 in the Coptic Orthodox Church. The see was vacant 1942-1944 1930AYLWARD, GLADYS [19001970] English missionary to China. Gladys was a London parlour maid who travelled to China via Siberia and Japan at her own expense because she had been rejected by missionary societies on educational grounds. She saved the majority of her very small wage for several years for her fare to China, left England in 1932 to join the elderly missionary Jeanie Lawson in a remote area, and they opened an inn where they told Bible stories. After the death of her colleague Gladys was alone but she continued and expanded the work and was helped by the local mandarin. When the Japanese invaded China in 1940 she led 100 children to safety on an epic journey. She returned to England in 1947 after a serious illness but was denied re-entry to China by the Communist government. In 1953 she opened an orphanage in Formosa (Taiwan) where she worked until her death. BALLARD, GUY W [1878-1939] American founder of the I AM Movement [see 1934] who was a mining engineer before claiming in 1930 that the great Ascended Master of the spirit world, St Germain, appeared to him at Mt Shasta in California and revealed to him the secret mysteries of the universe and showed him his wife his son and himself in their previous existences. Both he and his wife had been heavily involved in the occult. It was stated that Guy would never die and when he did numerous followers left the movement. His wife continued to lead the faithful. CHESTER BEATTY PAPYRI Consists of three third century New Testament manuscripts comprising 126 leaves said to have been found at Memphis near the bank of the Nile and acquired by Chester Beatty from a dealer in Egypt about 1930. It is in Greek and consists of most of the Pauline epistles plus some of Acts. Most of the papers are housed in Dublin. DODD, CHARLES HAROLD [1884-1973] British Congregational minister and New Testament scholar who was educated at Oxford and lectured at the University 1927-1931. In 1930 he succeeded to Rylands professor of biblical criticism and exegesis at Manchester and from there went to Cambridge as professor of divinity, the first non-Anglican to hold a chair of divinity there since 1660. Dodd was the most influential figure in British New Testament scholarship during the middle decades of the 20th century. In his commentary on Romans (1932) and elsewhere he argued that the biblical concept of Gods wrath should be understood as an impersonal process of retribution in human history rather than as the divine reaction to the sin of man. Similarly he argued against the concept of propitiation as a biblical idea. After retirement he served as the general director of the New English Bible translation. JONES, ELI STANLEY [1884-1973] American missionary to India who was ordained as a Methodist minister and appointed first to the Lal Bagh English-speaking church in Lucknow. Soon however he was released to wider ministry among English-speaking Indians. Possessing a deep understanding of Indian culture and religion he sought to interpret the Christian faith to the educated, not as a western import but as the fulfilment of their own spiritual longings. In 1930 he founded a Christian ashram for study and meditation in Sal Tal. During his extensive travels he was responsible for the foundation of similar centres in America and several European countries. Jones also was the author of 29 books. RASTAFARIANS A Jamaican movement originating in the early 1930s placing the political pan-Africanism of Marcus Garvey [1887-1940] in a messianic setting. Emperor Haile Selassie [Ras Tafari] who was crowned in 1930 was considered the only true God and Ethiopia the only heaven. While biblical texts are used in support and modified Methodist and Sankey hymns regularly sung, Rastafarians denounce Christian preachers as false prophets as they say that the whites have perverted the Scriptures to hide the black identity of Adam, Israel and Jesus. Marijuana is greatly valued by the movement. 1931-1940 AD 1931DINSMORE, CHARLES ALLEN [1860-1941] Congregational clergyman and scholar who was educated at Dartmouth and Yale Divinity School. He was appointed lecturer on the Bible as literature at Yale Divinity School. He became an authority on Dante and was widely known in the USA and abroad. Dinsmore reflects the changing mode regarding biblical studies during the first quarter the 20th century, by which the Bible became primarily a piece of religious literature. His major works include The English Bible as Literature published in 1931. DISTLER, HUGO [1908-1942] German composer who was the most influential composer of church music in Germany between the two world wars. In 1931 he began a series of musical vespers in Lubeck reminiscent of those of Buxtehude in the 17th century. He was honoured with a professorial rank and made a conductor but he took his own life rather than be conscripted into the Nazi Army. JEHOVAHS WITNESSES This movement originated with C.T Russell as the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society and the International Bible Students Association. The title Jehovahs Witnesses was assumed under Russells successor J.F. Rutherford [see below] in 1931. Theologically Jehovahs Witnesses resemble Arians in their view that the Son was the first and highest created being. He is identified with Michael the Archangel. When he became man, he became only a man although at his resurrection he was exalted above the angels as a spirit being, his body remained dead, although it was removed from sight by Jehovah. The sect is continually expecting Armageddon and the setting up of the kingdom. The kingdom they say will be governed by Jesus Christ through the 144,000 in heaven, and on earth through an indefinite number of men of goodwill. This extra class was discovered when it was obvious that Jehovah Witnesses numbered more than the 144,000. While the sect is widespread the main group are in America. MARSHALL, PETER [1902-1949] Presbyterian minister who was born in Scotland and studied mining before migrating in 1927 to the United States where he read theology at Columbia Seminary, Georgia, and was naturalised in 1938. Ordained into the Presbyterians ministry in 1931 he held pastorates in Georgia and was also chaplain to the US Senate from 1947 and was known for his remarkably pithy prayers. MOKITIMI, SETH MOLEFI [1904-1971] South African Methodist minister born near Lesotho. He entered the ministry in 1931, and served as chaplain of the educational institution at Healdtown from 1936 to 1951, and warden of the institutions at Osborn from 1952 to 1961 and Bensonvale from 1962 to 1965. In 1941 he became an official member of the Methodist conference and was its first African president in 1964. He was also the first African president of the Christian Council of South Africa and vice president of the All-Africa Council of Churches. In a period of growing racial animosity he consistently advocated reconciliation and interracial co-operation. He always remained an effective preacher and evangelist. NIEBUHR, HELMUT RICHARD [1894-1962] American Neo-orthodox theologian who was professor of Christian ethics at Yale University from 1931 to 1967 and personified American Neo-orthodoxy, the product of social and intellectual work between the two world wars. More scholarly than his elder brother Reinhold [see 1928] he attempted to explore the relationship of faith and civilisation by combining belief in Gods sovereignty with modern scholarship in order to effect a creative tension between the church and society. RUTHERFORD, JOSEPH FRANKLIN [1869-1942] Successor of C.T. Russell [see 1911] as head of the Jehovahs Witnesses. Rutherford was a lawyer who in 1918, with six others, was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment for propaganda against military service but the sentence was quashed on appeal after he had spent nine months in prison. He wrote 22 books and laid the foundations of the dogmatic studies that characterise Jehovahs Witnesses. Rutherford said, after Jesus didnt return in 1914, that He had in fact returned invisibly in 1914 and had begun purging His spiritual temple in 1918. Rutherford also received the new name for the Watchtower followers in 1931, i.e. Jehovahs Witnesses. When Armageddon was delayed and Witnesses numbered more than the expected 144,000 he found a way of including a second class in Gods future blessings. 1932BADER, JESSE [18861963] American ecumenist and minister of Disciples of Christ. Bader was an executive in the evangelism department of the Federal Council of Churches from 1932 until 1950. He was active in the W.C.C. attending the meetings in Amsterdam [1948] and New Delhi [1961]. GENERAL ASSOCIATION OF REGULAR BAPTISTS Founded by 22 churches withdrawing from the Northern Baptist Convention in protest against modernism in 1932, the Association adopted the New Hampshire Confession of Faith of 1832 with a pre-millennial interpretation to the final article. Since then various mission agencies and six institutions of higher learning have been approved. 1933AULEN, GUSTAV [1879-1978] Swedish theologian who graduated with a doctorate in theology at Uppsala in 1915 and was made bishop of Strangnas in 1933. During the second world war he worked against the Nazis. A determined ecumenical churchman he was vice president of the Edinburgh Faith and Order Conference in 1937 with many of his later books reflecting this interest. BODELSCHWINGH, FRIEDRICH [18771946] Reichsbishop of the German Evangelical Church who followed his father at Bethel, an institution for epileptics. In 1933 he was displaced as reichsbishop by Hitlers nominee L. Muller. Bodelschwingh refused to surrender the epileptics to the Nazi euthanasia programme and was with others influential in ending it. BUBER, MARTIN [1878-1965] Jewish religious philosopher who was born in Vienna and educated in Austria and Germany, and for eight years from 1914 was the editor of Der Jude a paper for German-speaking Jews. He taught philosophy and religion at Frankfurt University for a decade from 1923 and religion at the University of Jerusalem from 1933 to 1951. He was much influenced by the mysticism of the Hasidim and by Kierkegaards [see 1848] Christian existentialism. BUNTON, HEDLEY PERCIVAL [1906-1997] was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary in China and a Minister in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_church" \o "Congregational church" Congregational Church in Australia. He was ordained for mission work in Canton, China under the London Missionary Society. From 1933 to 1942 he worked under Chinese leaders with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwangtung" \o "Kwangtung" Kwangtung HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod" \o "Synod" Synod of the Church of Christ in China in Canton and the East River District. From July 1937 to October 1938 he lived under Japanese bombing raids on Canton and for the next nine months helped to run refugee camps for Chinese people during Japanese attack upon and occupation of Canton. In July 1939 he rejoined family for leave in Australia until November 1940 after which he returned to Canton where after the attack on Pearl Harbour he was under house arrest. In May 1942 he was taken with other British and American citizens to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai" \o "Shanghai" Shanghai for repatriation and exchange with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_people" \o "Japanese people" Japanese from the United States and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire" \o "British Empire" British Empire. After the war he returned to China undertaking his missionary work in Hong Kong until 1973. CASE, SHIRLEY JACKSON [1872-1947] Liberal church historian who for thirty years from 1908 taught NT and early church history at Chicago Divinity School becoming its Dean in 1933. He contributed greatly to the development of the liberal Chicago School of theology, rejecting the supernatural element of Christian belief, and attempted to explain the development of Christianity solely in terms of natural environmental influences. HOSKYNS, SIR EDWYN CLEMENT [1884-1937] Anglican clergyman and theologian, educated at Cambridge and the University of Berlin. In 1919 he became a fellow at Corpus Christi, Cambridge. A pioneer of the biblical theology movement in England, Hoskins was the translator Karl Barths famous commentary on Romans into English in 1933. His most important book was The Riddle of the New Testament [1931] concerning the relation of Jesus of Nazareth to the primitive Christian church. He argued that no interpretation of the person and teaching of Jesus which fails to explain this relationship can be true to history. MOWLL, HOWARD WEST KILVINTON [1890 1958]. Archbishop of Sydney who graduated from Cambridge in 1912 and became tutor at Wycliffe College Toronto where he taught, apart from one year as an army chaplain in France, until 1922. In that year he was consecrated as assistant bishop of the diocese of West China and succeeded William Cassels [see 1895] and as bishop four years later. His 10 years in China were a period of travel, adventure, excitement and development. He was captured and held by brigands; he was attacked and wounded by river pirates. His great contribution to West China was that he saw the need for a strong Chinese Church and planned accordingly. He became a bridge from the paternal Bishop Cassels to the progressive aims of Chinese bishops and in transferring the real control from the missionary conferences to the diocesan synods he went as far as times would permit but looked forward towards the time when the Chinese bishops would be responsible for Christianity in China. In 1933 Mowll was elected archbishop of Sydney. He entered at once upon a life of such unremitting activity that it left his clergy breathless. He proved himself a great administrator. The war years brought out all his latent strengths in directing church enterprise to the spiritual, moral, and social welfare of men in uniform. In 1947 he was elected primate of the Church of England in Australia and this broadened his whole field of action. He was a convinced and devoted evangelical in faith and churchmanship but his remarkable gift for friendship enabled him to establish cordial relations with all kinds of people. His death marked the close of the greatest episcopate that the Sydney diocese has ever seen. QUENTIN, HENRI [1872-1935] Bible scholar who studied at Reims and entered the Benedictine Abbey of Maredsous, Belgium in 1894. He was ordained in 1902. Pius X called him to Rome five years later and Quentin served on the Commission for Revision of the Vulgate. He superintended the photographing of most of the important Vulgate manuscripts and was editor-in-chief of the Pentateuch. Pius XI appointed him to the historical section of the Congregation of Sacred Rites [1930]. He was made first abbot of the Abbey of St Girolamo Rome in 1933. TILLICH, PAUL [1886-1965] Protestant theologian and philosopher who was born in Germany, a son of a Lutheran pastor. Tillich was educated at Berlin, Tubingen, Halle and Breslau. He was a chaplain in the army during World War I and then taught in a number of universities. In 1929 while professor of philosophy at the University of Frankfurt he became involved in their Religious-Socialist movement. His opposition to Hitler and National Socialism led to his dismissal from the university in 1933 and he almost immediately relocated to the United States where he taught at the Union Theological Seminary and Columbia University from 1933 to 1955. This was followed by years at Harvard and Chicago until his death. The sources and philosophical foundations of his theology can be traced back to Platonism, mediaeval mysticism, German Idealism, and existentialism. The most serious charges against his theology are his dependence upon idealism which strongly implies pantheism and his failure to grasp the Scripture Alone principle of the Protestant tradition in which he stood. 1934BARMAN DECLARATION Made by the Protestant churches in Germany in opposition to the Nazi-approved church, and was largely written by Karl Barth [see 1921]. Its main thrust was that as Jesus Christ is the one Word of God, the church is not to recognise other events, powers or images alongside Him as divine revelation. BOOTH, EVANGELINE CORY [18651950] The seventh child of William Booth [see1878], she was only fifteen when she became a sergeant in the Salvation Army and came to be a trouble shooter in difficult situations such as when her brother Ballington [see 1896] left the Army in the USA. She was made commander in Canada in 1896, commander in chief in the U.S.A. in 1904 and led it for some 30 years with record achievements in social services. She was elected general of the worldwide Salvation Army in 1934 and retired in 1938. CADBURY, HENRY [1883-1974] American New Testament scholar who was a Quaker and was professor of divinity at Harvard [19341954]. A member of the Revised Standard Version translation committee, his work was specialising in Luke and Acts. He was also for many years the secretary of the American Schools of Oriental Research. CONFESSING CHURCH A church in Germany that grew from groups who wished to oppose the theology of the German Christians [see below] and the Nazi-supported church government of Ludwig Muller who was elected reichsbischof (national bishop) in 1933. The principles were set out in the Synods of Barmen and Dahlem in 1934. The Confessing Church was never a political protest movement although its existence was an embarrassment to the regime as the witness to Christs lordship over the earth was in conflict with Hitlers concepts. Niemoller and Bonhoeffer [see 1945] belonged to the group. After the war the Confessing Church merged into the re-formed Evangelical Church in Germany. DANIEL-ROPS, HENRI [1901-1965] French Roman Catholic historian, essayist, and novelist, educated at Grenoble who became a high school teacher until 1946. He changed from his family name to Daniel-Rops, a character in one his stories, as a pseudonym so to avoid the difficulty of obtaining permission from the ministry of education to publish. At first merely a nominal Roman Catholic, from 1934 he began to assert himself as a man of faith and zeal with his novel Death, Where is thy Victory? which had a wide spread impact in France and was made into a film. DIBELIUS, OTTO [1880-1967] Bishop of the Berlin-Brandenburg Church. Son of a civil servant he studied theology at Wittenberg and became pastor of the Reformed Church. He came to prominence in 1933 when he was removed from his post as Lutheran superintendent in Berlin on refusal to recognise the church overseer appointed by Adolf Hitler. In 1934 he was a strong supporter of the Barmen Declaration [see 1934] that asserted the primacy of Christ and opposed nationalisation of the churches. A staunch supporter of the ecumenical movement, he had attended the 1910 Edinburgh Conference and later became president of the World Council of Churches [1954-1961]. EGERTON PAPYRUS Found among a collection of papyri, purchased in the summer of 1934 and included in the Egerton collection, were some fragments from the codex of a life of Christ written in Greek. The four surviving pieces show clear affinities to a number of passages in the Synoptic gospels and Johns Gospel. They have been dated to no later than 150 AD by its style of writing and it is possible that they were written some years earlier. The fragments are of particular importance in helping to provide a limit to the possible late dating of the four Gospels. EVANGELICAL AND REFORMED CHURCH An American Protestant denomination formed by the merger of the Evangelical Synod of North America with the Reformed Church in the United States in 1934. The union brought together Lutheran and Reformed Christians from predominantly German, Swiss, and Hungarian ancestry. The new church adopted as its doctrinal standard the Augsburg Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, and Luthers Catechism. It supported hospitals and homes, educational institutions, and missionary work in Africa, China, Honduras, India, Iraq, Japan, and South America. In 1940 the body began merger negotiations with the Congregational Christian Church, which led in 1957 to the creation of the United Church of Christ. GERMAN CHRISTIANS The so-called German Christian church which at first reflected the ecclesiastical policies of the Nazi dictatorship. On the rise of Hitler there were a number of movements with those at one extreme, who made a pagan religion of German blood and destiny and was hostile to traditional Christianity; while on the other was the faith movement of the German Christians, supported by theologians who believed that God was calling the church through the contemporary German situation to be again the church of the German people. It was a nationalist exploitation of liberal theology. Its rejection of the Old Testament and the Jewish element in Christianity was perhaps not unrelated. Nazi support of the German Christians waned after 1934, though it was sufficient to keep many in their official positions. HOUGHTON, WILLIAM HENRY [1887-1947] Baptist minister and president of Moody Bible Institute. An early career on the stage was cut short by theological training after a deepening religious experience, and subsequently he joined R.A. Torrey [see 1889] as song leader. Ordained in 1915 he held several pastorates. He conducted a successful evangelistic campaign in Ireland in 1924. In 1934 he became president of the Moody Bible Institute, Chigago, a post which he held to his death. He was well-known for his gospel songs. I AM MOVEMENT An American organisation founded in 1934 whose beliefs consist of an assortment of old beliefs and practices drawn from Hinduism, Theosophy, Unity, Spiritualism, and the American fascist Silver Shirts, in addition to the special revelation supposedly given to Guy W Ballard [see 1930]. The I Am Movement teaches that the human being remains subject to continual transmigrations of the soul within history unless they are cleansed perfectly by heavenly light and ascend from the world in full harmony with the eternal I AM Power. Fully committed I AM members are expected to abstain from certain foods and drinks, tobacco, and card playing, and all sexual activity even within their marriage in order to purify themselves. INDONESIA [see also 1811] Depok Seminary [see 1811] was closed in 1926 with the work continuing in the Jakarta Theological Seminary which was founded in 1934. In Dutch days however, missionaries were supreme and for instance only Dutch pastors could baptise. The credit for altering the situation was largely due to H Kraemer [see 1922] who after many study tours recommended that the churches be freed from foreign control and that missionaries turn from chiefs into teachers of independence. In the following decade many churches received independence, however even after independence most of the church finances originated from Europe. The Japanese occupation in 1942 ceased any involvement by foreigners as the missionaries were in concentration camps, thus Indonesian Christians were compelled to take responsibility for their own church life. The Indonesian Council of Churches was formed in 1951. The Chinese in Indonesia too have not gone un-evangelised, the most notable events in their history being the visits of John Sung the evangelist just before the Japanese War. He began a revival movement with effects that can still be felt. Apart from the mainstream Indonesian Protestantism, Roman Catholicism has made steady progress from the time it was permitted by the Dutch government to enter Indonesia in the 19th century. WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS An organisation dedicated to producing translations of the Bible in languages that had no Bible. It came from the vision and initiative of L Legters and W Cameron Townsend. In 1934 they started Camp Wycliffe in Arkansas as a summer school in descriptive linguistics for pioneer missionaries. Work began among Mexican tribes in 1935 and since 1944 operations have been worldwide with several thousand active members. YOUTH FOR CHRIST INTERNATIONAL Set up in 1945 this organisation engaged in teenage evangelism, high school Bible clubs, and juvenile delinquency prevention programs. The first Youth for Christ rally was conducted by Paul Guinness in 1934 in Brantford Ontario. From then on but especially in 1943-44 Saturday night evangelistic youth rallies proliferated in large American cities. The Youth for Christ International was founded in 1945 at Winona Lake Indiana with Torrey Johnson elected as president. A Conservative Creed was adopted to help the organisation keep Geared to the Times and Anchored to the Rock. The first world Congress was held in Switzerland in 1948. 1935ABERHART, WILLIAM [18781943] Canadian Baptist lay preacher who became premier of Alberta. He began a Bible class in 1918 which developed into the Prophetic Bible Institute. He began broadcasting in 1925 which resulted in revival in Alberta and Saskatchewan causing the establishment of many Bible Colleges and missionaries from the area. In 1935 his Social Credit Party won a landslide victory in Alberta and he ruled the province until his death in 1943, after which it was under his outstanding pupil E C Manning [see 1943]. ETHIOPIA [see also 1634] The clergy in Ethiopia had control over the education and the isolation of Ethiopia continued until 1935 when the country was opened up, not by missionaries, but by the military might of Mussolini. Many clergy, including two bishops, suffered martyrdom, and almost all non-Italian missionaries were expelled. After World War II the Ethiopian church broke with the traditions regarding its relationship with the Coptic Church in Egypt and in 1959 the church became independent of Egypt. The beliefs of the church are distinctive in several ways as they include some of the apocryphal books; it observes the Sabbath, circumcision, and the difference between clean and unclean meats. In the 1970s the number of priests numbered about 170,000 with more than 11,000 parishes. Emperor Haile Selassie hosted the meeting of the World Council of Churches central committee in Addis Ababa in 1971. He was deposed and imprisoned in 1974 and died the following year. REICHSBISCHOF A Protestant church office in Nazi Germany. Following Hitlers accession to power many churchmen favoured uniting the 28 separate provincial churches into one with the national [Reich] bishop as head. The German-Christians who were pro-Nazi supported the candidacy of Ludwig Muller [1883-1945] and with the help of the Nazis he was elected after Friedrich von Bodelschwingh [see 1933] who had been elected was deposed. However the Nazis soon abandoned the German-Christians and with the creation of the Ministry of Church Affairs in 1935 the reichsbishop was deprived of any effective authority. SHEMBE, ISAIAH [1870-1935] Founder of a group in South Africa. Shembe grew up in a heathen environment in Natal but in response to revelations he began to preach and heal. He was baptised and ordained by a minister of the African Native Baptist Church. Shembe later formed his own organisation to which he applied all Old Testament references to the Nazirites. He travelled throughout Natal and acquired immense influence among the Zulu. Shembe mingled biblical influences with traditional Zulu beliefs and practices in his teaching and ritual. He claimed to be the Zulu Messiah and was revered as such by followers who believe he has risen. After his death in 1935 the leadership was inherited by his son J G Shembe. 1936BENJAMIN I Patriarch of Constantinople [1936-1946] who succeeded Photius II [see 1929]. Born in 1871 he studied at the HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Halki" \o "Halki" Theological School of Halki. In 1912 he became metropolitan of Rhodes. Following the death of Patriarch HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Photius_II_of_Constantinople" \o "Photius II of Constantinople" Photius in 1935, his most likely successor was considered the then metropolitan of Chalcedon, and later patriarch, HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_V_of_Constantinople" \o "Maximus V of Constantinople" Maximus. However, the prefect of Istanbul eliminated Maximus and Joachim from the election probably due to political associations. However, on HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/January_18" \o "January 18" January 18, 1936, the HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Holy_Synod" \o "Holy Synod" Holy Synod elected Benjamin as metropolitan by a vote of 7 to 6. The contentious nature of the election would prove to make relations within the patriarchate difficult. Despite the unfavourable conditions of his election and the outbreak of World War II, his reign can be characterised as having consolidated the patriarchate during a difficult period in its history. Also during this time, in 1941, a great fire destroyed the HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Patriarchal_Palace&action=edit" \o "Patriarchal Palace" Patriarchal Palace in the HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/Phanar" \o "Phanar" Phanar. Patriarch Benjamin died on HYPERLINK "http://orthodoxwiki.org/February_17" \o "February 17" February 17, 1946. MANSON, THOMAS WALTER [1893-1958] British biblical scholar who was educated at Glasgow and Cambridge and was professor of New Testament Greek exegesis at Oxford from 1932 to 1936 and Rylands professor of biblical criticism and exegesis at Manchester University from 1936 to 1958. His greatest contribution to New Testament scholarship was his book The Teaching of Jesus published in 1931, and while he published much of lasting value on the New Testament epistles, his most important work was in the Gospels. NICHOLAS V Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1936-1939] see 1926 and 1939. ORTHODOX PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH Founded in 1936 after a long struggle within the Presbyterian Church in the USA between the theological conservatives who sought to conform the denomination to its doctrinal constitution, The Westminster Confession of Faith, and their opponents who were willing to tolerate theological modernism. The Conservative group was led by J Gresham Machen [see 1914] who in 1929 left his professorship at Princeton Theological Seminary to help found Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia, and in 1933 founded The Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions. This latter act brought the suspension of Machin and several others from the ministry, which in turn facilitated the schism. The Orthodox Presbyterian Church is a relatively small group which emphasises strongly the infallibility of Scriptures and faithfulness to traditional Presbyterian doctrine. REYES Y FLORENTINA, ISABELO DE LOS [1864-1938] Filipino journalist, radical, and an amateur theologian, who wrote revolutionary anti-friar propaganda for which he was exiled to Spain where he attempted a translation of the Scriptures into the Filipino language of Tagalog. On his release he was commissioned by Aglipay [see 1902] to negotiate with Rome for the rights of the Filipino clergy [1899-1901]. Having failed to obtain their request he returned to the Philippines and founded the Philippine Independent Church, which he persuaded Aglipay to lead. In 1936, after a political disagreement with Aglipay, Reyes retracted all his writings and was reconciled to the Roman Catholic Church. 1937BERGGRAV, EIVIND [18841959] Norwegian Lutheran bishop of Oslo [19371950]. He was actively anti German during the occupation being interred from 1942. A prolific writer he became a leading ecumenist and was one of the Presidents of the W.C.C. [19501954]. EDINBURGH CONFERENCE Convened as the second Conference of Faith and Order following the first conference in Lausanne in 1927, it comprised 504 delegates representing 123 churches. The discussions carried on between the conferences became the basis of four main reports studied at Edinburgh: the Doctrine of Grace, the Ministry and Sacraments, the Church of Christ and the Word of God, and the Churchs Unity in Life and Worship. While there were wide areas of agreement among the delegates, no attempt was made to conceal disagreements, and further studies were instituted on them. The root of the differences lay in conflicting views regarding the nature of the church. The proposal of the report on the churchs unity was that a World Council of Churches be formed, and it was approved by the conference. An affirmation was issued, speaking of the unity of those who confess allegiance to Christ as head of the Church. FULLER, CHARLES E. [1887-1968] American Baptist radio evangelist. Originally engaged in orange growing he came under the influence of R. A. Torrey [see 1889] following his conversion and was ordained in 1925 at Calvary Church. His early radio programmes were The Pilgrims Hour and Heart-to-Heart Talks. His Old-fashioned Revival Hour was aired nationwide over the Mutual Broadcasting System beginning in 1937 and later switched to CBS. The program reached its coast-to-coast peak in the 1940s with live broadcast from over 625 stations. His wife pioneered the technique of reading excerpts from listeners letters on the air. He was co-founder of the Fuller Theological Seminary in 1947. KIRK, KENNETH ESCOTT [1886-1954] Bishop of Oxford who was also educated at Oxford. He was a chaplain during World War I before returning to Oxford where he held the chair of moral pastoral theology. Consecrated bishop of Oxford in 1937 he continued his writing, particularly on moral theology. OXFORD CONFERENCE Second conference of the Life and Work movement held at Oxford in 1937 under the general title Church, Community and State. There were 425 delegates representing most churches apart from the Roman Catholics and the German Evangelical which was under Nazi control. Younger churches had only 29 representatives. It was directed by J H Oldham [see 1921] secretary of the International Missionary Council who had organised the Edinburgh Conference of 1910. The chairman was John R Mott [see 1948]. Its watchword was Let the Church be the Church and statements were made on religious freedom, criteria for a responsible economic order, and the Christian attitude to war. Concurrently with the Faith and Order Conference in Edinburgh 1937 it proposed the formation of the World Council of Churches [see 1948] in which the concerns of both movements were integrated. STONEHOUSE, NED BERNARD [1902-1962] New Testament scholar who was a member of the Christian Reformed Church and graduated in Arts from Calvin College in 1924 before pursuing theological studies at Princeton. He continued his New Testament researches at the University of Tubingen and the Free University of Amsterdam. Stonehouse held a number of university positions including professor of the New Testament at Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia from 1937 to 1962. He gave particular attention to the Synoptic gospels and to the book of Revelation. Stonehouse was a founding editor of The New International Commentary on the New Testament with which he was associated until his death. UNDERHILL, EVELYN [1875-1941] English mystic who was the daughter of a distinguished London barrister and educated at the University of London of which she was later made a fellow. Reared an Anglican her spiritual life began in 1907 while visiting a Franciscan convent. She professed conversion in 1911 with leanings towards the Roman Church. Friederich von Hugel [see 1867] was her guide and she lived under his direction for four years until his death in 1925, experiencing Christianity most personally and making a commitment to the Church of England. Her greatest work was Worship in 1937 which included the Orthodox churches and their liturgy. 1938BUCHMAN, FRANK [18781961] American Lutheran minister who founded Moral Re-armament in 1938. Buchman experienced conversion at Keswick, England, in 1908 and began a movement to develop new methods of evangelism as a means of fostering world change. He had previously founded the First Century Christian Movement in 1921 and the Oxford Group in 1929. IONA COMMUNITY Founded by Scottish minister Baronet George MacLeod in 1938 on the island of Iona [see 563], this imaginative experiment brought together ministers and laymen sharing the fellowship of work and worship. Three obligations were involved for membership of the Iona Community: ministers and craftsmen are expected to spend some time on the island, particularly during the initial stages of their membership; members accept a threefold rule concerned with prayer, Bible reading, and tithing; and they are expected to attend the monthly meetings on the mainland in winter and the annual re-gathering on Iona in June. In 1951 the Iona community was brought under the Church of Scotland auspices. TAMBARAM CONFERENCE [1938] Convened by the International Missionary Council [see 1921], the conference met near the Indian city of Madras [Chennai] during the closing days of 1938. It was notable for the impressive representation from the younger churches, whose problems were discussed and whose delegates brought a new dimension to the plea for Christian unity and the task of world mission. The conference under the chairmanship of John R Mott [see 1948] and comprised 471 delegates from 69 countries. 1939BAVINCK, J H [1895-1964] Dutch Calvinist writer who was early attracted to the field of religious psychology. In 1921 he went to the Dutch East Indies, and apart from a three year pastorate in the Netherlands, spent the next two decades there increasingly involved in mission work and writing. In 1939 he became professor of missions at Kampen and at the Free University. He worked in the anti Nazi underground during the Second World War and afterwards founded the Calvinist centre for missions at Baarn. CHRISTOPHER II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1939-1966] see 1936 and 1968. PIUS XII Pope [1939-1958]. He was ordained a priest in 1899 and had his first taste of Vatican life two years later when he entered the papal secretariat under Leo III. He was created a cardinal and papal secretary by Pius XI in 1930 who unofficially named him as his successor to the pontificate. He travelled to the Eucharistic Congress in Buenos Aires the first time a papal secretary had travelled outside Italy and also attended other events in Europe and the USA. According to his admirers he was a very able statesman, a great teacher, a custodian of sound doctrine, a champion of neutrality and a militant anti Communist. To his detractors he was a gifted politician who skilfully adapted traditional practice to the circumstance of World War II and its aftermath. In 1943 he issued an edict which appeared to promote returning to Bible study but in 1950 a further statement was issued which revoked some concessions made in the sphere of Bible study, and this prepared the way for the proclamation of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in that year, and the promulgation of the Marian Year for 1954. He also had a zeal to canonise a number of his predecessors. He succeeded Pius XI [see 1922] and was succeeded by John XXIII [see 1958]. 1940ANTISEMITISM A term coined in the 19th century which signifies hostility towards the Jews. In the ancient world Jews were ridiculed and often persecuted particularly in Alexandria and later in the Roman Empire on two exclusive grounds, religious and social, in their refusal to worship idols and eat particular foods. In the Middle Ages the wealth of many Jews gained through money lending, as well as trade, provoked hostility. The French Revolution worked in the Jews favour. The National Assembly repealed all repressive measures against them in 1791 and the Constitution of Year 3 in 1795 gave them equal rights. Anti-Semitism flourished in the 20th century with pogroms in Russia, atrocities in Germany, the Dreyfus affair in France, and millions were killed. Throughout history, God has judged such nations starting with Egypt, Chaldea, through to the Spanish Armada and to 20th century oppressors. BIRCH, JOHN MORRISON (19181945) was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_intelligence" \o "Military intelligence" military intelligence officer and a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" Missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" \o "World War II" World War II who was shot by armed supporters of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" \o "Communist Party of China" Communist Party of China. Birch was born in a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_station" \o "Hill station" hill station in the Himalayas in northern HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India where both his parents were missionaries. He graduated from Southern Baptist affiliated HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercer_University" \o "Mercer University" Mercer University in Macon in 1939. In his senior year at the university he organised a student group to identify cases of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy" \o "Heresy" heresy by professors, such as references to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" \o "Evolution" evolution. While at Mercer, he decided to become a missionary, and enrolled in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_Baptist_Theological_Seminary" \o "Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary" Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Worth" \o "Fort Worth" Fort Worth, Texas. After completing a two-year curriculum in a single year, he sailed for China in 1940. Arriving in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai" \o "Shanghai" Shanghai, he began intensive study of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" \o "Mandarin Chinese" Mandarin Chinese. After six months of training he was assigned to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangzhou" \o "Hangzhou" Hangzhou, at the time outside the area occupied by the Japanese fighting in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" \o "Second Sino-Japanese War" Second Sino-Japanese War. However, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" \o "Attack on Pearl Harbor" attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941 ended that: the Japanese sent a force to Hangzhou to arrest him. He and other Christian missionaries fled inland to eastern China. Cut off from the outside world, he began trying to establish new missions in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang" \o "Zhejiang" Zhejiang province. After assisting HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant-Colonel" \o "Lieutenant-Colonel" Lieutenant-Colonel HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Doolittle" \o "Jimmy Doolittle" Jimmy Doolittle and his crew who had crash-landed in China after the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doolittle_Raid" \o "Doolittle Raid" Tokyo raid in getting to a safe haven he was seconded to the Intelligence service as he was a fluent speaker of Chinese. In 1945 his group clashed with the Chinese Communists who shot him. Some HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative" \o "Conservative" conservative groups within the United States consider him to be a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyr" \o "Martyr" martyr and the first victim of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" \o "Cold War" Cold War. EDMAN, VICTOR RAYMOND [1900-1967] American college president who served in an army medical corps in Europe. After two years at the University of Illinois, and a year of biblical studies, he graduated from Boston University in 1923. Edman went as a missionary to Ecuador from 1923-1928 where he helped found a Bible Institute that trained national workers. Forced by illness to return home he became a pastor in Worcester Massachusetts for 6 years and earned a Ph.D. degree from Clark University. After teaching for a year at Nyack he taught political science from 1936-1940 at Wheaton College where he became the president in 1940. Wide travel, love of the Bible, and a deep sense of Gods presence made him a valued counsellor and the writer of over 20 devotional books. GLEGG, ALEXANDER LINDSAY [1882-1975] British lay evangelist who trained as an electrical engineer at London University and subsequently became director of several companies. Converted while at the Keswick Convention [see 1875] he soon became involved in mission work at Wandsworth, and for nearly 50 years was responsible for the ministry at Downs Lodge Hall. Many thousands throughout the British Isles became Christians through his lucid and winsome presentation of the Gospel. He was known particularly for his Albert Hall meetings in the 1940s and for his active support of numerous missionary societies. Glegg encouraged many young evangelists, both spiritually and financially. Billy Graham [see 1954] is among those who acknowledge his great debt to Clegg who in his 90s was still preaching. MUROMA, URHO RAFAEL [1890-1966] Finnish pastor and educator whose early career included work among the seamen in New York and participation in the labours of the Finnish Missionary Society. Realising that evangelisation needed an organisation of its own, in 1940 Muroma formed the Evangelical Lutheran Inner Mission Foundation. He held that those who became Christians need to be grounded in Gods Word, and therefore instruction became an important part of the foundations work. Muroma was the leader of the foundation and the Bible school. He published a large number of books including some in which he boldly criticised the modern trends both in theology and in the church. SOWERBY, LEO [1895-1968] American composer whose name, while his output of music has included orchestral organ works, is inevitably connected with the music for the church. He served much of his life as organist and choirmaster at St James Church Chicago. His Passiontide cantata Forsaken of Man in 1940 is one of the finest works of its kind in recent years. He served prominently on the Hymnal Commission of the Episcopal Church and on the Joint Commission on Church Music. Sowerby also wrote the piece Love came down at Christmas. TAIZE COMMUNITY [1940] Founded in 1940 by Roger Schutz when he began to receive Jewish and other refugees into his home at Taize in Burgundy. In 1942 the Gestapo forced him away but in 1944 he returned with three brothers to begin the common life. By 1949 the monastic tradition took hold of the first seven brothers, pledging themselves to celibacy, authority and common property. More than 70 men from different Christian groups including Franciscans and Eastern Orthodox monks have come to live with them. They are thoroughly ecumenical with solid links with Rome, Constantinople and the World Council of Churches. 1941-1950 AD 1941 AMERICAN COUNCIL OF CHRISTIAN CHURCHES An association of militant fundamentalists that organised under the leadership of Carl McIntyre in 1941 to promote and defend the historic orthodox Protestant faith and to counter the actions of the National Council of Churches, which is considered apostate. The ACCC seeks to reform American churches on the basis of acceptance of the whole Bible as the inspired, inerrant, authoritative Word of God. LEWIS, [C.S.] CLIVE STAPLES [1898-1963] Novelist, poet and apologist. Anglican layman who taught at both Oxford and Cambridge and burst on the scene in 1941 with a clever satire called Screwtape Letters which were in the form of instructions from the senior devil to a junior devil on how to snatch a new Christian from the snares of heaven. Soon after, Lewis delivered a series of 29 widely popular radio broadcasts on basic Christian doctrine. Apart from this there was a new book called Mere Christianity. The mark of his style was wit, urbanity, clarity, an effortless elegance, and disciplined logic. Books flowed from his pen. Lewis career as a Christian author was quite surprising as he had been raised an Anglican and became an atheist as a teenage schoolboy. SAYERS, DOROTHY LEIGH [1893-1957] Writer and playwright who was educated at Oxford and embarked on a teaching career. In 1923 she published her first of a long series of detective novels which were to make her probably the most popular mystery writer in England. During World War II she lived in Essex and was a member of the group that included C S Lewis, Charles Williams, J R R Tolkien, and Owen Barfield. The Man Born to be King in 1941 was a series of radio plays on the life of Christ which displayed her fine insights and substantial gift as a dramatist. In The mind of the Maker she was at her best as a lay apologist of Christian doctrine, especially the doctrine of the Trinity. 1942BRITISH COUNCIL OF CHURCHES An associated national council of the World Council of Churches [see below], sharing the same doctrinal basis. It was formed in 1942 through the amalgamation of existing ecumenical type bodies. The council has 131 members 90 of whom are elected from various member churches. The Roman Catholic Church sends observers to the meetings. The Council works in a departmental structure of which the best known is Christian Aid but others deal with education, international affairs, mission and unity, social responsibility, and youth. FLEMING, PAUL WILLIAM [1911-1950] American missionary and founder of the New Tribes Mission. Through his mothers prayers and the ministry of Paul Rader he went to Malaya in 1937 to reach inland tribes. Repeated attacks of malaria caused him to return to the USA where he tried to stimulate enthusiasm for missions to unreached peoples. In 1942 he started the New Tribes Mission with headquarters in Chicago and sent out a first party to eastern Bolivia. The disappearance of the first five men in the jungle in 1943 did not dampen his ardour. Nor did the fatal crash of the first mission transport plane in Columbia in 1950. He however was himself involved in a second fatal crash at Mount Moran in Wyoming later that year. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF EVANGELICALS This was a descendant of the Evangelical Alliance of 1867. Evangelical leaders met at the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago in 1941. They planned another meeting of nearly 150 leaders at St Louis in 1942 at which the National Association of Evangelicals was organised. The following year the first convention was held. The organisation serves over 2 million members. Members of the association worked with evangelicals from other lands to organise the World Evangelical Fellowship in Holland in 1951 to coordinate worldwide efforts and evangelical service. NEW TRIBES MISSION (NTM) is an international, theologically HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicalism" \o "Evangelicalism" evangelical HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" \o "Christianity" Christian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" \o "Mission (Christian)" mission organisation based in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanford,_Florida" \o "Sanford, Florida" Sanford, Florida, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States. NTM has approximately 3,300 missionaries in more than 20 nations, second only to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wycliffe_Bible_Translators" \o "Wycliffe Bible Translators" Wycliffe Bible Translators/ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIL_International" \o "SIL International" SIL International. NTMs Purpose Statement reads: Motivated by the love of Christ, and empowered by the Holy Spirit, NTM exists to assist the ministry of the local church through the mobilizing, equipping, and coordinating of missionaries to evangelize HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreached_people_group" \o "Unreached people group" unreached people groups, translate the Scriptures, and see indigenous New Testament churches established that truly glorify God. NTM was founded by Paul Fleming [see above] from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles" \o "Los Angeles" Los Angeles, in 1942. TEMPLE, WILLIAM Archbishop of Canterbury [1942-1944]. He was the second son of Archbishop Frederick Temple(18211902). He was educated at Rugby School and Balliol College, Oxford, and was a fellow and lecturer in philosophy at Queens College Oxford from 190410. He was ordained priest in 1909 and between 1910 and 1914 he was headmaster ofRepton Schoolafter which he returned to being a full time clergyman, becoming bishop ofManchester in 1921 and archbishop of Yorkin 1929. A renowned teacher and preacher, Temple is perhaps best known for his 1942 bookChristianity and Social Order, which set out an Anglican social theology and a vision for what would constitute a just post-war society. Also in 1942, with Chief Rabbi Joseph Hertz, Temple jointly founded the Council of Christians and Jews to combat anti-Jewish bigotry. Temple defended the working-class movement and supported economic and social reforms. As the first president (19081924) of the Workers Educational Association he joined the Labour Party. He also participated in the ecumenical movement, took part in the Lausanne Conferenceof 1927, and helped prepare theWorld Conference of Churches in Edinburgh, 1937. He refused to condemn the Allied blanket bombing of Germany, to the dismay of his numerous Quaker connections, by writing an introduction to Christ and Our Enemies, published by the Fellowship of Reconciliation in 1941, citing the fact that he was not only non-pacifist but anti-pacifist. A visit toNormandy during Operation Overlord in the summer of 1944 made Temple the first archbishop of Canterbury to go into battle since the Middle Ages. William Temple died at Westgate-on-Sea, Kent on 26 October 1944. He was cremated at Charing Crematorium, Kent. Dr. Temple was the first primate of all England to be cremated and his cremation had an immense effect upon the opinion of church people not only in his country, but also throughout the whole Anglican community. He succeeded William Cosmo Gordon Lang [see 1928] and was succeeded by Geoffrey Francis Fisher [see 1945]. 1943BAILLIE, JOHN [18861960] Scottish theologian and ecumenist, president of the World Council of Churches. Baillie was professor of divinity at the University of Edinburgh for 22 years. He excelled as an apologist and was moderator of the Church of Scotland. DRAMA, CHRISTIAN Drama has played a part in the Christian life over many centuries. The Mysteries or Miracle Plays covered the whole of biblical history and even included non-biblical material. They were sponsored by the several trade guilds and often performed on the Feast of Corpus Christi especially after 1311. The Morality Plays by contrast tend to be more what they say they are. One of the earliest is The Castle of Perseverance, around 1405, tracing the history of humanity from birth to judgement. With the 16th century came the full flowering of the Renaissance with its stress on humanistic learning at the inevitable expense of the religious. There were however plays on sacred themes such as John Bales Gods Promises in 1538. The 18th century was the age of opera and oratorio, notably G. F. Handel with his Messiah in 1742. Most recently in the 20th century there were various plays both pro and anti-Christian with perhaps the most famous being Dorothy Sayers [see 1941] series of 12 plays A man born to be King from 1943. MANNING, ERNEST [1908-1996] Premier of Alberta for 25 years and radio preacher. Hearing William Aberhart [see 1935] broadcast from Calgary he enrolled at the Prophetic Bible Institute and was its first and most distinguished graduate. In the 1935 Social Credit landslide victory in the Alberta provincial elections, Manning was not only returned but was made a cabinet minister. On the death of Aberhart in 1943, he assumed the office of premier. Manning early showed signs of confidence and integrity, and was the beneficiary of the Alberta oil strikes in the late 40s and early 50s. During these years Manning conducted the weekly nationwide Back to the Bible broadcast. He preached the Gospel, and expounded prophecy with decreasing emphasis on its predictive element and increasingly using the prophetic passages as the basis for calling the nation to repentance and revival. His successor, Harry Strom was equally evangelical but the exciting days the mid 30s had run their course and the Social Credit political party was roundly defeated 18 months after Manning retired. MORRIS, GEORGE FREDERICK BINGLEY [1884-1965] Anglican bishop who graduated from Cambridge and was active in student evangelistic work. He lead a pioneer party of the Africa Inland Mission into north eastern Belgian Congo in 1913, later becoming field director of the mission in the Congo and West Nile Uganda. From 1932 he served the Bible Churchmens Missionary Society in Morocco, followed by some years of parish work in England before being consecrated by William Temple [see 1942] in 1943 as bishop of North Africa. He resigned in 1954 to become rector of Christ Church in Johannesburg and the following year accepted election as bishop of the Church of England in South Africa. NAVIGATORS, THE An organisation that fosters Christian fellowship, witness and systematic Bible study and Scripture memorisation. It began informally in 1933 when Dawson Trotman discipled a converted sailor with 2 Timothy 2:2 as his guiding principle. He organised the Navigators as a non-profit organisation in California in 1943. Members worked primarily with servicemen until 1949 when work was began in the Far East and a year later in Europe. TOWARDS THE CONVERSION OF ENGLAND In 1943 at the request the church assembly the then archbishop of Canterbury William Temple [see 1942] set up a commission of nearly 50 people under the chairmanship of the bishop of Rochester to survey the whole problem of modern evangelism. This report entitled Towards the Conversion of England was published in 1945, and considered the gospel itself, the need of laity to be fully involved in evangelism, the different needs of town and country, young and old, and the new opportunities in the post-war situation. The report was widely acclaimed but never had any substantial effect. WEIL, SIMNE [1909-1943] French Jewish writer who was a social and political activist and religious seeker. After graduation she employed her talents as a teacher for a time and then took a position as a labourer in order to identify with the worker. She joined the International Brigade against Franco in the Spanish Civil War. She was forced to flee France during World War II but soon returned from the United States to London to work for the Free French government. Because of a self enforced diet death came at the early age of 34. Her agnostic and anticlerical position was weakened during the latter part of life by sincere attraction to Christianity and there is some evidence that she was baptised into the Roman Catholic Church in America. However until her death she was torn between the two positions and this is clear in her writings where she continued waiting for God. 1944 CANADIAN COUNCIL OF CHURCHES Organised in 1944 to promote the Churchs mission, unity, renewal and obedience. Its formation resulted from inter church co-operation in Canada and ecumenism abroad. The Council has a working relationship with the Canadian Catholic Conference. CROSS, FRANK LESLIE [1900-1968] Anglican scholar and editor whose affiliations were modernist and Anglo-Catholic. By 1934 he was established as a university lecturer in the philosophy of religion and in comparative religion but his prime interests were in the relationship between religion and science and the history of Christian thought. He became professor of divinity at Oxford in 1944 and in later years he edited the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church published in 1957. MAKARI III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1944-1945] see 1929 and 1945. Before becoming a Pope he was the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" Metropolitan of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asyut" \o "Asyut" Asyut in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt. He is the second HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" Metropolitan to become a Pope in the history of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" \o "Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria" Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. During his pontificate he did not ordain any HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" Bishop or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" Metropolitan and this was taken as a symbol of his regret to accepting the position of the Pope of Alexandria despite being a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" Metropolitan beforehand. 1945BONHOFFER, DIETRICH [19061945] German pastor and martyr. He studied at Tubingen and Berlin coming under the influence of such men as Deissmann [see 1908], Harnack [see 1906], Leitzmann [see 1905], and Karl Barth [see 1921]. He was ordained as a Lutheran pastor and ministered to German congregations in Barcelona and London becoming acquainted with Bishop G Bell [see 1929]. He became a leader of the Confessing Church [see 1934] and founded a seminary for them which was closed down by Himmler in 1937. Involved in the Resistance, Bonhoffer was arrested in 1943 and executed in 1945 on a charge of treason. CHRISTOPHERS A movement established by James Keller among American Roman Catholics to promote the common good of society. They attempt to overcome evil with good Romans 12:21, and seek to penetrate and transform every social institution by expressing love for all men. Based in New York they distribute newsletters, books, and use the media for broadcasting messages. EVANGELICAL FOREIGN MISSIONS ASSOCIATION Both denominational and non-denominational, this American association has 64 members representing nearly 7000 missionaries in 120 fields. It was organised in Chicago in 1945 to provide a medium of voluntary united action among the evangelical foreign missionary agencies. In cooperation with the Interdenominational Foreign Missions Association [see 1917] it has sponsored the Wheaton Congress in 1966, the Summer Institute of Missions at Wheaton College, and the Evangelical Missions Information Service. FISHER, GEOFFREY FRANCIS Archbishop of Canterbury [1945-1961]. He was brought up in an Anglican background and was educated at Marlborough and Exeter College, Oxford. He was an assistant master at Marlborough College when he decided to be ordained, becoming a priest in 1913. At this time the English public schools had close ties with the Church of England, and it was not uncommon for schoolmasters to be in holy orders. Headmasters were typically priests. In 1914, Fisher was appointed headmaster of Repton School, succeeding William Temple, who was also later to be archbishop of Canterbury. In 1932, Fisher was appointed bishop of Chester, and in 1939 he was made bishop of London. Appointment of bishops in the Church of England is, ultimately, in the hands of the prime minister. Winston Churchill disliked Temples politics but accepted Cosmo Langs advice that Temple was the outstanding figure and no one else could be seriously considered. This time, however, the situation was less clear-cut. It has been widely assumed subsequently that George Bell was passed over because of his criticism in the House of Lords of the obliteration bombing strategy. While it is probably true that this greatly reduced any chance of Bell being appointed, it is not in fact clear that Bell was likely to be appointed anyway. Temple had apparently regarded Fisher as his obvious successor. Fisher put an effort into the task of revising the Church of Englands canon law. The canons of 1604 were at that time still in force, despite being largely out of date. He presided at the marriage of Princess Elizabeth and later at her coronation in 1953 as Queen Elizabeth II. The event was carried on television for the first time. He is remembered for his visit toPope John XXIIIin 1960, the first meeting between an archbishop of Canterbury and a pope since the Reformation and an ecumenical milestone. Fisher was a committedFreemason. Many Church of England bishops of his day were also members of Freemasonry. Fisher served as grand chaplain in theUnited Grand Lodge of England. Fisher retired in 1961. He advised the prime minister, Harold Macmillan, that he did not consider Michael Ramsey, who had been his pupil at Repton, as a suitable successor. Ramsey later relayed to the Reverend Victor Stock the conversation Fisher had with the Prime Minister: Fisher said, I have come to give you some advice about my successor. Whoever you choose, under no account must it be Michael Ramsey, the archbishop of York. Dr Ramsey is a theologian, a scholar and a man of prayer. Therefore, he is entirely unsuitable as archbishop of Canterbury. I have known him all my life. I was his headmaster at Repton. Macmillan replied, Thank you, your Grace, for your kind advice. You may have been Doctor Ramseys headmaster, but you were not mine. Fisher was made a life peer. Had Temple lived, he might have played a leading role in the post-war reconstruction, in which he would have found much common ground with the leaders ofClement Attlees Labour Government. Fisher was a relatively uncomplicated man, who was happy with the Church of England and wanted to make it work well. His experience was in some ways limited, having never been a parish priest. These criticisms of Fisher are often linked with his reputation as a head masterly figure. He succeeded William Temple [see 1942] and was succeeded by Arthur Michael Ramsey [see 1961] 1946BIBLE SOCIETIES [UNITED BIBLE SOCIETIES] Founded at the Haywards Heath Conference. It has four regional centres Nairobi Africa, Singapore Asia, Mexico City the Americas, and Basserdorf, Switzerland Europe. BRAND, PAUL WILSON [1914-2003] was a pioneer in developing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendon" \o "Tendon" tendon transfer techniques for use in the hands of those with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leprosy" \o "Leprosy" leprosy. He was the first physician to appreciate that leprosy did not just cause the rotting away of tissues, but that it was the loss of the sensation of pain which made sufferers susceptible to injury. He was born to missionary parents and grew up in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolli_Hills" \o "Kolli Hills" Kolli Hills of southern HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India, until he was sent home in 1923, at the age of 9 to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" \o "United Kingdom" United Kingdom, for education. In his books he gives vivid descriptions of his time in India as a boy with its regular bouts of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery" \o "Dysentery" dysentery and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" \o "Malaria" malaria in the area known as Kolli Moloi, the Mountains of Death. His father died in 1928 of Blackwater Fever, when Brand was 15. Brand trained in Medicine at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Hospital" \o "University College Hospital" University College Hospital during the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War" \o "Second World War" Second World War, and later gained his surgical qualifications whilst working as a casualty surgeon in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Blitz" \o "London Blitz" London Blitz. In 1946, he was invited to join the staff of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Medical_College_%26_Hospital" \o "Christian Medical College & Hospital" Christian Medical College & Hospital in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellore" \o "Vellore" Vellore, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" India. After a visit to the Leprosy Sanatorium at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chingleput" \o "Chingleput" Chingleput, a government institution that was at the time under church management, Dr. Brand was motivated to explore the reasons for the deformities developed in those with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansen%27s_Disease" \o "Hansen's Disease" Hansens Disease. After careful observation and research, he came to understand that most injuries in Hansens Disease patients were a result of the pain insensitivity they experienced, and not directly caused by the Hansens Disease bacilli. In 1950, with a donation from a missionary woman, Dr. Brand established the New Life Centre, Vellore, as a model rehabilitation centre for Hansens Disease patients. The centre was a village environment located at the residential area of the Christian Medical College campus. This helped dispel the stigma that was so prevalent even among medical professionals. Correcting deformities to restore the self-respect of patients and to integrate them into society was his cherished goal. In 1966, after 19 years of service in India he moved to the U.S.A. to take up the position of Chief of Rehabilitation Branch at the National Hansens Disease Center at Carville. He worked there for 20 years and established a well-equipped and well-staffed research unit to study the complications of insensitive hands and feet, their prevention and management. EVANGELICAL UNITED BRETHREN CHURCH This American Protestant denomination was formed in 1946 by the union of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ with the Evangelical Church. Both these churches originated among the German-speaking people of Pennsylvania and Maryland during the Second Great Awakening. The Evangelical Church was founded in 1807 by Jacob Albright [see 1803]. In 1968 the Evangelical United Brethren Church merged with the Methodist Church to form the United Methodist Church. MAXIMUS V HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1946-1948] succeeded Benjamin I [see 1936]. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" \o "Sinop, Turkey" Sinope and educated at the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological_School_of_Halki" \o "Theological School of Halki" Theological School of Halki. In 1918 he was ordained a deacon. With this appointment he also became teacher at the city school of Theira. He served as archdeacon under metropolitans Gregorios of Chalcedon and Joachim of Ephesus. In 1920 he became archdeacon to the ecumenical patriarchate itself. Patriarch Maximus was known for his leftist opinions and his close ties with the Moscow patriarchate. Officially he resigned in 1948 due to poor health; unofficially he was forced to resign by western powers that didnt approve his ties with the Soviet-controlled patriarch of Moscow. He was succeeded by the archbishop of America HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Athenagoras_I_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople" Athenagoras. He died in Switzerland on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_1" \o "January 1" January 1,1972. PIKE, JAMES ALBERT [1913-1969] American bishop educated at the University of Southern California and Union Theological Seminary. He lectured and practised law from 1936 to 1940 and at one stage studied for the Roman Catholic priesthood. In 1944 he was ordained deacon in the Episcopal Church and ordained as a priest in 1946. Pike became bishop of California in 1958 and was a noted champion of civil rights and social reforms. He was a controversial figure for his rejection of several basic Christian doctrines including the Virgin Birth. After his sons death or suicide in 1966 Pike explored Spiritualism and resigned as bishop and was found dead in the Judean desert in 1969 during a Palestinian visit. YOUNG, EDWARD JOSEPH [1907-1968] Old Testament scholar who after graduating from Stanford University in 1929 continued his education by travel especially in Spain and the Near East. He trained in theology and was the instructor and finally professor of the Old Testament from 1946 at Westminster Theological Seminary Philadelphia. Young was especially outstanding for his linguistic brilliance, his humbleness, and his tenacious loyalty to the inerrant Scriptures. He conversed easily in many languages including Russian, Arabic, and Hebrew was very familiar to him. Young would never surrender any demand made by the authoritative Scriptures and consistently adhered to that line. YUSAB II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1946-1956] see 1944 and 1959. He was the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" Metropolitan of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girga" \o "Girga" Girga. He was revered in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia for having appointed the first Ethiopian born metropolitan Archbishop for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahido_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church, and granting that church full HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocephaly" \o "Autocephaly" autocephaly. His deposition by the Coptic Synod was not accepted by the Ethiopian Church, and the name of Pope Joseph II was still raised in church services in Ethiopia as Patriarch long after he was removed from office. During his papacy the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Coptic_Studies" \o "Institute of Coptic Studies" Institute of Coptic Studies was founded in 1954. He also dealt with the replacement of St Marks Church in Alexandria. He was faced by allegations of corruption due to his support of his secretary and in 1954 after long disagreement over this matter with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holy_Synod_of_the_Coptic_Orthodox_Patriarchate_of_Alexandria" \o "The Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria" Churchs Synod and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Congregation_Council" \o "General Congregation Council" General Congregation Council he was removed from office and retired to one of the monasteries. The throne was vacant till 1959 when Pope Kirellos VI was chosen. 1947 CONSERVATIVE BAPTIST ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA An association of about 1150 Baptist Churches in the northern United States. In 1943 several hundred Baptist churches became frustrated with the Northern Baptist Conventions refusal to adopt doctrinal standards for its missionary program and formed the Conservative Baptist Foreign Mission Society. When the Convention failed to recognise this group the Association was formed. DEAD SEA SCROLLS The scrolls are the work of the community of Jews who after a violent quarrel with the priesthood of Jerusalem made a home for themselves in the rugged region adjoining the Dead Sea. The scrolls are probably from between 20 BC and A.D. 70. The scrolls are invaluable for the study of the text of the Old Testament and its transmission. The fragments of the Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha provide specimens of what these texts were like in the original, and that has enabled scholars for the first time to assess the accuracy of our translated versions. Compared with the rigidity and ultra conservatism of Qumran, Orthodox Judaism is seen to be flexible and progressive, while compared with both, Christianity is unique and inspired. PAKISTAN [see also 1794] Pakistan and Bangladesh were created as the independent states of West and East Pakistan in 1947 and 1971 respectively and since that time there have been group movements especially among the Kohlis of Sind and the Marwaris of Bahawalpur. In 1961 there were over half a million Christians in West Pakistan of which perhaps 75% were Protestants. In 1970 Anglicans, Methodist, Lutherans and some Presbyterians united to form the Church of Pakistan, which claimed a membership of two hundred thousand in both sections of the country. The churches draw mainly from the lower strata of the population and though it has an increasingly educated leadership it plays little part in the political life of the country. The former East Pakistan became at the end of 1971 the independent state of Bangladesh and of the 75 million people only 200,000 profess to be Christians, half of them being Roman Catholics. Many missionary societies were heavily involved in relief operations after the war of separation. 1948AMSTERDAM ASSEMBLY The assembly that was to follow the Oxford Conference [see 1937] but was postponed until 1948. At the Oxford Conference it was decided to set up the Wold Council of Churches but World War II prevented its implementation. In 1948 the long postponed assembly met in Amsterdam and on August 23 the WCC [see 1948] came into being. The basis was The World Council of Churches is a fellowship of churches which accept our Lord Jesus Christ as God and Saviour. The Assembly was attended by 351 delegates from 147 churches. The Roman Catholics did not attend whilst the Orthodox were only partially represented. Amsterdam was a landmark in that the churches accepted responsibility as churches for the ecumenical movement. ATHENAGORAS I Patriarch of Constantinople [1948-1972] who succeeded Maximus V [see 1946]. He was born in 1886, the son of the village doctor. His mother died when he was only 13. He attended the Patriarchical Theological School at Halki, Turkey, graduating in 1910. He was raised to the episcopacy as the metropolitan of Corfu in 1922 while still a deacon. Returning from a fact-finding trip to the Greek Orthodox archdiocese in America in 1930, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" Metropolitan Damaskinos recommended he be appointed to the position of archbishop of North and South America as the best person to bring harmony to the American diocese. The patriarch made the appointment on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_30" \o "August 30" August 30, 1930. When Archbishop Athenagoras assumed his new position on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_24" \o "February 24" February 24, 1931, he was faced with the task of bringing unity and harmony to a diocese that was racked with dissension between Royalists and Republicans, who had virtually divided the country into independent dioceses. To correct that, he centralised the ecclesiastical administration in the archdiocese offices with all other bishops serving as auxiliaries appointed to assist the archbishop, without dioceses and administrative rights of their own. He actively worked with his communities to establish harmony. He expanded the work of the clergy-laity congresses and founded the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Cross_Greek_Orthodox_School_of_Theology" \o "Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology" Holy Cross School of Theology. Through his capable leadership he withstood early opposition and gained the love and devotion of his people. On November 1, 1948, Archbishop Athenagoras was elected patriarch of Constantinople. As patriarch, he was actively involved with theWorld Council of Churchesand improving relations with the Roman Catholic pontiff, the pope of Rome. He died inIstanbulon July 7th 1972. His meeting withPope Paul VIin 1964 inJerusalemled to rescinding the excommunications of 1054 which historically mark the Great Schism, the schism between the churches of the East and West. This was a significant step towards restoring communion between Rome and Constantinople and the other patriarchates of orthodoxy. It produced the joint Catholic-Orthodox declaration of 1965, which was read out on December 7, 1965, simultaneously at a public meeting of the Second Vatican Council in Rome and at a special ceremony inConstantinople. The controversial declaration did not end the 1054 schism, but rather showed a desire for greater reconciliation between the two churches, as represented byPope Paul VIand Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I. Not all Orthodox leaders, however, received the declaration with joy fearing that it would lead to heresy. Athenagorus died in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul" \o "Istanbul" Istanbul on July 7, 1972. BAILLIE, DONALD [18871954] Scottish theologian and ecumenist, author of God was in Christ, convenor of the Church of Scotland committee on inter church relations. He ministered in various parishes for 16 years and was professor of theology at the University of St Andrews for a further twenty. CARNELL, EDWARD JOHN [1919-1967] American evangelical theologian who was one of the leaders of conservative evangelisation after the 2nd World War. He wrote his Introduction to Christian Apologetics in 1948. DIX, DOM GREGORY [1901-1952] Anglican broadcaster and author who graduated from Oxford and lectured in modern history at Oxford before entering monastic life among the Anglican Benedictines. He became a prior in 1948. He was well-known for his religious radio broadcasts. His most important contribution lay in his comprehensive study of Christian worship in his book The Shape of the Liturgy published in 1945. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF CHRISTIAN CHURCHES An interdenominational council of churches that have strong fundamentalist beliefs characterised by militant opposition to the World Council of Churches, to Communism, and defections from orthodox Christianity. It was founded at Amsterdam in 1948. The principal founder of the movement was Carl McIntire an American Presbyterian minister who led also in the founding of the Bible Presbyterian Church, Faith Theological Seminary, and the American Council of Christian Churches. Throughout its history there were some defections usually stemming from disagreements with McIntire. JASPERS, KARL [1883-1969] German existentialist philosopher who was educated at Heidelberg and became professor there in 1921. He was relieved of his duties, partially because he had a Jewish wife, by the Nazis in 1937 and reinstated in 1945. From 1948 he taught at Basle. He stood apart from institutional religion and his philosophy was in essence an alternative to religion. MOTT, JOHN RALEIGH [1865-1955] American pioneer of the 20th century ecumenical movement. He was converted through the ministry of J E K Studd at Cornell. He became in 1888 general secretary of the Student YMCA and chairman of the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions [see 1886] and thereafter toured the world ceaselessly promoting Christian missions. He was instrumental in the convening of the 1910 Edinburgh Missionary Conference, and was chairman of the International Missionary Council in 1921, and chairman of the second Life and Work Conference in Oxford in 1937. Mott was vice-chairman of the provisional committee of the World Council of Churches in 1938, and co-president of the World Council of Churches in 1948. He was very energetic. His international ecumenical career covered over 70 years, and more than any other man he virtually was the international ecumenical movement in their formative period from 1910 to 1948. SCROGGIE, WILLIAM GRAHAM [1877-1958] Baptist minister, Bible expositor, and author who studied at Spurgeons College in London, and after early pastorates in London, Halifax, and Sunderland, began in 1913 his most influential ministry at Charlotte Chapel Edinburgh remaining there until 1933. From 1933 to 1957 he exercised a travelling ministry in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, North America, and the British Isles. He was pastor of the Metropolitan Tabernacle in London from 1938 to 1944 and was lecturer in English Bible at Spurgeons College from 1948 to 1952. He wrote many books, mostly expository studies. VISSER T HOOFT, WILLEM ADOLF [1900-1985] Dutch ecumenical leader who studied theology at Leyden and was successively secretary of the World Alliance of YMCAs, general secretary of the World Student Christian Federation, and general secretary of the World Council of Churches. He was the author of numerous publications that distinguished him as one of the foremost ecumenical statesman of modern times. A multi-linguist, he was associated with many aspects of the W.C.C. which raised probably unfounded doubts in evangelical circles. WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES Founded in 1948 as the main international agency of cooperation between the Christian churches. Its membership includes all major autonomous Christian churches from both East and West except the Roman Catholic church and the most confessional minded or separatist of evangelical bodies. Progressive steps in the formation and development of the W.C.C. reflect the march of the ecumenical movement itself during the 20th century. The point of origin of the W.C.C. is usually taken as Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910 which led some to a vision of a united church, and subsequent conferences met at Lausanne in 1927 and a second conference in Edinburgh in 1930. In 1937, at both the Oxford Conference and Edinburgh Conference, proposals were received and approved for the formation of W.C.C. However, the Second World War prevented the inaugural assembly from happening for several years. In Amsterdam, in 1948, the initial assembly was held and this has been followed by further assemblies at Evanston USA in 1954, New Delhi India in 1961, Uppsala Sweden in 1968, Nairobi Kenya in 1975, Vancouver Canada in 1983, Canberra Australia in 1991, Harare Zimbabwe in 1998, and Porto Alegre Brazil in 2006. 1949NYGREN, ANDERS THEODOR SAMUEL [1890-1978] Swedish theologian who studied at Lund, and was ordained into the Church of Sweden in 1912. Nygren was assistant pastor for 6 years until 1920 before he lectured at Lund in the philosophy of religion until 1924 when he became professor of systematic theology. He was active also in Lutheran world affairs and in the formation of the World Council of Churches having been a delegate at their conferences held in 1927, 1937, 1948 and 1952. He was president of the Lutheran World Federation from 1947 to 1952 and chairman of the W.C.Cs Faith and Order Commission on Christ and the Church from 1953 to 1963. He served as bishop of Lund from 1949 until his retirement in 1958. 1950KOREA [see also 1884] As a result of the Japanese oppression Christian support for the Korean independence movement won nationwide respect and an ever-spreading network of Christian hospitals and colleges broadened the Christian witness. The end of World War II ushered in a second period church growth which not even the disastrous church schisms of the 1950s, the division of the country, or the communist invasion could block. Despite the loss of all North Korea to organised Christianity, the number of Protestant adherents continued to grow. STRACHAN, ROBERT KENNETH [1910-1965] Protestant missionary leader, born in Argentina, a son of British missionaries who later started the Latin America Evangelization Crusade later called Latin America Mission. He was educated in the United States and joined his parents on the mission in Costa Rica in 1936. Following their deaths he became its general director in 1950. He was responsible for the beginning and the basic ideas of Evangelism-in- Depth [see 1960]. From 1964 to 65 he was visiting professor of missions at Fuller Theological Seminary where he helped establish the School of World Mission. 1951-1960 AD 1951CAMPUS CRUSADE FOR CHRIST Founded by William Bright at the University College of Los Angeles soon after his conversion. It is an evangelistic organisation working primarily with college students in the U.S.A. From U.C.L.A. the organisation spread to many other campuses. Its members seek, in personal conversation, to present the gospel in the form of four spiritual laws. EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE [see also 1846] It blossomed after World War II with the first notable post-war project sponsored being the United Evangelistic Exhibition in the great Central Hall, Westminster, in 1951 which coincided with the Festival of Britain with the support of 180 different societies. It sponsored also the crusades led by Doctor Billy Graham in 1954-55 and again in 1966-67. Other notable developments during the post-war years including the formation of the Evangelical Missionary Alliance in 1958 which links together almost all the evangelical missionary societies, whether denominational or not and the holding of two united Communion services in Londons Royal Albert Hall. Probably one of the most publicised of the Alliances recent activities has been the launching of the Relief Fund [TEAR] which provides a channel whereby evangelical Christians are able to send gifts for relief work in particularly needy areas of the world. From the outset, evangelical Christians have not spoken with one voice about their attitudes towards the World Council of Churches, and this fact has been reflected in tensions within the Alliance at various times over this issue. INDIA, EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP OF An association of individuals and groups formed in 1951 and affiliated later with the World Evangelical Fellowship [see below]. Its aims, revival in the Indian church, evangelism, and the effective witness to and safeguard of the evangelical faith in the church. At first the Evangelical Fellowship of India was a missionary movement, owing much to the inspiration of the National Association of Evangelicals in the USA [see 1942], but the leadership from the 1960s became entirely Indian. WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP Set up in 1951 in Holland from members of the former British based World Evangelical Alliance which had been founded in 1846. The European former members did not join the new body until 1967. Membership of the World Evangelical Fellowship is and was opened to national evangelical fellowships which represent a substantial portion of the conservative evangelical community in their countries. It has three associated programs, the theological assistance program; international Christian assistance (administered through Britains Evangelical Alliance Relief Fund); and evangelistic and Bible ministries. 1952BIBLE VERSIONS Twentieth Century section listed in order [for Revised section see 1881] 1952. Revised Standard Version Old Testament published by National Council of Churches 1958. Phillips New Testament (paraphrase) 1959. Revised Standard Version New Testament slightly revised. 1960. Revised Standard Version adopted by most mainline congregations 1961. New English Bible New Testament (British) 1962. New American Standard Bible New Testament 1965. Catholic edition of Revised Standard Version New Testament 1966. Catholic edition of Revised Standard Version complete Jerusalem Bible (Roman Catholic) United Bible Societies first Greek New Testament Good News for Modern Man New Testament published by the American Bible Society 1967. New American Standard Bible Old Testament Living Bible New Testament (paraphrase) 1968. United Bible Societies 2nd Greek New Testament 1970. New American Bible (Roman Catholic) New English Bible Old Testament (British) 1971. 2nd ed. Of Revised Standard Version 1975. United Bible Societies 3rd Greek New Testament 1976. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/tev.html" Good News Bible (Todays English Version) published by the American Bible Society 1978. Neo-evangelical scholars publish the HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/niv.html" New International Version Old Testament 1979. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/nkjv.html" New King James Version New Testament 1982. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/bib-h.html" \l "hodgesfarstad1982" Hodges and Farstad Majority Text Greek New Testament HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/nkjv.html" New King James Version Old Testament 1985. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/new-jerusalem-bible.html" New Jerusalem Bible (Roman Catholic) 1989. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/reb.html" Revised English Bible (British) 1990. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/nrsv.html" New Revised Standard Version 1995. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/cev.html" Contemporary English Version 1996. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/niv.html" \l "feminist" NIV Inclusive Language Edition published in Great Britain HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/nlt.html" New Living Translation 2001. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/csb.html" Holman Christian Standard Bible New Testament HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/esv.html" English Standard Version 2002. HYPERLINK "http://www.bible-researcher.com/tniv.html" Todays New International Version New Testament LUND CONFERENCE [1952] Conference of faith and order commissioned by the World Council of Churches and held at Lund. There were 225 delegates from 114 churches with Roman Catholic observers present. The doctrinal differences of the various churches were listed and after stating their diverse views the conference concluded that comparative ecclesiology, i.e. comparing and contrasting different convictions about the church, had been pursued to the limit and offered no prospect reconciliation. It concluded We need therefore to penetrate behind our divisions to a deeper and richer understanding of the mystery of the God-given union of Christ with His Church. The conference selected for major points of study for at least 10 years: the union of Christ and the church; tradition and traditions; ways of worship; and institutionalism. MAURIAC, FRANOIS [1885-1970] French Roman Catholic writer who was brought up on a beautiful estate controlled by his family. He was trained as a Jesuit. He was a serious minded voracious reader who studied at the University of Bordeaux and in Paris. He wrote many novels, the first appearing in 1922, as well as anti-Nazi papers at the risk of death during the Second World War. All his novels come intensely to grips with mans sinful nature, his greed, lust, hatred, and pride. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1952. 1953 1954EVANSTON ASSEMBLY The second international meeting of the World Council of Churches held at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois and attended by 132 member denominations with the theme of Christ the Hope of the World. Optimism about the assembly lay in the fact that Christians of a variety of backgrounds were listening to one another and interacting over differences, including theological ones, and that even without agreement on theological issues they could still carry out a programme of world relief and refugee help. GRAHAM, WILLIAM FRANKLIN [b.1918] American evangelist known as Billy Graham educated at Bob Jones University and Wheaton College Illinois. After ordination in the Southern Baptists and a brief pastorate he became in 1943 the first evangelist in the newly founded Youth for Christ [see 1934]. In 1949 he acquired national fame through his Los Angeles crusade. He founded the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association, and in 1954 it became world famous through his first Greater London crusade, extending for nearly 3 months and creating a more profound impression on the United Kingdom than any mission since those of Moody and Sankey 70 years before. After 1954 he crusaded, with song leader Cliff Barrows, singer George Beverly Shea, and a team of associates in most of the world. Graham crusades have always been co-operative evangelism between his team and staff, and the churches. The number of lasting converts probably runs into millions. In 1966 he inspired the World Congress on Evangelism in Berlin, which in turn inspired similar congresses in various parts the world. His ministry has made him one of the 20th centurys best-known religious figures. TOLKIEN, JOHN RONALD REUEL [1892-1973] South African writer who was sent to England for his education and graduated from Oxford in 1915. He served in World War I and returned to Oxford as professor of Anglo-Saxon and English literature. He has been a gifted and diversified writer of scholarly treatises, essays, novels, poems, and a play. The Hobbit [1937] and The Lord of the Rings [1954-55] are works that have made Tolkien most widely known, the latter based on a series of myths of his own devising. Tolkiens heroes are mainly mediaeval characters who are often engaged in perilous adventures that prove their moral strength. It is in this moral growth that there are often religious implications. He retired from active teaching in 1959. 1955KUNG, HANS [b.1928] Roman Catholic theologian, who was born in Switzerland, studied in Rome and various universities before being ordained in 1955. In 1960 he was appointed professor of fundamental theology in the Roman Catholic faculty of the University of Tubingen. He attended Vatican Council II and gained fame as a progressive but not radical thinker. His name is now associated with moderate, progressive, ecumenical Roman Catholic theology. 1956 1957ARNDT, WILLIAM [18801957] American Lutheran scholar who with F.W. Gingrich edited a GreekEnglish Lexicon of the New Testament in 1957. Ordained in 1903, Arndt was pastor of three churches before he taught theology at St Pauls College Missouri from 1912 to 21 and Concordia Seminary St Louis for thirty years from 1921. He also wrote a number of books on apologetics. SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE Established by Martin Luther King in 1957 to co-ordinate local non-violent, direct-action movements emerging in the south of the United States. Its goals were to win citizenship rights including equality and integration of the black population in American society. The groups methods have combined the use of Ghandian non-violent resistance, and the ballot box. Martin Luther King was assassinated in 1968 and was succeeded by Ralph Abernathy. 1958JOHN XXIII Pope [1958-1963]. Before being elected as pope he had been director of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in Italy and from 1953 a cardinal and patriarch of Venice. Because of his age he was thought to be a transitional pope. He was elected as pope after a three day conclave with eleven ballots. He chose the name John which had not been used as a name for over five hundred years. At Christmastime in 1958 he made lengthy visits to two hospitals and caused sick and crippled children to visit him and also visited the local prison. An all important day of his pontificate was 25th January 1959 when to a stunned group of cardinals he announced he would do three things. Firstly call a synod of the church in Rome which had not occurred since mediaeval times with the last council meeting in 1869-70. Secondly he would summon an ecumenical council to promote Christian unity to which Athenagoras Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople expressed delight and Archbishop Fisher head of the Anglicans called upon the pope which caused a great stir in England. Thirdly he would promote the reform of Canon Law which he did by setting up a Commission on 29th March 1963. Pope John made two famous speeches in 1962, one on the relationship between the church and the world and another at the opening of the council. John was a sick man but he continued to work unabated and his visits to hospitals and prisons continued. He also actively sought better relations with Communist nations and was encouraged by the release of the archbishop of Lvov in the Ukraine from prison. The last week of his life was followed intensely by the press of the free world appreciative of his warm humanity that had endeared him to many who did not share his religious views. He succeeded Pius XII [see 1939] and was succeeded by Paul VI [see 1963]. ROUAULT, GEORGES [1871-1958] French painter who for a time helped in the restoration of the stained glass windows in Chartres Cathedral. In his early work many of his Christ figures have a mustard-olive, pasty, or bloodied character but later in life the colours became friendlier and more gentle as seen in his resurrection painting of 1956. THEODOSIUS VI Patriarch of Antioch [1958-1970] see also 1928 and 1970. 1959KIRELLOS VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1959-1971] see 1946 and 1971 He was born into an Egyptian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox" \o "Coptic Orthodox" Coptic Orthodox family and resigned a civil service position to become a monk in 1927 taking his monastic vows the following year. In accordance with the old Coptic church tradition he was the only HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" \o "Monk" monk in the 20th century to be chosen to be the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Pope" \o "Coptic Pope" Coptic Pope without first being a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishop or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" \o "Metropolitan bishop" Metropolitan. He elevated the Archbishop of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahido_Church" \o "Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church" Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church to the title of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch" \o "Patriarch" Patriarch- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicos" \o "Catholicos" Catholicos. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuna_Baslios" \o "Abuna Baslios" Abuna Baslios, who was the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian" \o "Ethiopian" Ethiopian to be appointed Archbishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopia thus became HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia" \o "Ethiopia" Ethiopias first Patriarch. In January 1965 he presided over the Committee of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox" \o "Oriental Orthodox" Oriental Orthodox Churches in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addis_Ababa" \o "Addis Ababa" Addis Ababa, the first HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical" \o "Ecumenical" ecumenical and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian" \o "Non-Chalcedonian" non-Chalcedonian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod" \o "Synod" synod of these churches held in modern times. In June 1968 he received the relics of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_the_Evangelist" \o "Mark the Evangelist" Saint Mark the Evangelist and Apostle, which had been taken from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" \o "Alexandria" Alexandria to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice" \o "Venice" Venice over eleven centuries earlier. The relics were interred beneath the newly completed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Cathedral" \o "Coptic Cathedral" Cathedral of Saint Mark in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo" \o "Cairo" Cairo, which was built under him and was inaugurated in a ceremony attended by President HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" \o "Gamal Abdel Nasser" Nasser, Emperor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Selassie" \o "Haile Selassie" Haile Selassie, and delegates from most other churches. His papacy was also marked by the unprecedented HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitoun_apparitions" \o "Zeitoun apparitions" Apparitions of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Mary" \o "Virgin Mary" Virgin Mary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitoun_apparitions" \o "Zeitoun apparitions" Zeitoun, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypt starting on 2 April 1968. It is said that Pope Kirellos VI was gifted with prescience, and that he knew who was coming to see him, their needs, before they revealed them, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" \o "God" Gods answers. For instance, it is said that he knew the time of his death. 1960 1961-1970 AD 1961DEATH OF GOD SCHOOL The German poet, Jean Paul wrote a Discourse on the Dead Christ from atop the cosmos: there is no God. Hegel, in his publication wrote of the death of God in Christ, believing that through Christ, God ceased to be pure abstract spirit by becoming immanent in the profane. Nietzsche rejected God altogether. Jean Paul Sartre took as the starting point for existentialism the statement from Dostoevsky If God did not exist, everything would be permitted, therefore since God does not exist man is the author of his own existence, creating his own values and making his own decisions unaided. In the 1960s the thought of the death of God became a rallying cry for certain radical theologians especially in the USA. In The death of God published in 1961 Gabriel Vahanian has attempted to analyse why belief in God has become culturally irrelevant. Vahanian himself believes in a God who is wholly other, the transcendent God, who can never be the object. Such views as these make it difficult to see what advantages they have to offer over atheism and agnosticism. They also raise the question whether the God who is allegedly dead was another figment of the scholars imagination all along. HOWARD, PETER [1908-1965] Oxford Group movement leader. He was educated at Oxford and worked for the Beaverbrook Press until his conversion to Moral Rearmament [see 1921] in 1941 which brought about his resignation. Thereafter he farmed in Suffolk undertaking worldwide journeys for the movement and after Frank Buchmans [see 1938] death in 1961 became its foremost representative. He wrote a large number of books and plays frequently invoking the names of the three persons of the Trinity but no consistent Christian theology can be said to underline his work. NEW DELHI ASSEMBLY [1961] The third assembly of the World Council of Churches [see 1948] held in India with the theme Jesus Christ the Light of the World. Decisions and features of the assembly include the merger of the W.C.C. with the International Missionary Council [see 1921]; approval given to membership application from 23 churches, including the Russian Orthodox Church and two Pentecostal churches from Chile, adding 71 million members to the movement; and the admission of five official Roman Catholic observers. Problems were encountered, among them the language barrier, time pressures, the subordination of delegates to preparation for the assembly, verbose papers, and the distinctions between clergy and laity. Anti-Semitism, proselytism, religious liberty, and concern for refugees were discussed. NIEMOLLER, MARTIN [1892-1984] German theologian who trained at the University of Munster and during World War I served as a submarine commander in the German Navy. He was ordained into ministry in 1924 and in 1931 became pastor of a fashionable church in Berlin. He soon joined with others such as Bonhoeffer [see 1945] and Hildebrandt to oppose Hitlers Nazi rule and use of the Evangelical Church. Niemoller helped form and became president of the Pastors Emergency League in 1933 which voiced its opposition to the Nazi anti-Jewish laws and he made a brave protest to Hitler in person but was unsuccessful. He was arrested and imprisoned first at Sachsenhausen and then at Dachau concentration camps from 1937 to 1945. After the war he served as president in areas of the Evangelical Church from 1945 to 1964 and in 1961 he was elected one of the presidents of the World Council of Churches and became an ardent pacifist. RAMSEY, ARTHUR MICHAEL Archbishop of Canterbury [1961-1974]. He was born in Cambridge in 1904. His father was a Congregationalist and mathematician and his mother was a socialist and suffragette. He was educated at Repton School and Magdalene College Cambridge, where he was president of the Cambridge Union Society. During this time in Cambridge he came under the influence of the Anglo-Catholic dean of Corpus Christi College, Edwyn Clement Hoskyns. He was ordained in 1928 and became a curate inLiverpool, where he was influenced byCharles Raven. In 1950, he became theregius professor of divinityat Cambridge but after only a short time, in 1952, he was appointed bishop of Durham. In 1956 he became archbishop of York and, in 1961, archbishop of Canterbury. During his time as archbishop he travelled widely and saw the creation of the General Synod. Retirement ages for clergy were also introduced. As an Anglo-Catholic with a Nonconformist background, Ramsey had a broad religious outlook. He had a particular regard for the Eastern Orthodox concept of glory. During theJ.A.T. Robinson Honest to God controversy, he published a short response entitled Image Old and New, in which he engaged seriously with Robinsons ideas. He made a barefoot visit to the grave of Mahatma Gandhi. However, he declined to become involved in some inter-faith activities. Following observations of a religious mission at Cambridge, he had an early dislike of evangelists and mass rallies, which he feared relied too much on emotion. This led him to be critical ofBilly Graham, although the two later became friends and Ramsey even took to the stage at a Graham rally in Rio de Janeiro. One of his later books,The Charismatic Christ(1973), engaged with thecharismatic movement. Ramsey believed there was no decisive theological argument against women priests, although he was not entirely comfortable with this development. The first women priests in theAnglican Communionwere ordained during his time as archbishop of Canterbury and in retirement he received communion from a woman priest in the United States. Ramsey was active in the ecumenical movement, and while archbishop of Canterbury in 1966 he met Pope Paul VI in Rome, where the pope presented him with the piscopal (bishops) ring he had worn as archbishop of Milan. These warm relations with Rome caused him to be dogged by protests by Protestant fundamentalists, particularly Ian Paisley. Ramsey also enjoyed friendship with the orthodox patriarch of Constantinople, Athenagoras, and Alexius, patriarch of Moscow. His willingness to talk to officially-sanctioned churches in the Eastern Bloc led to criticisms fromRichard Wurmbrand. He also supported efforts to unite theChurch of England with the Methodist Church, and was depressed when the plans fell through. Ramsey disliked the power of the government over the church. His support for liberalising the laws against homosexuality brought him enemies in the House of Lords. Ramsey also created controversy over his call for military action against the Ian Smith regime in Rhodesia, and in his opposition to theVietnam War. He opposed curbs on immigration to the UK of Kenyan Asians, which he saw as a betrayal by Britain of a promise. He was also against apartheid, and he left an account of a very frosty encounter with John Vorster. He was also a critic of Augusto Pinochet. Ramsey also opposed the granting of aid money by theWorld Council of Churches to guerrilla groups. After retiring as archbishop of Canterbury in 1974 he was created alife peer, as Baron Ramsey of Canterbury enabling him to remain in theHouse of Lordswhere he had previously sat as one of thelords spiritual. Michael Ramsey had no children. He succeeded Geoffrey Francis Fisher [see 1945] and was succeeded by Frederick Donald Coggan [see 1974]. 1962VATICAN 2 The second Vatican Council was the unexpected project of one whose election as pope was looked on as being an interim appointment because of his age, but whose pontificate was to prove a landmark in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. Pope John XXIII had been in office only 90 days when in January 1959 he declared his intention of convening the 21st ecumenical council. The council had four sessions ranging from 1962 until 1965 with John XXIII dying before its conclusion. One area of significant change was the approach to those who had been classified as heretics and were now considered separated brethren yet at the same time John made it clear that reunion meant their return to the one true church and to the pope as centre of unity. 1963PAUL VI Pope [1963-1978] He was educated at a Jesuit institute but because of ill health stayed at home while studying in the seminary. After ordination in 1920 he went to Rome for post graduate studies at the Gregorian University becoming a chaplain at the university in 1924. In 1954 Pius XII appointed him archbishop of Milan and during his time there he tried to work for social justice for the workers. Paul was named cardinal by John XXIII in 1958 and became his successor on 30th June 1963. Vatican II resumed on the 29th September 1963 opened by a papal appeal for renewal and unity. At the end of Vatican II Paul promised a re-organisation of the curia. Following the habit of John XXIII, Paul visited the ill and those in prison. The magnitude and depth of the reforms affecting all areas of church life during his pontificate exceeded similar reform policies of his predecessors and successors. Paul VI was a Marian devotee, speaking repeatedly to Marian congresses and mariological meetings, visiting Marian shrines and issuing three Marian encyclicals. Following his famous predecessor Ambrose of Milan, he named Mary to be the Mother of the Church during the Vatican Council. Paul VI sought dialogue with the world, with other Christians, religions, atheism, excluding nobody. He saw himself as a humble servant for a suffering humanity and demanded significant changes of the rich in American and Europe in favour of the poor in the Third World. His position on birth control and other issues were controversial in Western Europe and North America, but applauded in Eastern and Southern Europe and Latin America. His pontificate took place during sometimes revolutionary changes in the world, student revolts, the Vietnam War and other upheavals and he tried to understand it all but at the same time defend the Deposit of Faith as it was entrusted to him. Paul VI died on 6th August 1978. He succeeded John XXIII [see 1958] and was succeeded by John Paul I [see 1978]. 1964KING, MARTIN LUTHER, JR. [1929-1968] American civil rights leader born in Atlanta Georgia and educated at Boston University. He became pastor of Drexler Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery Alabama in 1954 and grew to national prominence as the leader of the movement to secure equal rights for Negroes through non-violent mass demonstrations, beginning with the Montgomery bus boycott of 1956. He organised the Southern Christian Leadership Conference [see 1957] and was the leading figure in the March on Washington in 1963. King received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 and was assassinated in Memphis Tennessee in 1968. 1965 1966BLAKE, EUGENE Ecumenical leader and general secretary of the W.C.C. [19661972]. He was educated at Princeton and Edinburgh and taught for a time in India. From 1932 to 1951 he was a pastor and in 1966 became general secretary to the World Council of Churches. Blake is famous for a sermon in 1960 in San Francisco where he suggested a union of a number of protestant denominations. STRONG, SIR PHILIP NIGEL WARRINGTON [1899-1983] Anglican primate in Australia who graduated in 1921 from Cambridge after service in World War I and the following year was ordained to serve in the diocese of Durham. He became a vicar in 1931 and five years later was consecrated bishop of New Guinea. Bishop Strong, women missionaries, fifteen of his clergy and three laymen chose to remain at their place when the Japanese occupation came. The death in June 1942 of eight missionaries and two Papuan Christians put a heavy burden on him but he devoted his energies unsparingly to the care of Papuan Christians and Australian soldiers alike and was frequently exposed to great danger. After the war he fostered the steady expansion of the increasing indigenous church and in 1960 consecrated a Papuan as assistant bishop, the first indigenous person anywhere in the Pacific to attain such an office. In 1962 Bishop Strong was elected archbishop of Brisbane and in 1966 became the primate of the Church of England in Australia. He was knighted in 1970 which is a rare award for a churchman. WHEATON DECLARATION A statement adopted by the Congress on the Churchs Worldwide Mission at Wheaton College in 1966. The meeting was called by the Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association [see 1917] and the Evangelical Foreign Missions Association [see 1945] with representatives from 71 countries. The resultant document dealt with many different issues discussed at the conference and clearly asserted biblical authority, proclamation of the Gospel, and social action as evangelicals. WORLD CONGRESS ON EVANGELISM This major global gathering devoted to fulfilling Christs Great Commission to evangelise the earth was held in 1966 in West Berlin. Major ecumenical assemblies and conferences had been sponsored by the World Council of Churches [see 1948] to discuss church unity, faith an order, and church and society concerns. The World Congress on Evangelism was an effort inspired by the massive crusades of evangelist Billy Graham [see 1954] who served as honorary chairman. It drew participants dedicated to evangelism from more than 100 countries with over 76 church bodies present. The Berlin conference achieved a significant correlation of theological and evangelistic concerns. Churchmen singled out as critically important target areas for engagement: the expanding great cities; the 20 million college and university students; the mass media; involvement of the laity; the world of computer technology; and the social dimensions of human life. The World Congress stimulated subsequent regional and national conferences in many areas of the world. 1967CONFESSION OF 1967 The confession was part of the merger of the United Presbyterian Church of North America and the USA Presbyterian Church. Its statement about reconciliation in society includes exhortations for the church to act in international conflicts pleading for a search for peace even at risk to national security; as well as racial discrimination and poverty. 1968NICHOLAS VI Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1968-1986] see 1939 and 1987. The see was vacant 1966-1968. SCIENTOLOGY Founded by Lafayette Ronald Hubbard, a millionaire, US naval officer and explorer. The Church of Scientology teaches what it calls an applied religious philosophy aiming at spiritual recovery and the increase of individual ability. It continued to expand and in 1968 claimed 2 to 3 million followers with its international headquarters near London. Scientology is a type of mind cure movement, more sophisticated than those known in the West for more than a century. It is notable only as an example of the sort of mental and spiritual panacea which is often sought in times of stress by those who are strangers to living faith. UPPSALA ASSEMBLY OF THE W.C.C. [1968] The fourth assembly of the Word Council of Churches. Held in Uppsala Sweden, it had as its theme Behold I make all things new and has been described as the most document laden Christian gathering in the last 900 years. The major issues were the gap between rich and poor nations and the need to humanise the world. The main work proceeded in six study sections which were [1] The Holy Spirit and the Catholicity of the Church [2] Renewal in Mission [3] World Economic and Social Development, [4] Toward Justice and Peace in International Affairs [5] Worship and [6] Toward New Styles of Living. A joint working group was established by the assembly to work out principles of co-operation. The assembly also established a new secretariat on racial equality and admitted four new denominations. 1969SHEEN, FULTON JOHN [1895-1979] American Roman Catholic archbishop and broadcaster who graduated from the University of Louvain. Sheen was ordained in 1919 and taught philosophy at the University from 1926 to 1950 and then until 1966 was national director of the Society for Propagation of the Faith. From 1930 to 1952 he made radio broadcasts called the Catholic Hour which were heard around the world. During this period he was also preacher at St Patricks Cathedral in New York. His telecast Life is Worth Living was seen by an estimated 30 million each week from 1951 to 1957. He was made bishop of Rochester in 1967and in 1969 archbishop of Newport, Wales. Sheen authored many books. 1970ELIAS IV Patriarch of Antioch [1970-1979] see also 1958 and 1979. NEW ENGLISH BIBLE Published in 1970, rendering the scriptures into timeless English. NORTH INDIA, CHURCH OF A union of six denominations inaugurated in November 1970 at Nagpur. The six were Anglicans, the United Church of Northern India, Baptists, Methodists of the British and Australian conferences, Church of the Brethren, and the Disciples of Christ, giving a total membership of about 600,000. Initially 19 dioceses were formed stretching from Assam in the north to Andhra Pradesh. Efforts for union had begun in 1924 with the union of the Presbyterians and Congregationalist and further efforts were made in 1929. In two respects the Church of North India differed from the Church of South India [see 1947] as the Church in South India began with a mixed ministry which had limited recognition by other churches whilst the Church of North India avoided such a mixed ministry by unification of the denominations. The Church of North India also permitted both infant baptism and believers baptism. Where there was no infant baptism there was to be a service of infant dedication, and believers baptism was to be followed by a service admitting to church membership, which paralleled the Confirmation service for those baptised as infants. REES, THOMAS BONNER [1911-1970] English evangelist who was converted in his teens and immediately engaged in active evangelism. He subsequently became youth organiser and lay worker of St Nicholas Church in Sevenoaks Kent. He also joined with the Church Pastoral Aid Society in arranging camps for London slum boys. After leaving Sevenoaks Rees conducted many missions in Northern Ireland where thousands were converted. He served on the staff of Scripture Union for several years. After World War II he conducted 54 mass rallies in the Royal Albert Hall London and went to America more than 50 times for campaigns, Bible conferences, and church retreats, and was a speaker at Keswick. 1971 ONWARDS 1971JERUSALEM CONFERENCE ON BIBLICAL PROPHECY [1971] Most Protestants travelling to Bible lands are evangelical believers whose faith embrace a belief, not only in Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah of the Old Testament prophecies but also in His return to judge the world and fully establish His kingdom of God. The Jerusalem Conference in June 1971 attracted some 1500 evangelicals from 32 nations to hear speakers expound on eschatological themes. The programme concentrated mainly on widely shared evangelical views and reflected differences only as a secondary item. It was considered that the lively expectation of Christs return would require more earnest missionary activity in fulfilment of the entrusted Great Commission, and also a more vigorous quest for social justice and widespread repentance and moral renewal since the risen Lord will judge men and nations for their misdeeds. Most participants saw in the return of the Jews to Palestine as a significant fulfilment of Old Testament prophecies. SHENOUDA III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria [1971-Present] see 1959 A graduate of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo_University" \o "Cairo University" Cairo University and the Coptic Orthodox Seminary he became a monk after joining the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Monastery" \o "Syrian Monastery" Syrian Monasteryof the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Mary" \o "Virgin Mary" Ever-Virgin Mary the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theotokos" \o "Theotokos" Theotokos, where he was later elevated to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priesthood" \o "Priesthood" Priesthood. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Cyril_VI_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria" Pope Kirellos VI summoned him to the patriarchate where he consecrated him HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" General Bishop for Christian Education and as Dean of the Coptic Orthodox Theological Seminary, whereupon he assumed the name Shenouda, which was the name of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Saints" \o "Coptic Saints" Coptic Saint and two previous Popes: HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Shenouda_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope Shenouda of Alexandria" Shenouda I(859-880) and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Shenouda_II_of_Alexandria" \o "Pope Shenouda II of Alexandria" Shenouda II(10471077). He has served as Pope of Alexandria since 1971, presiding over a worldwide expansion of the Coptic Orthodox Church. During his papacy, Pope Shenouda III has appointed the first-ever HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop" \o "Bishop" bishops to preside over HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" \o "North America" North American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese" \o "Diocese" dioceses that now contain over two hundred parishes (200 in the USA and 23 in Canada and 1 in Mexico), up from four in 1971, as well as the first bishops in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" \o "Australia" Australia and the first Coptic Churches and bishops in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America" \o "South America" South America. He is known for his commitment to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenism" \o "Ecumenism" ecumenism and has, since the 1970s, advocated inter-denominational Christian dialogue. He devotes his writings, teachings and actions to spread and propagate for the rules of understanding, peace, dialogue and forgiveness. 1972DEMETRIUS I HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1972-1991] succeeded Athenagoras I [see 1948]. Before his election as patriarch he served as metropolitan bishop of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imvros" \o "Imvros" Imvros. On November 30, 1979, he proclaimed the establishment of the official theological dialogue between the Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Church with Pope HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Paul_II" \o "John Paul II" John Paul II. He also met with two different archbishops of Canterbury. In 1987 he travelled to Rome where he was received by the pope. At a solemn ceremony in St. Peters Basilica, the patriarchs of East and West together recited, in Greek, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of the Church as originally expressed without the filioque. UNITED REFORMED CHURCH Britains first union across denominational lines took place in 1972 when the Congregational Church in England and Wales merged with the Presbyterian Church of England. Negotiations had gone on since 1945. Less than 20% of the Congregationalists had exercised their right to vote and, on the other hand, some Congregationalists planned to opt out and continue as a Congregational association. In the much smaller Presbyterian Church, the two congregations in the Channel Islands declined to enter the new body and were accepted into the Church of Scotland. The United Reformed Church had about 1100 ministers at the time of union. 1973ABORTION Criminal abortion of illegitimate and unwanted legitimate pregnancy is widespread. Recent liberalising legislation in Scandinavia [1935] Britain [1967] and the USA [1973] has resulted in a flood of abortions the vast majority of which being requested for merely emotional disturbance due to situation conflicts. Under the Soviets in some countries in Eastern Europe up to four of every five pregnancies were aborted. The moral dilemma of weighing the value of a foetus with all its human and spiritual potentials against the cost to the life of the mother and existing family is very significant. 1974COGGAN, FREDERICK DONALD Archbishop of Canterbury [1974-1980]. Born in Highgate, London, Coggan was educated at Merchant Taylors School, Northwood and St Johns College, Cambridge. He studied Oriental languages from 1928 to 1931 and took a first in both parts of the tripos, achieving a rare and distinguished double first. Coggan then took up a post as a lecturer in Semitic languages at the University of Manchester from 1931 to 1934, a professor of the New Testament at Wycliffe College in Toronto from 1937 to 1944, and principal ofLondon College of Divinity from 1944 to 1956. He was ordained a priest in 1935, appointed bishop of Bradford in 1956 and translated to archbishop of York in 1965. After his retirement as archbishop of Canterbury he was granted a life peerage and made Baron Coggan, of Canterbury and Sissinghurst in the County ofKent. His tenure as archbishop is noted for his strong support for the ordination of women, although this did not happen in the Church of England until 1994, having proposed it at the Lambeth Conference in 1970. His comparatively brief tenure was marked by his boldness, orderliness and punctuality. Aside from his duties of his primacy, he was a prolific writer and preacher. Among his other roles was being honorary president of the United Bible Societies from 1957 to 1976. His excellent knowledge of the scriptures meant he made an enormous contribution to the furthering of the organisation. He also founded the Lord Coggan Memorial Fund which helped to supply Russian children with copies of the Bible. Known for his warm welcome, he is commonly credited with remarking that The art of hospitality is to make guests feel at home when you wish they were. Lord Coggan died in Winchester. He succeeded Arthur Michael Ramsey [see 1961] and was succeeded by Robert Alexander Kennedy Runcie [see 1980]. LAUSANNE CONGRESS ON WORLD EVANGELISATION [1974] Convened by an international group of 142 evangelical leaders under the honorary chairmanship of Dr Billy Graham, this congress aimed to proclaim the Biblical basis of true evangelism; to relate Biblical truth to contemporary issues; to share and strengthen unity and love in Christ; to identify those yet unreached with the gospel; to learn from each other the patterns of evangelism the Holy Spirit is using today; to awaken Christian consciences to the implications of expressing Christs love in attitude and actions; to develop co-operative strategies toward partnership in the work; to pray together for the congress that it might notably further world evangelism; and to be Gods people, available for His purpose in the world. Lausanne was the culmination of the 1966 World Congress on Evangelism and a series of national and regional congresses. 1978JOHN PAUL I Pope [1978]. He reigned as pope and as sovereign of Vatican City from 26 August 1978 until his death 33 days later. His reign is among theshortest in papal history, resulting in the most recent Year of Three Popes. John Paul I was the first pope born in the 20th century and the first to have a double name which he put down to his admiration of the two previous incumbents. His father was a bricklayer and he entered the minor seminary of Feltre in 1923, where his teachers found him too lively and later went on to themajor seminaryof Belluno. During his stay at Belluno, he attempted to join theJesuits but was denied. Ordained a priest in 1935, John Paul served as a curate in his native Forno de Canale before becoming a professor and the vice-rector of the Belluno seminary in 1937. Among the different subjects, he taught dogmatic andmoral theology, canon law, and sacred art. In 1958 he was appointed bishop of Vittorio Veneto by Pope John XXIII and as a bishop he participated in all the sessions of theSecond Vatican Council(1962-1965). In 1969, he was appointed patriarch of Venice by Pope Paul VI who raised him to cardinal in 1973. Catholics were struck by his humility, a prime example being his embarrassment when Paul VI once removed his papal stole and put it on John Paul. Of that event he later said Pope Paul VI made me blush to the roots of my hair in the presence of 20,000 people, because he removed his stole and placed it on my shoulders. Never have I blushed so much! He was elected on the fourth ballot of the August 1978 papal conclave. In Italy he is remembered with the affectionate nickname The Smiling Pope. After his election, John Paul quickly made several decisions that would humanise the office of pope and was the first modern pope to speak in the singular form, using I instead of theroyalwe, though the official records of his speeches were often rewritten in more formal style by traditionalist aides, who reinstated the royal we in press releases. He is also remembered for being the first to refuse the traditional papal coronation. Instead, he chose an investiture to commence his brief papacy. The visit of Jorge Rafael Videla, president of the Argentine junta to the Vatican caused considerable controversy, especially when the pope reminded Videla about human rights violations taking place in Argentina during the so-called Dirty War. The moral theology of John Paul I has been described by some as being very liberal, to the extent that it may have stood a chance of reversing the Churchs opposition to birth control if he had lived longer. For this reason, it has been cited as a significant part of Pope John Paul I conspiracy theories. John Paul I was found dead sitting up in his bed shortly before dawn on 29 September 1978, just 33 days into his papacy. The Vatican reported that the 65-year-old pope most likely died the previous night of a heart attack. He succeeded Paul VI [see 1963] and was succeeded by John Paul II [see below]. JOHN PAUL II Pope [1978-2005]. John Paul II was born Karol Jz e f W o j t y Ba o n 1 8 t h M a y 1 9 2 0 a n d s e r v e d a s P o n t i f f f o r a l m o s t 2 7 y e a r s . H i s w a s t h e s e c o n d l o n g e s t p o n t i f i c a t e ; o n l y P o p e P i u s I X s e r v i n g l o n g e r . H e w a s t h e o n l y P o l i s h p o p e a n d t h e f i r s t n o n - I t a l i a n p o p e s i n c e D u t c h p o p e A d r i a n V I [ 1 5 2 2 3 ] . B o r n t h e y o u n g e st of three children his two siblings died young. His mother died when he was eight. He was athletic as a young man playing soccer as a goal keeper sometimes as a substitute for a local Jewish team if they were short of players. In 1938 he went to university to study languages for which he had great talent speaking twelve languages which served him well in his pontificate. The university was closed by the Nazis in 1939. His father died in 1941 leaving him at 20 years of age the sole survivor of his family. After the invasion of Poland all able-bodied males were required to work, and from 1940 to 1944 he variously worked as a messenger for a restaurant, a manual labourer in a limestone quarry, and for a chemical factory to avoid being deported to Germany. He stated that he began thinking seriously about the priesthood after his fathers death, and that his vocation gradually becamean inner fact of unquestionable and absolute clarity. In October 1942, increasingly aware of his calling to the priesthood, he knocked on the door of the archbishops palace inKrakw, and declared that he wanted to study for the priesthood. Soon after, he began courses in the clandestineunderground seminary run by the archbishop. On 29 February 1944, he was knocked down by a Germantruck. Unexpectedly, the Germans tended to him and sent him to a hospital. He spent two weeks there recovering from a severe concussion and a shoulder injury. This accident and his survival seemed to him a confirmation of his priestly vocation. On 6 August 1944, Black Sunday, the Gestapo rounded up young men in Krakw to avoid an uprising but he escaped by hiding in the basement of his uncles home while German troops searched upstairs. More than eight thousand men and boys were taken into custody that day, but he escaped to the archbishops palace, where he remained in hiding until after the Germans left. On the night of 17 January 1945, the Germans fled the city and the students reclaimed the ruinedseminary. On completion of his studies he was ordained in 1946. He studied theology in Rome receiving a doctorate in sacred theology. He returned to Poland in the 1948. During the next ten years he earned a second doctorate, did parish work and taught at the university. In 1958 he at 38 years of age became the youngest bishop in Poland. Beginning in October 1962 he took part in the Second Vatican Council(19621965). On 13th January 1964, Pope Paul VI appointed him archbishopofKrakw, and further promoted him to cardinal in June 1967, and in 1978 he was elected pope as a compromise candidate after the conservative and liberal candidates found that the cardinals were polarised. John Paul II has been widely acclaimed as one of the most influential leaders of the twentieth century. It is widely agreed that he was instrumental in ending communism in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe as well as significantly improving theCatholic Churchs relations with Judaism, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and theAnglican Communion. Though criticised for his opposition to contraception and the ordination of women, as well as his support for the Second Vatican Council and its reform of the Liturgy, he has also been praised for his firm, orthodox Catholic stances in these areas. He was one of the most-travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his pontificate. He was fluent in many languages: Italian, French, German, English, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Croatian, Ancient Greek and Latin as well as his native Polish. He was also known to speak someAsian languages like Tagalog and Papuan. As part of his special emphasis on theuniversal call to holiness, he beatified 1,340 people and canonised 483 Saints which was more than the combined tally of his predecessors during the last five centuries. He succeeded John Paul I [see above] and was succeeded by Benedict XVI [see 2005]. 1979IGNATIUS IV Patriarch of Antioch [1979-present] see also 1970. 1980NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION of the Bible published. RUNCIE, ROBERT ALEXANDER KENNEDY Archbishop of Canterbury [1980-1991]. He was born and spent his early life in Great Crosby, a suburb of Liverpool to middle class and rather non-religious parents. He initially attended St Lukes Church, Crosby, before switching to the Anglo-Catholic St Faiths Church about a mile down the road. He was educated atMerchant Taylors School, Crosby,before going up to Brasenose College, Oxford. He earned a commission in theScots GuardsduringWorld War II, serving as atank commanderand earning theMilitary Crossfor two feats of bravery in March 1945: he rescued one of his men from a crippled tank under heavy enemy fire, and the next day took his own tank into an exceptionally exposed position in order to knock out threeanti-tank guns. In May 1945 he was among the first British troops to enter Bergen-Belsen. After the surrender ofNazi Germany, he served with the occupying forces inCologne and then with the boundary commission dealing with the future status of the Free Territory of Trieste. Runcie studied for ordination at Westcott House, Cambridge where he received a diploma, rather than a second bachelors degree in theology. He was ordained in the diocese of Newcastle in 1950 to serve as a curate rather than the conventional minimum three year curacy, after only two years Runcie was invited to return to Westcott House as chaplain and, later, vice-principal. In 1956 he was elected fellow and dean of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he would meet his future wife, Rosalind, the daughter of the college bursar. In 1960 he returned to the world of the theological college, becoming principal of Cuddesdon, near Oxford, where he spent ten years and transformed what had been a rather monastic and traditionallyAnglo-Catholicinstitution into a stronghold of the liberal catholic wing of the Church of England. In this period his name became more and more strongly spoken of as a future bishop, and speculation was confirmed when he was appointedbishop of St Albansin 1970. Runcie was selected asarchbishop of Anterburyin 1979. During his time as archbishop of Canterbury he witnessed a breaking down of traditionally convivial relations between the Conservative Party and theChurch of England, which was habitually if rather inaccurately described as the Tory party at prayer. In 1981 Runcie officiated at the marriage ofCharles, prince of WalestoLady Diana Spencer, despite suspecting privately that they were ill-suited and that their marriage would not last. With a dramatic gesture of goodwill, he knelt in prayer with Pope John Paul II in Canterbury Cathedral during John Pauls visit to Great Britain in 1982. In 1985 there was friction between the Church of England and members of the Conservative Government, in particularNorman Tebbit, over the churchs report Faith in the City, which criticised the governments handling of social problems in British inner-city areas. As a result of this, Tebbit became a strong supporter of thedisestablishmentof theChurch of England, claiming that institutions affiliated to the British state should not express what he saw as overtly partisan political views. When Runcie visited thepopein 1989, he set out to reconcile theChurch of Englandwith theChurch of Rome. Runcie advocated the papacy as having a primacy of honour rather than primacy of jurisdiction over the Anglican Church, a proposal consistent with the report of the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission. The pope did not go along with this, however, claiming that the papacy already has primacy of jurisdiction over all other churches regardless of whether or not this is officially recognised and also that the doctrines of theRoman Catholic Churchwould not change to accommodate Runcies proposals. In terms of internal Anglican matters, much of Runcies archiepiscopate was taken up with the debate over whether to proceed with the ordination of womenin the Church of England as well as the fallout from the ordination of women priests and consecration of women bishops in other parts of the Anglican Communion. The churchs attitude to homosexuality was also a divisive issue during this period, although it did not assume the crisis proportions it would in the late 1990s and 2000s. Although in public Runcie stuck to official Church of England policy as set out in the publication Issues in Human Sexuality, that homosexual practice was not ideal for lay people and unacceptable for clergy, in private he held a more sympathetic view and consciously ordained a number of openly gay men as priests. On his retirement as archbishop of Canterbury, he was created alife peer. He succeeded Frederick Donald Coggan [see 1974] and was succeeded by George Leonard Carey [see 1991]. 1987PARTHENIUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1987-1996] see 1968 and 1997. 1991BARTHOLOMEW I HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople [1991-present] succeeded Demetrius I [see 1972]. He belongs ethnically to the small remnants of the Greek community in Turkey. He studied theologyas an undergraduate at the Patriarchal Theological School orHalki Seminary, from which he graduated with highest honours in 1961, and was immediatelyordained deacon, receiving the nameBartholomew. Bartholomew fulfilled his military service in theTurkish armyas a reserve officer between 1961 and 1963. From 1963 to 1968, Bartholomew pursued his postgraduate studies at thePontifical Oriental Institutein Rome, the Ecumenical Institute of Bossey in Switzerland and theLudwig Maximilians University of Munich in Germany. His doctoral research was on theCanon Law. The same year he became a lecturer in thePontifical Gregorian Universityin Rome. After returning toIstanbulin 1968, he took a position at the Patriarchal Theological Seminary of Halki, where he was ordained a priest in 1969, by Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I. WhenDemetrius I became ecumenical patriarch in 1972 and established the patriarchal office, he selected Bartholomew as its director. On Christmas of 1973, Bartholomew became metropolitan of Philadelphia, and was renamed as director of the patriarchal office until his enthronement as metropolitan ofChalcedonin 1990. From March 1974 until his enthronement as ecumenical patriarch, he was a member of theHoly Synodas well as of many synodical committees. He speaks modern Greek, Turkish, Italian, German, French and English; he is also fluent in classical Greek and Latin. As ecumenical patriarch, he has been particularly active internationally. One of his first focuses has been on rebuilding the once-persecuted Eastern Orthodox Churchesof the formerEastern Blocfollowing the fall of Communismthere in 1990. As part of this effort he has worked to strengthen ties amongst the various national churches and patriarchates of the Eastern Orthodox Communion. He has also continued the reconciliation dialogue with theRoman CatholicChurch started by his predecessors, and initiated dialogue with other faiths, including other Christiansects,Muslims, andJews. CAREY, GEORGE LEONARD Archbishop of Canterbury [1991-2002]. George Carey was born in the East End of London. He attended Bonham Road Primary School in Dagenham, failed his eleven plus (admission to secondary school) and attended Bifrons Secondary Modern School before leaving at the age of 15. He worked for the London Electricity Board as an office boy, before doing his National Service at 18 in the RAF as a Wireless Operator, during which time he served in Iraq. He became a Christian at 17, when he attended church with his friends: I had a conversion experience which was very real... There were no blinding lights, simply a quiet conviction I had found something, he later said. During his National Service he decided to seek ordination and after his discharge he studied intensely, gaining 6O-levelsand 3A-levelsin 15 months, before attendingKings College London. He graduated in 1962 with a bachelor of divinity degree and wasordained. He later went on to earn a doctorate. He was a curate at St Marys Islington, worked at Oak Hill Theological College. In 1982 he was appointed principal of Trinity College, Bristol, and appointed bishop of Bath and Wells in 1988. He was enthroned as archbishop of Canterbury on 19th April 1991 and retired from the position on 31 October 2002 and was created a life peer one month later. As archbishop of Canterbury, he promoted a decade of evangelism. He was also praised for his administrative efficiency. George Careys theological roots are in the evangelical section of the Church of England. He strongly supported the ordination of women. He is tolerant of divorce and divorced people and the remarriage of divorced people. His son is divorced and he supported the remarriage of the prince of Wales to Camilla Parker-Bowles whose first husband is living. He opposed homosexual relationships amongst members of the clergy, although he admits having consecrated twobishopswhom he suspected of having same-sex partners. He presided over theLambeth Conferenceof 1998 and actively supported the resolution at that conference which uncompromisingly rejected all homosexual practice asincompatible with scripture. Since his retirement he has spoken out regarding a number of subjects creating controversy in some places. He succeeded Robert Alexander Kennedy Runcie [see 1980] and was succeeded by Rowan Douglas Williams [see 2003]. 1997PETER VII Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [1997-2004] see 1987 and 2004. Born in Cyprus he had served as a deacon and a priest, and was consecrated as a bishop in 1983. He had a close rapport with his predecessor, Patriarch Parthenius III of Alexandria and assumed the latters post after his death in 1996. He reigned as Patriarch for seven years. His tenure was marked by renewed missionary efforts in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya" \o "Kenya" Kenya, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda" \o "Uganda" Uganda, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" \o "Madagascar" Madagascar, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon" \o "Cameroon" Cameroon, and elsewhere across the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" \o "Africa" African continent. He died along with 16 others (including three other bishops of the Church of Alexandria when the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter" \o "Helicopter" helicopter carrying them crashed into the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea" \o "Aegean Sea" Aegean Sea while en route to the monastic enclave of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Athos" \o "Mount Athos" Mount Athos in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece" \o "Greece" Greece. 2003WILLIAMS, ROWAN DOUGLAS Archbishop of Canterbury [2003- ]. Rowan Douglas Williams is an Anglican bishop and theologian. He is the current 104th archbishop of Canterbury, Williams was previously bishop of Monmouth and archbishop of Wales, making him the first archbishop of Canterbury in modern times not to be appointed from within the Church of England and the first bishop to serve as primate of two provinces of the Anglican Communion. He had spent much of his earlier career as an academic at the Universities ofCambridgeandOxford successively. His primacy has been marked by much speculation that the Anglican Communion is on the verge of fragmentation and by Williams attempts to keep all sides talking to one another. Williams was born in Swansea, Wales, into a Welsh-speaking Presbyterian family who converted to Anglicanism in 1961. He was educated at the state school in Swansea, at Christs College, Cambridge, where he studied theology, and at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took his PhD in 1975. He lectured at the College of the Resurrection in Mirfield, West Yorkshire for two years. In 1977 he returned to Cambridge to teach theology, first at Westcott House, having been ordained deacon in Ely Cathedral that year and was ordained priest in 1978. Unusually, he undertook no formal curacy until 1980 when he served at St Georges Chesterton until 1983, having been appointed as a lecturer in divinity at the University of Cambridge. In 1984 he became dean and chaplain of Clare College, Cambridge and, in 1986, at the very young age of 36, he was appointed to the Lady Margaret professorshipof divinity at the University of Oxford and thus also a canonof Christ Church. He was awarded the degree ofdoctor of divinityin 1989. In 1991 Williams was appointed and consecrated bishop of Monmouth in the Church in Wales. In 1997 he was proposed as a potential bishop of Southwark. George Carey, the then archbishop of Canterbury, asked Williams to distance himself from his writings sympathetic to the cause of homosexuality, but he declined and was not nominated to the post. He continued in his post as bishop of Monmouth and in 1999 he was elected archbishop of Wales. In 2002 he was announced as the successor to George Carey as archbishop of Canterbury. He was enthronedon 27 February 2003. Williams appointment to Canterbury was widely predicted. A churchman who had demonstrated a huge range of interests in social and political matters, he was widely regarded, by academics and others, as a figure who could make Christianity credible to the intelligent unbeliever. As a patron ofAffirming Catholicismhis appointment was a considerable departure from that of his predecessor and his views, not least those expressed in a widely published lecture on homosexuality, were seized on by a number of evangelical and conservative Anglicans. As Rowan Williams is the current archbishop of Canterbury his section will be subject to review. 2004THEODORE II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria [2004 - ] see 1997. He was born in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete" \o "Crete" Crete in 1954. He is a graduate of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rizarios_Ecclesiastical_School&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Rizarios Ecclesiastical School (page does not exist)" Rizarios Ecclesiastical School in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens" \o "Athens" Athens and holds a degree from the Theological Faculty of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle_University_of_Thessaloniki" \o "Aristotle University of Thessaloniki" Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. From 1975 to 1985 he served as Archdeacon and Chancellor of the Holy Metropolis of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lambis_and_Sfakion&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Lambis and Sfakion (page does not exist)" Lambis and Sfakion in Crete, where he developed significant Preaching and Philanthropic activities including hostels for needy youth. From 1985 to 1990 he served as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchal_Exarch" \o "Patriarchal Exarch" Patriarchal Exarch in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" \o "Russia" Russia, based in the Ukrainian city of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odessa" \o "Odessa" Odessa. 2005BENEDICT XVI Pope [2005-]. Born in Bavaria he is theologically conservative, and his teaching and prolific writings defend traditional Catholic doctrine and values. After a long career as a professor of theology at various German universities he was appointed archbishop of Munich and Freising and cardinal by Pope Paul VI in 1977. In 1981, he settled in Rome when he became prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, one of the most important offices of the Roman Curia. At the time of his election as pope, he was also dean of the college of cardinals. During his papacy, Benedict XVI has emphasised what he sees as a need for Europe to return to fundamental Christian values in response to increasing de-Christianisation and secularisation in many developed countries. For this reason, he proclaims relativisms denial of objective truth and more particularly, the denial of moral truths as the central problem of the 21st century. He teaches the importance for the Catholic Church and for humanity of contemplating Gods redemptive love and has reaffirmed the importance of prayer in the face of the activism and the growing secularism of many Christians engaged in charitable work. He was also the founder and patron of the Ratzinger Foundation, a charitable organisation, which makes money from the sale of books and essays written by the Pope, in order to fund scholarships and bursaries for students across the world. He succeeded John Paul II [see 1978]. 2006BIBLE SOCIETIES, LIST OF List of societies as of 2006. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Bible_Societies" \o "United Bible Societies" United Bible Societies(UBS) is a worldwide association of Bible societies. As of January 2006 the UBS has 141 member societies, working in more than 200 countries and territories. They include: The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_and_Foreign_Bible_Society" \o "British and Foreign Bible Society" British and Foreign Bible Society (1804) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Bible_Society" \o "American Bible Society" American Bible Society (1816) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_Society_In_Australia" \o "Bible Society In Australia" Bible Society In Australia (1817) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colombian_Bible_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Colombian Bible Society (page does not exist)" Colombian Bible Society (1825) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bible_Society_New_Zealand&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bible Society New Zealand (page does not exist)" Bible Society New Zealand (1846) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philippine_Bible_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Philippine Bible Society (page does not exist)" Philippine Bible Society (1900) The HYPERLINK "http://www.biblesociety.ca" Canadian Bible Society (1904) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bibelgesellschaft" \o "Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft" Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft [German Bible Society] (1948) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sociedade_B%C3%ADblica_do_Brasil&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Sociedade Bblica do Brasil (page does not exist)" Sociedade Bblica do Brasil [Brazilian Bible Society] (1948) The Bible Society of South Africa The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Bible_Society" \o "Ukrainian Bible Society" Ukrainian Bible Society The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Bible_Society" \o "Russian Bible Society" Russian Bible Society The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Bible_Society" \o "Japanese Bible Society" Japanese Bible Society The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Bible_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Hungarian Bible Society (page does not exist)" Hungarian Bible Society The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slovak_Bible_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Slovak Bible Society (page does not exist)" Slovak Bible Society The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greek_Bible_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Greek Bible Society (page does not exist)" Greek Bible Society Non-UBS Bible Societies The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Bible_Society" \o "International Bible Society" International Bible Society (1809) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinitarian_Bible_Society" \o "Trinitarian Bible Society" Trinitarian Bible Society (1831) The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pennsylvania_Bible_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Pennsylvania Bible Society (page does not exist)" Pennsylvania Bible Society (1808) Other translation groups HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_Bible_Translators" \o "Pioneer Bible Translators" Pioneer Bible Translators (1976) HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Bible_Translation" \o "Institute for Bible Translation" Institute for Bible Translation (1973) HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wycliffe_Bible_Translators" \o "Wycliffe Bible Translators" Wycliffe Bible Translators (1942) Non-translation groups The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Biblical_Federation" \o "Catholic Biblical Federation" Catholic Biblical Federation (1968 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideons_International" \o "Gideons International" Gideons International (1899) HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity_Foundation,_China" \o "Amity Foundation, China" Amity Foundation [China] (1985) BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson Sir R. The Coming Prince [Kregel] Grand Rapids U.S.A. Boettner L [1962] Roman Catholicism [Banner of Truth Trust] London U.K. Douglas J [1962] The New Bible Dictionary [InterVarsity Press] Leicester U.K. Green S.G [1880] Chronological Summary of Bible History [Eyre& Spottiswoode] London U.K. Gibbon E [1788] The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [Dell]New York U.S.A. House H.W. [1981] Chronological and Background Charts of the NewTestament [Zondervan] Grand Rapids U.S.A. Kinder H [1978] Atlas of World History Vol 1&2 [Penguin] Harmondsworth U.K. Josephus F.[1987] Works of Josephus [Hendrickson] Peabody U.S.A. Moses P.J. [2005] Revelation [EBCWA ] Armadale W.A. Australia Pascoe L [1968] Encyclopaedia of Dates and Events [English University Press] London U.K. Robinson E.[1880] Chronological Table of Gospel History [Eyre& Spottiswoode] London U.K. Short A R [1942] Modern Discovery and the Bible [Intervasity Fellowship] London U.K. Smith W Smiths Bible Dictionary [Holman] Philadelphia U.S.A. Stanton D. [var] Prophetic Alert [Roelands] Western Australia Sulman G. [1983] Church History [Unpublished] Tenney M.C.[1975] The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible[Zondervan] Grand Rapids U.S.A. Walton J.H.[1978] Chronological and Background Charts of the Old Testament [Zondervan] Grand Rapids U.S.A. Wood L [1970] A Survey of Israels History [Zondervan] GrandRapids U.S.A. INDEX AAACHEN, COUNCIL OF818AACHEN, SYNOD OF789ABA I540ABBO French Abbot986ABBOT G Archbishop of Canterbury 1611ABBOT G Puritan Writer1640ABBOT L Congregational Minister1888ABELARD P French Philosopher1122ABELONIANS North African Sect 250ABERCIUS INSCRIPTION 182ABERDEEN DOCTORS 1638ABERHART W Alberta Premier Bible Teacher1935ABERNETHY J Irish Presbyterian Minister1718 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abgar" \o "Abgar" ABGAR King of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osroene" \o "Osroene" Edessa206ABJURATION 590ABJURATION, OATH OF 1690ABOLITIONISM 1831ABORTION 1973ABOTT E Educationalist and Writer1865ABRAHAM OF ECCHEL Bible Translator1664ABRAHAM APOCALYPSE Jewish Apocryphal Work130ABRAHAM Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 975ABRAHAM I Patriarch of Jerusalem1468ABRAHAM II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1775ABSALOM Bishop of Lund1178ABSTINENTS385ABYSSINIA350ACACIAN SCHISM484ACACIUS Patriarch of Antioch 459ACACIUS Bishop of Caesarea 366ACACIUS Constantinople Patriarch471ACHILLAS Patriarch of Alexandria 312ACOEMETAE Ascetic sect who never slept534ACOLYTES 1207ACONCIO G Catholic Peace Seeker1557ACRELIUS I Swedish Lutheran and Author1743ACTA SANCTORUM Biographies of the Saints 1643ACTION FRANCAISE Political Pro Monarchy Group1898ACTS, Book of61ADALBERT Archbishop of Bremen1045ADALBERT Bishop of Prague982ALDABERT of Utrecht Northumbrian missionary702ADAM of Chillenden Archbishop of Canterbury1270ADAM of Marsh English Franciscan Scholar 1232ADAM of St Victor Hymn writer1130ADAMS T Puritan Preacher and Author1612ADAMITES Christian fringe sects1421ADAMNAN Abbot of Iona679ADAMSON P Archbishop of St Andrews1576ADDAMS J American Social Reformer1889ADDISON J Hymn Writer 1708ADEODATUS Pope672ADELOPHAGI Fourth century sect365ADHEMAR Le Puy Bishop and Papal Legate1080ADIAPHORISTS Supporters of Philip Melanchthon1548ADMONITION TO PARLIAMENT 15721572ADO Archbishop of Vienne 859ADOPTIANISM200ADRIAN I Pope772ADRIAN II Pope867ADRIAN III Pope884ADRIAN IV Pope1154ADRIAN V Pope1276ADRIAN VI Pope1522AELFRIC Archbishop of Canterbury995AELFRIC Abbot of Eynsham1005AELFSIGE Archbishop of Canterbury958AELHEAH Archbishop of Canterbury1006AEMILIAN Patriarch of Antioch 1062AERIUS Pioneer of monasteries in Pontus355AETHELHARD Archbishop of Canterbury793AETHELNOTH Archbishop of Canterbury1020AETHELRED Archbishop of Canterbury870AETIUS Leader of the Anomoean heretics360AFFIRMATION THE Oaths Act1888AFRICA, ROMAN Augustine 396AFRICA, ROMAN Byzantine re-conquest533AFRICA Roman Christianity196AFRICA ROMAN Muslim conquest707AGAPEMONISM Perfectionist Sect1843AGAPETUS I Bishop of Rome535AGAPETUS II Pope946AGAPIUS Patriarch of Antioch 977AGATHANGELUS I Constantinople Patriarch1826AGATHO Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 665AGATHO Pope678AGATHON Patriarch of Jerusalem 950AGDE, Council of 506AGGREY J African Mediator Between Races1902AGLIPAY G Bishop, Philippines Independent Church1902AGNELLUS of Pisa Franciscan Minister1229AGNES Roman Christian Martyr304AGOBARD Archbishop of Lyons 816AGRICOLA J Reformer 1527AGRICOLA R Dutch humanist 1479AGRICOLA M Bishop of Abo Finland1554AGGRIPA H C Soldier and Scholar1535AGRIPPINUS Patriarch of Alexandria 167AIDAN Bishop of Lindisfarne640AILRED Abbot of Rievaulx 1147AINSWORTH H Puritan Separatist 1604AIRAY H English Puritan1606ALACOQUE M French Visionary1671ALAIN of Lille French Theologian 1184ALARIC Visigoth King410ALBAN British Martyr303ALBERT Antipope 1101ALBERT OF BRANDENBURG1517ALBERT Archbishop of Mainz 1514ALBERT OF PRUSSIA1525ALBERTUS MAGNUS Dominican Theologian1223ALBIGENSIANS Religious group S Europe1209ALBRIGHT J Founder US Evangelical Church1807ALCUIN of York Scholar and Author 804ALDRED Archbishop of York1060ALEANDER G Vatican Librarian 1521ALESUIS A Teacher1535ALLEGIANCE, OATH OF1604ALLEINE J Nonconformist Author1663ALLELINE R Puritan1652ALLEN W Scholar and Cardinal1587ALEXANDER I Bishop of Alexandria 313ALEXANDER II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1059ALEXANDER I Primate of Antioch408ALEXANDER II Patriarch of Antioch695ALEXANDER III Patriarch of Antioch 1928ALEXANDER Bishop of Byzantium314ALEXANDER Primate of Jerusalem213ALEXANDER I Bishop of Rome 105ALEXANDER II Pope1061ALEXANDER III Pope 1159ALEXANDER IV Pope1254ALEXANDER V Antipope1409ALEXANDER VI Pope1492ALEXANDER VII Pope1655ALEXANDER VIII Pope 1689ALEXANDER OF ABONUTICHUS Cult Leader170ALEXANDER of Hales Theologian and Philosopher1236ALEXANDER of Lycopolis Egyptian Writer275ALEXANDER SEVERUS Roman Emperor222ALEXANDER A Professor at Princeton1812ALEXANDER C Irish Hymn Writer1895ALEXANDER C Evangelist Song Leader1902ALEXANDER J American Author 1834ALEXANDER M Anglican Archbishop of Jerusalem1841ALEXANDER S Jewish Philosopher1920ALEXANDRIAN THEOLOGY230ALEXANDROS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 702ALEXIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1025ALFORD H Author and Hymn writer1849ALFRED THE GREAT871ALISON F Founder of Society for Relief of Ministers1755ALL SAINTS DAY359ALLEN E American Soldier and Deist 1784ALLEN R Found African Episcopal Methodist Church1787ALLEN Y American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist" \o "Methodist" Methodist Missionary to China1860ALLINE H Canadian Great Awakening Leader 1775ALLIX P French Reformed Pastor1685ALOGI Obscure Group from Asia Minor 176ALOPEN Syrian missionary to China635ALSTED J German Author1618ALTHAUS P Lutheran Scholar and Author1925ALUMBRADOS Mystical Spanish Sect1612ALYPIUS Bishop of Byzantium166ALYPIUS Bishop of Thagaste418AMANA CHURCH SOCIETY Pietistic Sect1714AMALAR OF METZ Liturgical Writer835AMALRIC French mystic and philosopher1207AMANDUS founder of Belgian monasticism649AMBROSE Bishop of Milan374AMBROSE I Nonconformist Minister and Author1658AMBROSIANS Anabaptist Sect1544AMENT W American Missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China1877AMERICAN ANTI SLAVERY SOCIETY1833AMERICAN BAPTIST CHURCHES1907AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION1814AMERICAN BOARD FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS1810AMERICAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY 1816AMERICAN COUNCIL OF CHRISTIAN CHURCHES 1941AMERICAN INDIANS AND CHRISTIANITY1727AMERICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION1819AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION1846AMERICAN NEGRO CHURCHES1775AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION1836AMERICAN PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL MISSION1835AMERICAN SOUTHERN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION1862AMES W Puritan Theologian1622AMOS Patriarch of Jerusalem594AMPHILOCHIUS Bishop of Iconium373AMPHILOKHOS Primate of Antioch 262AMSDORF N German Reformer and Theologian 1511AMSTERDAM ASSEMBLY 1948AMYRALD M French Protestant1596ANABAPTISTS1523ANACLETUS II Antipope1130ANASTASIA 306ANASTASIOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria607ANASTASIUS I Byzantine Emperor491ANASTASIUS I Patriarch of Antioch561ANASTASIUS II Patriarch of Antioch599ANASTASIUS III Patriarch of Antioch620ANASTASIUS Constantinople Patriarch730ANASTASIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem458ANASTASIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem706ANASTASIUS I Bishop of Rome399ANASTASIUS II Bishop of Rome496ANASTASIUS III Pope911ANASTASIUS III Antipope855ANASTASIUS IV Pope1153ANASTASIUS BIBLIOTHECARIUS Antipope855ANATHASIUS Founder of Byzantine Monasticism961ANATOLIUS Bishop of Constantinople449ANCHORITE or ANCHORESS348ANCYRA, COUNCILS OF 314ANDERSON R Irish Author and Teacher1882ANDOVER CONTROVERSY 1886ANDREAE J Lutheran Scholar1561ANDREAE J V Lutheran Theologian1654ANDREW of Crete Theologian and Hymn writer 692ANDREW of Longjumeau Dominican Missionary 1245ANDREWS C Missionary to India 1904ANDREWS L American Missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii" \o "Hawaii" Hawaii1827ANDREWS L Bishop and Author1605ANDRONIKOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria619ANGELA of Foligno Umbrian Mystic1287ANGELA MERICI Founder of the Order of Ursulines1535ANGELICO F Florentine Painter1409ANGLICAN COMMUNION1867ANGLO SAXON CHURCH663ANIANUS Patriarch of Alexandria61ANICETUS Bishop of Rome155ANNA COMNENA Byzantium Historian1118ANNATES Fund raising in the church1305ANNE Queen of England1702ANNIAS Primate of Antioch 357ANOMOEANS Heretical Arian Sect357ANSCAR Apostle to Scandinavia 831ANSELM Archbishop of Canterbury1093ANSELM of Laon Teacher1076ANSELM of Lucca Bishop of Lucca1073ANTERUS Bishop of Rome235ANTHEMIUS Roman Emperor of the West467ANTHIMOS Patriarch of Jerusalem1788ANTHIMUS I Constantinople Patriarch535ANTHIMUS II Constantinople Patriarch1623ANTHIMUS III Constantinople Patriarch1822ANTHIMUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1840ANTHIMUS V Constantinople Patriarch1841ANTHIMUS VI Constantinople Patriarch1845ANTHIMUS VII Constantinople Patriarch1895ANTHONY of Padua Portuguese Teacher 1210ANTINOMISITIC CONTROVERSY1537ANTIOCH [see also 45, 48]42ANTIOCH, Council of268ANTIOCH, Council of375ANTIOCH, Council of 1139ANTIOCH, Synod of341ANTIPATRIS66ANTIPOPE 1378ANTISEMITISM1940ANTONELLI G Cardinal and Secretary of State1859ANTONIANS271ANTONINUS PIUS Roman Emperor 138ANTONY I Constantinople Patriarch821ANTONY II Constantinople Patriarch893ANTONY III Constantinople Patriarch974ANTONY IV Constantinople Patriarch1389ANTONY OF EGYPT271ANTONIUS Archbishop of Florence 1446ANTWERP, Synod of 1566APHRAATES Syrian writings345APIARIUS African Priest424APPOLINARIUS Bishop of Heiropolis175APOLLINARIUS Bishop of Laodicea361APOLLINARIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria551APOSTOLIC CANONS381APPOLOS 54AQUAVIVA C Fifth General of Jesuit Order1581AQUINAS T Dominican Theologian 1265ARBROATH DECLARATION1320ARBUTHNOTT MISSAL1491ARCADIUS Roman Emperor of the East395ARESSON J Bishop of Holev Iceland1524ARGUE A Canadian Pentecostal 1907ARMENIAN CHURCH 507ARMINIUS J Professor and Theologian 1588ARIMINUM SYNOD359ARISTO of Pella Christian Apologist140ARIUS Presbyter of Alexandria325ARLES, Synods of 314ARMAGH1152ARNAUD H French Waldensian 1689ARNAULD A Jansenism Leader 1643ARNAULD J Jansenism Abbess 1642ARNDT E German Historian and Hymn Writer1817ARNDT J German Lutheran Author 1606ARNDT W Editor Greek Lexicon1957ARNOBIUS the Elder 304ARNOBIUS the Younger439ARNOLD of Bresica Reformer and Martyr1141ARNOLD G German Historian and Songwriter1699ARNOLD M English Poet1857ARNOLD T Anglican Teacher 1828ARNOT F Missionary to Africa1881ARNOT W Preacher and Author1850ARSACIUS Bishop of Constantinople404ARSENIOS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1000ARSENIUS Patriarch of Antioch1285ARSENIUS Constantinople Patriarch1255ARTEMAS Monarchian Heretic195ARTEMIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1845ARTICLES OF RELIGION 1784ARUNDEL T Archbishop of Canterbury1396ASAPH Welsh Bishop600ASBURY F American Methodist Bishop1784ASKEW A Protestant Martyr 1546ASLIPIADES Primate of Antioch 211ASLE R English Martyr1536ASPERGES Sprinkling of the congregation 847ASSEMBLIES OF GOD1924ASSOCIATIONS, LAW OF 1901ASSUMPTIONISTS Catholic Social Ministry 1843ASSYRIAN CHURCH499ASTERIUS THE SOPHIST Arian Theologian341ASTRUC J Physician and Pentateuch Criticism1729ATHANASIOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1250ATHANASIUS The Athonite961ATHANASIUS I Patriarch of Alexandria 328ATHANASIUS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria489ATHANASIUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1276ATHANASIUS IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1417ATHANASIUS I Patriarch of Antioch 1166ATHANASIUS III Patriarch of Antioch 1611ATHANASIUS IV Patriarch of Antioch 1686ATHANASIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1289ATHANASIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1450ATHANASIUS III Constantinople Patriarch1634ATHANASIUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1679ATHANASIUS V Constantinople Patriarch1709ATHANASIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 929ATHANASIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1224ATHANASIUS III Patriarch of Jerusalem1313ATHANASIUS IV Patriarch of Jerusalem 1452ATHANASIUS V Patriarch of Jerusalem1827ATHELGAR Archbishop of Canterbury988ATHELM Archbishop of Canterbury923ATHENAGORAS Christian Apologist from Athens171ATHENAGORAS I Constantinople Patriarch1948ATHENODORUS Bishop of Byzantium 144ATHENS49ATTICUS Bishop of Constantinople406ATTILLA THE HUN 452ATTO II Bishop of Vercelli 924ATTWOOD T English Composer1838AUBER H Hymn Writer and Poet1829AUBURN DECLARATION 1837AUBURN DECLARATION Liberalism Commences 1924AUDIANI Ascetic Sect 323AUGSBERG CONFESSION1530AUGSBERG, INTERIM OF1548AUGSBERG, PEACE OF 1555AUGUSTA J Bohemian Brethren1533AUGUSTIAN CANONS Monastic Orders1079AUGUSTINE Archbishop of Canterbury597AUGUSTINE Bishop of Hippo396AULEN G Swedish Theologian 1933AURELIAN Roman Emperor270AURELIUS Bishop of Carthage391AUSTRALIA1901AUTO DA FE Spanish Inquisition Ceremony1484AUXENTIUS Bishop of Milan355AVAAKUM Russian Leader and Martyr1653AVILIUS Patriarch of Alexandria83AVIGNON Seat pf papacy to 13771309AVITUS Bishop of Vienne490AVITUS Roman Emperor of the West455AYLMER J Bishop of London1576AYLWARD G Missionary to China 1930AZARIAH V Indian Anglican Bishop1912 B BABYLAS Primate of Antioch 237BACH J S German Composer1723BACKUS I Baptist Minister 1751BACON F English Statesman and Philosopher1584BACON L Pastor and Evangelist 1824BACON R English Franciscan Author1257BADBY J Lollard Martyr1410BADER J American Minister & Ecumenist 1932BAEDEKER F Missionary to Russia1877BAEUR B German Radical Scholar1842BAILLIE D Scottish Ecumenist Theologian 1948BAILLIE J Scottish Ecumenist Theologian 1943BAILLIE R Scottish Minister and Author1638BAINBRIDGE C Archbishop of York1509BAIUS M Flemish Catholic Theologian 1567BAKER H Hymn Writer1861BALA TRAINING COLLEGE1837BALBINUS Roman Emperor238BALDWIN of Exeter Archbishop of Canterbury1184BALE J Bishop of Ossory 1552BALFOUR A British Statesman Declaration1917BALL J Presbyterian Author1610BALL J Leader of the Peasants Revolt 1381BALLARD G Founder of the I AM Movement1930BALLOU H Founder Universalist Church 1794BALTIMORE CONFERENCE 1785BAMPTON LECTURES Apologetic Lectures 1780BANCROFT R Archbishop of Canterbury1604BANEZ D Spanish Theologian1580BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY1717BAPTIST WORLD ALLIANCE1905BAPTISTS 1609BARCLAY R Scottish Quaker1677BAR HEBRAEUS Syrian Bishop and Author1250BAR KOKHBA REVOLT 135BARCLAY J Founder of the Bereans1773BARDESANES188BARING-GOULD S Hymn Writer and Author 1865BARKER F Bishop of Sydney1854BARLOW W Bishop and Translator 1548BARMAN DECLARATION Against Nazis 1934BARNABAS 42,45BARNABITES Catholic Mission and Educators 1533BARNADO T Founder of Home for Destitute Boys1870BARNBY J English Composer1885BARNES A Presbyterian Minister and Commentator1830BARNES E Modernist Bishop of Birmingham 1924BARNES R Reformer and Martyr1540BARNETT S Anglican Social Reformer 1872BARNHOUSE D Radio Preacher & Missionary1927BARO P French Reformed Theologian1560BARONIUS C Cardinal1568BARRIER ACT1697BARROW H Church Reformer1593BARROW I Anglican Mathematician 1671BARSUMAS Monophysite heretic leader458BARSUMAS Bishop of Nisbis493BARTH K Swiss Theologian and Author 1921BARTHOLOMEW I Constantinople Patriarch1991BARTHOLOMEW Archbishop of Braga1558BARTHOLOMEW F Italian Painter 1509BARTHOLOMEWS DAY MASSACRE1572BARTHOLOMITES1306BARTHOLOMITES1640BARTON E Mystic Maid of Kent1534BASCIO M Franciscan Reformer 1525BASEL MISSION1815BASHFORD J Missionary to China 1904BASIL of Ancyra336BASIL Patriarch of Antioch 456BASIL THE GREAT Bishop of Caesarea 370BASIL Bishop of Seleucia448BASIL I Constantinople Patriarch970BASIL II Constantinople Patriarch1183BASIL III Constantinople Patriarch1925BASIL Patriarch of Jerusalem 821BASILIDES117BASLE, CONFESSION OF 1534BASLE COUNCIL1431BASNAGE J Huguenot Pastor and Historian1676BASSENDYNE BIBLE1579BATES W Presbyterian1689BATIFFOL P French Catholic Scholar1888BAUER W German Evangelical Theologian 1916BAUR F Radical Bible Critic1845BAUS M Catholic Theologian1560BAVINCK J Dutch Calvinist Writer1939BAXTER R Puritan Author 1661BAY PSALM BOOK1640BAYLE P French Writer1693BAYLY L Bishop and Author, Puritan1613BEACH H Missionary to China1883BEAUFORT H Bishop of Winchester1404BEAUFORT M Educator 1502BEATON D Archbishop of St Andrews 1539BEATUS Spanish Abbot798BECK J German Theologian 1836BECKET T Archbishop of Canterbury1162BECON T Reformer and Author1553BEDE Monk and Writer700BEDERWOLF W Evangelist & College Director 1897BEECHER L American Liberal Professor 1832BEECHER H American Congregational Liberal1847BEETHOVEN L German Composer1827BEGUINES, BEGHARDS Dutch service groups1311BEISSEL J Commune Founder 1720BELGIC CONFESSION1561BELL G Ecumenist Bishop and WCC President 1929BELLAMY J Congregational Preacher 1750BELLARMINER Cardinal Theologian1584BENDER C Missionary to Cameroon 1899BENEDICT of Nursia529BENEDICT I Bishop of Rome575BENEDICT II Pope684BENEDICT III P pe855BENEDICT IV Pope900BENEDICT V Pope963BENEDICT VI Pope972BENEDICT VII Pope974BENEDICT VIII Pope1012BENEDICT IX Pope1032BENEDICT X Antipope1058BENEDICT XI Pope1303BENEDICT XII Pope1334BENEDICT XIII Antipope1394BENEDICT XIV Antipope1424BENEDICT XIII Pope1724BENEDICT XIV Pope1740BENEDICT XV Pope1914BENEDICT XVI Pope2005BENEDICT of Aniene Monastic Reformer 817BENEFIT OF CLERGY1176BENGEL J Lutheran Theologian1734BENJAMIN I Constantinople Patriarch1936BENJAMIN II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1327BENNO Bishop of Meissen Germany1066BENSON C Christian Educator 1922BENSON E Archbishop of Canterbury 1883BERCIER E French Free Reformed Church1855BERDYAEV N Christian Existentialist 1924BEREA49BEREANS 1773BERENGAR of Tours Theologian1050BERGGRAV E Norwegian Bishop WCC 1937BERKHOF L Dutch Reformed Theologian 1906BERKELEY G Bishop of Cloyne 1732BERNARD of Clairvaux Knight Templar founder1128BERNARD of Cluny1140BERNARD of Montfaucon French Catholic Scholar1699BERNARD J Archbishop of Dublin1915BERNADETTE Founder of Lourdes1858BERNARDINO of Sienna Franciscan Friar Reformer 1402BERNE THESIS 1528BERTHELM Archbishop of Canterbury959BERTHOLD of Regensburg Franciscan preacher1263BERTWALD Archbishop of Canterbury693BERYLLUS of Bostra244BESANT A Theosophist1898BESSARION J Patriarch of Constantinople1463BETHEL INSTITUTIONS Housing For Disadvantaged1867BETHLEHEMITES Hospital and Military Order1247BEURELLE P Founder of the Oratorians1611BEVAN F Hymn Writer1858BEYSCHLAG W German Evangelical Church Leader1886BEZA T Calvins Successor 1564BIARD P Jesuit Missionary1610BIBILANDER T Swiss Professor and Linguist 1535BIBLE American Standard Version 1901BIBLE Authorised Version1611BIBLE Greek into Old Latin150BIBLE Bassendyne Bible1579BIBLE Bishops Bible1568BIBLE Geneva Bible1560BIBLE Great Bible 1539BIBLE Moffat Translation 1928BIBLE New English Bible 1970BIBLE New International Version 1980BIBLE Revised Standard Version1952BIBLE Revised Version1885BIBLE Tyndale Version 1535BIBLE Van Canstein Bible Society1710BIBLE Welsh1770BIBLE VERSIONS Old English670BIBLE VERSIONS Middle English1384BIBLE VERSIONS Tyndale Section1535BIBLE VERSIONS Elizabethan Section1560BIBLE VERSIONS King James Section1611BIBLE VERSIONS Revised section 1881BIBLE VERSIONS Twentieth Century1952BIBLE CHRISTIANS Founded1815BIBLE SOCIETY American1816BIBLE SOCIETY British and Foreign1804BIBLE SOCIETIES List of 2006BIBLE SOCIETY Russian1819BIBLE SOCIETY United1946BICKERSTETH E Evangelical Alliance Author 1830BIDDLE J Unitarian1647BIEDERWOLF W American Evangelist & Educator1909BIEL G German Philosopher1484BIGG C Classical Scholar and Theologian1901BILDERDIJK W Dutch poet1795BILLING E Swedish Lutheran Theologian1909BILLINGS W American Composer1794BILNEY T English Martyr1531BINGHAM H American Missionary to Hawaii1839BINGHAM H American Missionary to Gilbert Islands 1890BINGHAM J Church Historian 1722BINNEY T Congregational Minister and Author1829BIRCH J HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" Missionary in China 1940BISCOP B Monastery founder682BISHOPS BOOK1538BISHOPS WARS1639BITHYNYA49BLACK DEATH1347BLACKSTONE W Founder Chicago Hebrew Mission 1887BLACKWELL A Reformer and Womens Rights 1850BLACKWELL G English Catholic1598BLAIR J College Founder USA1693BLAKE E Ecumenical Leader & Secretary of WCC1966BLANCHARD C Conservative College President 1882BLANDINA177BLASS F German NT Grammarian 1896BLAURER A Persecuted Pastor 1548BLAUROCK G Anabaptist Evangelist1525BLEEK F German Conservative Author1829BLEMMYDES N Greek Theologian 1204BLISS P Hymn Writer1860BLONDEL D French Protestant Historian1650BLUMHARDT C German Evangelical Leader1869BLUMHARDT J German Carer for the Sick1852BMS [Baptist Missionary Society] WORLD MISSION1792BOBERG C HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_people" \o "Swedish people" Swedish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet" \o "Poet" poet, author and hymn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer" \o "Writer" writer1886BOCSKAY S Hungarian Prince1605BODE J Anglican minister and Hymn Writer.1841BODE J Anglican minister and Hymn Writer.1841BODELSCHWINGH F German Social Reformer1872BOEHLER P Moravian missionary1748BOEHM M Founder of United Brethren in Christ 1768BOEHME J German Lutheran Mystic & Theosophist1600BOETHUS Writer523BOGOMILES 1077BOHEMIAN BRETHREN1454BOHMER H German Church Historian 1906BOLLANDISTS Catholic Group History of Saints 1607BOLOGNA CONCORD1516BOLSEC J Carmelite 1551BOLTON R Puritan Preacher1610BOMPAS W Missionary to North Canada1865BONAR A Scottish Preacher and Author 1856BONAR H Pastor, Author and Hymn Writer1883BONAVENTURA Italian Bishop teacher1273BONHOFFER D German Pastor Martyr1945BONIFACE English missionary and martyr747BONIFACE of Querfurt Missionary997BONIFACE of Savoy Archbishop of Canterbury1241BONIFACE Bishop Of Carthage525BONIFACE I Bishop of Rome418BONIFACE II Bishop of Rome530BONIFACE III Pope607BONIFACE IV Pope608BONIFACE V Pope619BONIFACE VI Pope896BONIFACE VII Antipope984BONIFACE VIII Pope 1294BONIFACE IX Pope1389BONN CONFERENCES Ecumenical 1874BONNER E Bishop of London1540BONOSUS Bishop of Naissus 391BOOK OF CANONS 1604BOOK OF KELLS850BOOK OF SPORTS1617BOOS M German Preacher1797BOOTH B Founder of Volunteers of America 1896BOOTH C Mother of the Salvation Army1865BOOTH E Salvation Army General 1934BOOTH W Founder of Salvation Army 1878BORBORIANS Heretical Gnostic Sect371BORDEAUX PILGRIM333BORGIA F Jesuit Educator1565BORIS King of Bulgaria864BORNHOLMERS Founded in Denmark1868BORROMEO C Archbishop of Milan1576BORROW G Missionary and Author 1827BORTHWICK J Scottish Hymn Writer and Publisher 1854BOSCH H Dutch Painter1500BOSCO J Catholic Founder Silesian Order1859BOSSUET J Bishop of Meaux1681BOSTON T Presbyterian1707BOTTICELLI S Florentine Painter1492BOUNDS E Author 1893BOURCHIER T Archbishop of Canterbury 1455BOURDALOUE L French Jesuit1669BOURGEOIS L French Musician1547BOURIGNON A Dutch Visionary1665BOURNE H Founder Primitive Methodist Church 1811BOWEN G Missionary to India1848BOWERING J Linguist and Hymn Writer 1825BOY BISHOP1260BOYCE W English Composer and Organist 1758BOYS BRIGADE 1883BOYLE R Scientist and Author1641BRABOURNE T English Controversialist 1632BRADBURY W Hymn Writer 1847BRADFORD J English Martyr1555BRADFORD W Governor New England1621BRADWARDINE T Archbishop of Canterbury1349BRADY N Hymn Writer1688BRAHMS J Composer1897BRAINERD D American Missionary 1745BRAMHALL J Primate of Ireland 1660BRAMWELL W Wesleyan Evangelist & Preacher1785BRAND P Medical Missionary to the Lepers 1946BRANT J Church Builder Canada 1790BRAY W Cornish Itinerant Preacher1830BREBEUF J Jesuit Missionary1625BREGWIN Archbishop of Canterbury761BREMOND H French Catholic Modernist 1915BRENT C Canadian Ecumenist Bishop1927BRENZ J German Reformer1529BRES G de Belgian Martyr 1548BRETHREN IN CHRIST1778BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE1380BREWSTER W Mayflower Refugee1608BRIAND J Catholic Bishop of Canada1766BRIDAINE J French Roman Catholic Preacher1748BRIDGE W Dissenting Brethren1636BRIDGEMAN E American Missionary to China1830BRIDGES M Hymn Writer1848BRIDGES R Poet and Author1895BRIDGET of Sweden Brigittines Order Founder1370BRIGGS C Liberal Minister1890BRIGHT W Ecclesiastical Historian1868BRIGHT W Founder Campus Crusade for Christ1951BRITISH ISRAELITES1879BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT1867BROADCASTING RELIGIOUS1922BROOKS P Episcopal Hymn Writer and Preacher 1891BROOKS T Nonconformist Preacher 1640BROTHER LAWRENCE French Catholic Author1660BROTHERS HOSPITALLERS Order of John of God1550BROTHERS R British Israelite and Prophet1794BROUGHTON W First Australian Bishop 1836BROWN J American Radical Abolitionist 1856BROWN J Scottish Author 1751BROWN J Scottish Professor of Theology 1822BROWN W American Liberal Theologian1906BROWNE R English Separatist Leader1582BROWNE T Physician and Author 1642BRUCE A Scottish Theologian 1875BRUCE R Scottish Author1596BRUCKNER A Austrian Composer 1896BRUNNER E Swiss Professor of Theology 1924BRUNO G Italian Renaissance Philosopher1592BRUNO Archbishop of Cologne 953BRUNO Founder of Carthusian Order1084BRYAN W Scopes Trial Prosecutor1925BRYENNIOS P Greek Orthodox Theologian 1883BUBER M Jewish Religious Philosopher 1933BUCER M Reformer1549BUCHAN E Founder of Scottish Sect1846BUCHANAN C Missionary and Translator1811BUCHANAN G Scottish Humanist1579BUCHANAN J Scottish Theologian1845BUCHANITES A Bizarre Scottish Sect1820BUCHMAN F Founder Moral Rearmament 1938BUCK D Church Musician and Composer1909BUDDE K German Higher Critic1883BUDRY E Pastor and Hymn Writer1889BUGENHAGEN J Reformer Author1521BULGAKOV S Russian Orthodox Theologian1922BULL G Evangelical Social Reformer1834BULLINGER E HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican Author and Theologian.1867BULLINGER J Swiss Reformer and Author 1531BULTMAN R Liberal Professor of NT1921BUNSEN C Prussian Theologian & Diplomat1841BUNTING J English Wesleyan Methodist 1799BUNTON H Missionary in China1933BUNYAN J Puritan Preacher and Writer1678BURCHARD Bishop of Worms1000BURGHERS Scottish Presbyterian Secessionists 1733BURGON J Anglican Author 1888BURGOS J Philippine Theologian Activist1863BURKITT F Biblical Scholar and Author 1905BURMA1814BURNELL R Archbishop of Canterbury1278BURNET G Bishop of Salisbury 1689BURNEY C Anglican Bible Scholar1914BURNS F HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia" \o "Liberia" Liberia.1858BURNS J Presbyterian Minister and Hymn Writer1855BURNS W Missionary to China 1846BURROUGH E English Quaker1656BURROUGHS J Dissenting Brethren 1636BURTON E Scholar and Church Historian1829BUSCH J Author 1424BUSHNELL H American Congregational Theologian 1866BUTLER A Catholic Professor1735BUTLER J Bishop of Durham1736BUTLER J Social Reformer 1885BUXTEHUDE D German Composer1673BYE PLOT Against James I1603BYRD W English Composer1589BYROM J Poet and Hymn Writer1750 C CABLE M Missionary to China1901CABRINI F Founder Sisters of Sacred Heart1880CADBURY H Professor and RSV Translator 1934CAECILIAN Bishop of Carthage311CAEDMON English Poet678CAESAREA [see also 57]40CAESAREAN TEXT1924CAESARIUS Bishop of Arles503CAESARIUS of Heisterbach Cistercian author1223CAINITES Heretical Sect 175CAIRD E Scottish Philosopher1904CAIRD J Scottish Theologian and Preacher1862CAIRNS J Professor of Theology 1845CAIUS Bishop of Rome283CAJETAN T Roman Catholic1516CAJETAN T Dominican Cardinal1518CALAMY E Puritan1649CALAMY E Author 1702CALDERWOOD D Scottish Author 1619CALFHILL J Anglican Theologian and Author 1562CALIGULA Roman Emperor 37CALIXTINES 1420CALIXTUS I Bishop of Rome217CALIXTUS II Pope1119CALIXTUS III Pope1455CALIXTUS III Antipope1168CALIXTUS G German Ecumenist1614CALLANDION Patriarch of Antioch 495CALLINICUS I Constantinople Patriarch693CALLINICUS II Constantinople Patriarch1688CALLINICUS III Constantinople Patriarch 1757CALLINICUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1801CALLINICUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1858CALLISTUS I Constantinople Patriarch1350CALLISTUS II Constantinople Patriarch1397CALOVIUS A German Author1655CALVERT C Secretary of State1632CALVERT J Missionary to Fiji1840CALVIN J Leading Reformer1536CALVINISM 1618CALVINISTIC METHODISM1742CALVINISTIC METHODIST CONNEXION1811CAMALDOLESE ORDER1012CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM1648CAMERARIUS J Reformer and Author1560CAMERON J Scottish Theologian1608CAMERON R Covenanter 1680CAMERONIANS Scottish Covenanting Group1680CAMILLUS of Lellis Founder of Ministers of the Sick1584CAMISARDS French Protestants1686CAMP MEETINGS 1801CAMPBELL A Covenanter Martyr 1651CAMPBELL A Founder USA Church of Christ 1832CAMPBELL J Scottish Heretical Minister1830CAMPBELL T Founder Disciples of Christ1807CAMPEGGIO L Archbishop of Bologna 1524CAMPION E English Jesuit1581CANADA The Church in New France1615CANADA The Churches under British Rule1763CANADA The Churches Since 18671867CANADIAN COUNCIL OF CHURCHES 1944CANDLEMAS350CANDLISH R Founder Free Church of Scotland1845CANISIUS P Dutch Jesuit1556CANO M Catholic Theologian and Author 1563CANON LAW 325CANON LAW DECRETALS 1545CANON OF SCRIPTURE Completion N T367CANONIZATION BULL1634CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL 1130CAPISTRANO J Franciscan Leader and Preacher 1454CAPITO W Protestant Author1526CAPPADOCIAN FATHERS Trinitarian theologians376CAPREOLUS Bishop of Carthage431CAPREOLUS J Dominican Author1409CAPUCHINS Reformed Franciscan Order1528CARACALLA Roman Emperor211CARDINALS Composition1568CAREY G Archbishop of Canterbury1991CAREY W Missionary to India1793CARGILL D Covenanter and Author1680CARINUS Roman Emperor283CARISSMI G Italian composer1600CARLILE W Founder Church Army 1882CARLSTADT A Protestant Reformer 1518CARLYLE A Scottish Moderator and Pastor1770CARLYLE T Scottish Writer1845CARMAN A Canadian Head of United Methodists1884CARMELITES1593CARMICHAEL A Missionary to India 1903CARNELL E Evangelical Theologian and Author 1948CAROLINE BOOKS790CAROLINE DIVINES1627CARON J Catholic Missionary to Canada 1615CARPENTER J Unitarian Educator &Translator 1906CARPOCRATES135CARROL J 1ST American Catholic Bishop1790CARSTARES W Church Government Architect 1703CARTHAGE, Synod of 251CARTHAGE, Council of [see also 411] 397CARTHUSIANS 1084CARTWRIGHT P Methodist Leader1824CARTWRIGHT T Puritan1569CARUS Roman Emperor282CASAUBON I Huguenot Royal Librarian1611CASE S Liberal Church Historian1933CASSANDER G Catholic Theologian1561CASSELS W Missionary to China 1895CASTELLIO S French Protestant1542CASTINUS Bishop of Byzantium 230CASWELL E Poet and Hymn Writer 1863CATACOMBS211CATEBY R Gunpowder Plot1605CATHARINUS A Dominican Theologian1552CATHERINE DE MEDICI French Queen1547CATHERINE of Alexandria Martyr310CATHERINE of Genoa Ladies of Mercy1474CATHERINE of Sienna Dominican 1364CATON W English Quaker1655CAUSSADE J Jesuit Mystic1693CAVASILAS N Greek Theologian1320CAVEN W Canadian Presbyterian Ecumenist 1900CAXTON W Printer1476CEDD Bishop of East Saxons653CELADION Patriarch of Alexandria 152CELCUS Greek Antichristian Author178CELESTINE I Bishop of Rome 422CELESTINE II Pope1143CELESTINE II Antipope1124CELESTINE III Pope1191CELESTINE IV Pope1241CELESTINE V Pope1294CELESTINES1251CELESTIUS Pelegianist400CELIBACY OF THE CLERGY in the 4th Century384CELTIC CHURCH 450CEOLNOTH Archbishop of Canterbury833CERDO136CERINTHUS96CESARINI J Cardinal1431CHAD Bishop of Lichfield664CHADERTON L English Puritan1567CHAFER L Singer Educator Theologian1924CHALDEAN CHRISTIANS1553CHALLONER R Catholic writer1741CHALMERS J Missionary to New Guinea 1867CHALMERS T Pastor and Church Builder1815CHAMBERLAIN J Missionary to India 1873CHAMBERS O Bible Teacher and Author 1911CHAMPLAIN S French Explorer 1612CHANNING W Unitarian Leader1825CHANTRY 1545CHAPMAN J American Evangelist1893CHARDON L French Dominican1618CHARLEMAGNE King 771CHARLES MARTEL French Military Leader732CHARLES I King of Great Britain 1625CHARLES II King of Great Britain1660CHARLES V Holy Roman Emperor 1530CHARLES R Anglican Scholar and Author 1913CHARLES T Welsh Methodist Educator 1784CHARNOCK S Puritan Preacher Chaplain1655CHARTERIS A Scottish Church Leader1868CHATEAUBRIAND F French Aristocrat Author1802CHAUNCY C American Old Light Leader1742CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT 1874CHELCICKY P Founder Chelcic Brethren1420CHEMNITZ M Lutheran Theologian and Author1577CHENEY C Founder Reformed Episcopal Church 1873CHERRY E English Poetess and Hymn Writer1897CHESTER BEATTY PAPYRI1930CHEYNE T O.T. Revised Version Scholar1885CHICAGO LAMBETH ARTICLES 1886CHICHELEY H Archbishop of Canterbury1414CHILLINGWORTH W Anglican Apologist 1634CHINA Evangelical Missionaries 1866CHINA Jesuit Missionaries1601CHINA Nestorians Missionaries635CHINA Franciscan Missionaries 1294CHINA 20th Century1900CHINA INLAND MISSION1865CHISHOLM T Hymn Writer1923CHRISTADELPHIANS 1869CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETY1881CHRISTIAN FAITH SOCIETY for the WEST INDIES1691CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE1881CHRISTIAN SCIENCE CHURCH1866CHRISTIANITY AND THE STATE [see 410 and 430]391CHRISTLIEB T German Preacher & Theologian 1868CHRISTMAS336CHRISTODOULUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria907CHRISTODOULOS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 937CHRISTODOULOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem 966CHRISTOPHER Antipope903CHRISTOPHER I Patriarch of Antioch 960CHRISTOPHER II Patriarch of Antioch 1184CHRISTOPHORUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria817CHRISTOPHER II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1939CHRISTOPHERS Catholic Service Group1945CHRODEGANG Bishop of Metz742CHROMATIUS Bishop of Aquileia388CHRYSANTHOS Patriarch of Jerusalem1707CHRYSANTHUS I Constantinople Patriarch1826CHRYSIPPUS Monastic Superior469CHRYSOLOGUS P Archbishop of Ravenna 449CHRYSOSTOM J Bishop of Constantinople 398CHURCH R Dean of St Pauls1871CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN1708CHURCHES OF CHRIST 1832CHURCH OF ENGLAND ZENANA MISSION1880CHURCHES OF GOD1825CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY1799CHURCHS MINISTRY AMONG JEWISH PEOPLE1809CIRCULATION OF THE SCRIPTURES 98CILICIA49CIMABUE Florentine Painter 1302CISTERCIANS1098CLAPHAM SECT Evangelical Group1790CLARE Abbess of the Poor Clares1215CLARENDON CODE1661CLAREDON CONSTITUTIONS OF1164CLARK W American Agriculturist Missionary1876CLARKE A Irish Methodist Theologian 1810CLARKE J Founder of Rhode Island1663CLARKE S English Theologian 1704CLARKE W American Liberal Baptist 1898CLARKSON T Author and Abolitionist 1787CLAUDE J Huguenot Preacher and Author 1661CLAUDIANUS M Archbishop of Vienne 467CLAUDIUS Bishop of Turin817CLAUDIUS I Roman Emperor41CLAUDIUS II Roman Emperor268CLAUDIUS M German Poet and Editor1771CLAVER P Jesuit Missionary1616CLEMENS J Flemish Composer1558CLEMENT Patriarch of Constantinople1667CLEMENT I Bishop of Rome91CLEMENT II Pope1046CLEMENT III Pope1187CLEMENT III Antipope1080CLEMENT IV Pope1265CLEMENT V Pope1305CLEMENT VI Pope1347CLEMENT VII Antipope1378CLEMENT VIII Antipope1423CLEMENT VII Pope1523CLEMENT VIII Pope1592CLEMENT IX Pope1667CLEMENT X Pope1670CLEMENT XI Pope1700CLEMENT XII Pope1730CLEMENT XIII Pope1758CLEMENT XIV Pope1769CLEMENT of Alexandria190CLEMONT, COUNCIL OF 1095CLEPHANE E Hymn Writer1872CLERGY RESERVES Canada 1791CLETUS Bishop of Rome76CLOSE F Dean of Carlisle 1856CLOUGH J American Baptist Missionary1864CLOVIS King of the Franks 481CLOWES W Primitive Methodist Connexion 1805CLUNIACS909COBHAM T Archbishop of Canterbury1313COCCEIUS J German Theologian and Author 1648COCHLAEUS J Catholic Controversialist 1521CODEX BEZAE500CODEX SINAITICUS330COFFIN H Liberal Theological Educator1926COGGAN F Archbishop of Canterbury1974COILLARD F French Missionary 1857COKE T Methodist Preacher and Missionary 1777COLENSO J Bishop of Natal1853COLET J Dean of St Pauls1505COLINGY G Huguenot Leader1562COLINGY O Cardinal and Protestant Leader1561COLLEGIANTS Dutch Religious Group1619COLLIER J Archbishop of Non Jurors 1716COLMAN Bishop of Lindisfarne663COLOMBINI G Founder of Gesuati1360COLONIAL MISSION SOCIETY1836COLOSSIANS, Book of 60COLUMBA Missionary and Educator546COLUMBANUS Irish Scholar580COMBA E Waldensian Historian & Theologian 1872COMBER T Baptist Pioneer Missionary1876COMENIUS J Bohemian Educational Reformer1618COMGALL Irish Monk558COMMODUS Roman Emperor180COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF 1562COMMON PRAYER, BOOK OF1549COMMUNITY OF THE RESURRECTION 1892COMPLUTENSIAN POLYGLOT1522CONCLAVE1271CONCOMITANCE 1215CONCORD, BOOK OF 1580CONCORD, FORMULA OF 1577CONDREN C French Oratorian Preacher1617CONFESSING CHURCH German Anti Nazi Church1934CONFESSION OF 19671967CONGREGATION, THE 1557CONGREGATIONALISM 1582CONRAD OF MARBURG Inquisitor of Germany1232CONRAD OF GELNHAUSEN French Theologian1386CONSERVATIVE BAPTIST ASSOC. OF USA 1947CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF 1414CONSTANS Roman Emperor of the West337CONSTANT P Roman Catholic Scholar 1696CONSTANTINE Emperor [see 321,324,326, 327]312CONSTANTINE II Joint Roman Emperor 337CONSTANTIUS II Roman Emperor [see also 350]337CONSTANTINE I Constantinople Patriarch675CONSTANTINE II Constantinople Patriarch 754CONSTANTINE III Constantinople Patriarch1059CONSTANTINE IV Constantinople Patriarch1154CONSTANTINE V Constantinople Patriarch1897CONSTANTINE VI Constantinople Patriarch1924CONSTANTINE Pope708CONSTANTINE II Antipope767CONSTANTINE THE GREAT Roman Emperor306CONSTANTINOPLE330CONSTANTINOPLE, Synod of see also 360]336CONSTANTINOPLE, 1st Council of381CONSTANTINOPLE, 2nd Council of553CONSTANTINOPLE 3rd Council of680CONSTANTINOPLE 4th Council of879CONSTANTIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1830CONSTANTIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1834CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS Western Emperor 305CONSTITUIONAL CHURCH French 1791CONSUBSTANTIATION1328CONTARINI G Cardinal Conciliator 1535CONTRA REMONSTRANTS Calvinistic Defenders 1611CONVULSIONARIES1727CONYBEARE F Armenian Historian & Author1909CONYBEARE W Biblical Scholar and Author 1852COOK D Publisher of Sunday School Material1882COOK S Professor of Hebrew & Author 1925COONEN CROSS Syrian Christians 1653COORNHEERT D Dutch Humanist 1566COP N French Scholar1533COPERNICUS N Polish Astronomer and Doctor 1543COPTIC CHURCH Start451COPTIC CHURCH Islam642COPTIC CHURCH Muslim Domination 1517CORINTH [see also 53,56]51CORINTHIANS, I Book of55CORINTHIANS, II Book of56CORNELIUS 40CORNELIUS Primate of Antioch127CORNELIUS Bishop of Rome251CORNELIUS A Flemish Biblical Exegete 1616CORNWALLIS F Archbishop of Canterbury1768CORPUS CATHOLICORUM 1524CORPUS CHRISTI, FEAST OF 1246CORPUS EVANGELICORUM 1524CORTESE G Benedictine Prior1537COSIN J Bishop of Durham1660COSMAS II Constantinople Patriarch1146COSMAS III Constantinople Patriarch1714COSMAS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 727COSMAS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1712COSMAS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1737COTTON J Puritan Minister and Author1645COUGHLAN L Pioneer Preacher Newfoundland1765COUNCIL OF CHURCHES British 1942COUNCIL OF CHURCHES World1948COUNTER REFORMATION1545COUNTESS OF HUNTINGDON CONNECTION1768COURT A French Reformed Minister 1715COURTNEY W Archbishop of Canterbury1381COVEL J Anglican Scholar Chaplain1658COVENANT THEOLOGY 1562COVENANTERS Scottish Presbyterian Dissenters 1638COVENTICLES ACT 1670COVERDALE M Bible Translator 1535COWPER W Hymn Writer and Poet1779COX F Translator of German Hymns 1855COX R Bishop of Ely1559CRABBE G English Poet1783CRAIG J Scottish Reformer 1570CRAKANTHORPE R Puritan Scholar1604CRAMP J Baptist Pastor and Scholar1783CRANACH L German Painter1503CRANMER T Archbishop of Canterbury1533CRASHAW R English Poet1646CRAWAR P Hussite Martyr1433CRAWFORD D Plymouth Brethren Missionary1904CREIGHTON M Bishop of London1897CREMER H German Protestant Theologian 1870CRETE [see also 59,64]36CROMWELL O Lord Protector1653CROMWELL T English Statesman1540CROSBY F American Hymn Writer1864CROSBY H Revised Version Scholar1873CROSS F Anglican Scholar and Editor1944CROSSMAN S Anglican Hymn Writer1683CROWTHER S Nigerian Bishop & Missionary1857CRUCIGER K Reformed Scholar1528CRUDEN A Scottish Author 1737CRUSADES 1st Crusade1095CRUSADES 2nd Crusade1147CRUSADES 3rd Crusade1189CRUSADES 4th Crusade1202CRUSADES 5th Crusade1221CRUSADES 6th Crusade1228CRUSADES 7th Crusade1248CRUSADES 8th Crusade1270CRUSADES 9th Crusade1271CRUSADES Childrens1212CRUSIUS C German Theologian & Prophetic Author1750CRUTCHED FRIARS1169CUDWORTH R English Hebrew Professor 1657CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH 1810CUMMINS G Founder Reformed Episcopal Church1873CUNNINGHAM W Scottish Disruption Theologian 1843CURE DARS The French Catholic Confessor1818CUSHING W American minister and hymn writer.1856CUSHING W American minister and hymn writer.1856CUSPIUS FADUS41CUTHBERT Archbishop of Canterbury740CUTHBERT Bishop of Lindisfarne 685CYNEWULF Bishop of Lindisfarne and Poet740CYPRIAN Bishop of Carthage251CYPRIAN Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1766CYPRIANUS I Constantinople Patriarch1707CYPRUS45CYRIACUS Constantinople Patriarch 596CYRIACUS I Bishop of Byzantium 217CYRIL I Patriarch of Alexandria412CYRIL III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1612CYRIL I Primate of Jerusalem350CYRIL II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1845CYRIL Primate of Antioch 277CYRIL III Patriarch of Antioch1694CYRIL I Constantinople Patriarch1612CYRIL II Constantinople Patriarch1633CYRIL III Constantinople Patriarch1652CYRIL IV Constantinople Patriarch1711CYRIL V Constantinople Patriarch1748CYRIL VI Constantinople Patriarch1813CYRIL VII Constantinople Patriarch1855CYRIL AND METHODIUS Apostles to the Slavs860CYRUS Constantinople Patriarch705CYRUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 631CZECHOSLOVAK CHURCH1920 D DABNEY R Presbyterian Theologian1846DA COSTA I Dutch Poet and Theologian1851DAILLE J French Protestant Theologian1626DAILLY P French Cardinal and Theologian1381DALE R Congregational Theologian1853DALMAN G Moravian Archaeologist in Palestine1925DAMASUS I Bishop of Rome366DAMASUS II Pope1048DAMIAN P Roman Catholic Reformer1035DAMIANOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 578DAMIANUS Patriarch of Jerusalem 1897DAMIEN F Roman Catholic Missionary1873DANIEL Patriarch of Antioch 1767DANIEL THE STYLITE Syrian Ascetic459DANIEL-ROPS H French Roman Catholic Historian1934DANTE A Italian poet1321DARBOY G Archbishop of Paris1863DARBY J Plymouth Brethren Leader1845DARWIN C English Naturalist1859DUBIGNE J Swiss Protestant Historian1817DAVENPORT J New England Pastor1637DAVID Welsh Patron Saint and Ascetic Monk 589DAVID OF AUGSBURG Franciscan Mystic1243DAVID C Moravian Brethren Leader1733DAVIDSON A Scottish Old Testament Scholar1863DAVIES R Bishop of St Asaph and Translator1567DAVIES S Founder of Southern Presbyterians1747DEAD SEA SCROLLS1947DEAN H Archbishop of Canterbury1501DEARMER P Anglican Scholar and Editor 1919DEATH OF GOD SCHOOL1961DECIUS Roman Emperor249DECIUS Persecution of Christians 249DECLARATIONS OF INDULGENCE1660DE DOMINIS M Slav Scholar and Controversialist1617DE FOUCAULD C Roman Catholic Missionary1890DEISM1624DE LA CRUZ A Filipino Religious Leader & Martyr1841DE LAGARDE P German Oriental & O.T. Scholar1869DELITZSCH F Lutheran Old Testament Scholar1877DELLA ROBBIA A Sculpture and Terracotta1503DELLA ROBBIA L Sculpture and Terracotta1482DE LUGO J Founder of Modern Scholasticism1643DE MAISTRE J Catholic Philosopher1802DEMETRIUS Patriarch of Alexandria 189DEMETRIUS Bishop of Alexandria231DEMETRIUS Primate of Antioch 256DEMETRIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1972DEMOPHILIUS Bishop of Constantinople370DENCK H German Anabaptist Leader1525DENMARK [see 1536]960DENMARK [see 1752]1536DENMARK 1752DENNY J Scottish Theologian1897DE NOBILI R Jesuit Missionary1605DE RANCE A Founder of the Trappists1663DERBE45,49DESANCTIS L Italian Protestant Pastor1847DES BRISAY T First Anglican Prince Edward Island1775DESCARTES R French Philosopher1649DES PREZ J Belgian Musical Composer1500DEUSDEDIT Archbishop of Canterbury655DEUSDEDIT Pope615DE WETTE W German Biblical Scholar1822DIADOCHUS Bishop of Photike465DIALECTICAL THEOLOGY1921DIAMPER, SYNOD OF1599DIBELIUS M German New Testament Scholar 1915DIBELIUS O Bishop of the Berlin-Brandenburg1934DICKINSON J Presbyterian Educator and Revivalist1729DIDEROT D French Encyclopaedist1773DIDIUS JULIANUS Roman Emperor193DIDYMUS THE BLIND Alexandrian Theologian398DIETRICH OF NIEHEIM Historian and Papal Lawyer1395DIGGERS English Communistic Movement1649DILLMAN C Lutheran Biblical Scholar & Orientalist1848DIMITRIOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1862DINSMORE C Yale Lecturer on Bible as Literature1931DIOCLETIAN Roman Emperor284DIOCLETIAN, PERSECUTION OF 303DIODORE OF TARSUS Bishop of Tarsus378DIOGENES Bishop of Byzantium 114DIODATI G Swiss Calvinist Theologian1609DIONYSIUS Patriarch of Alexandra248DIONYSIUS Patriarch of Antioch 1293DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH Bishop of Corinth180DIONYSIUS OF PARIS Bishop of Paris and Martyr250DIONYSIUS Bishop of Rome259DIONYSIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1466DIONYSIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1546DIONYSIUS III Constantinople Patriarch1662DIONYSIUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1671DIONYSIUS V Constantinople Patriarch1887DIONYSIUS EXEGUUS Writer and Chronologist525DIONYSIUS THE CARTHUSIAN Belgian Mystic 1465DIOSCORUS I Patriarch of Alexandria444DIOSCORUS II Patriarch of Alexandria 516DIOSCORUS Antipope 530DIPPEL J German Pietist1711DISCALCED1499DISCIPLINE, BOOKS OF Scottish Reformed Church1560DISRUPTION, THE1843DISSENTING ACADEMIES1689DISSOLUTION of the BRITISH MONASTERIES1536DISTLER H German Composer1931DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS1597DIX D Anglican Broadcaster and Author1948DIX W Hymn Writer1866DIXON A Baptist Pastor and Author1875DOBER J Moravian Brethren Leader1732DOCETISM100DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH374DODD C Congregational New Testament Scholar1930DODDRIDGE P Nonconformist Educator1729DODS M Scottish Biblical Scholar1864DOLLINGER J VON Roman Catholic Historian1826DOMETIUS Bishop of Byzantium 272DOMINIC Founder of Dominicans 1216DOMINUS I Primate of Antioch270DOMNUS II Primate of Antioch443DOMNUS III Patriarch of Antioch546DOMITIAN Roman Emperor [see also 93]81DONATELLA F Roman Noble Christian94DONATISTS313DONATUS Bishop of Carthage313DONNE J English Dean and Poet 1615DONUS Pope676DORNER I German Lutheran Theologian1838DOROTHEUS I Patriarch of Antioch1219DOROTHEUS II Patriarch of Antioch 1436DOROTHEUS III Patriarch of Antioch1497DOROTHEUS IV Patriarch of Antioch 1541DOROTHEUS V Patriarch of Antioch 1604DOROTHEOS I Patriarch of Jerusalem1376DOROTHEOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem1505DOROTHEUS Primate of Antioch 370DOROTHEUS Ascetic Monastic Founder540DOROTHY Cappadocian Martyr307DORT, SYNOD OF 1618DOS SANTOS J Portuguese HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12354c.htm" Dominican missionary1586DOSITHEOS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 1191DOSITHEOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem1669DOSITHEUS Constantinople Patriarch1190DOSTOEVSKY F Russian Writer1885DOUAI REIMS BIBLE Roman Catholic Translation1609DOUKHOBORS Russian Sect1898DOWIE J Founder of the Christian Catholic Church.1896DOWSING W English Iconoclast1643DRAMA CHRISTIAN1943DREXEL J German Spiritual Writer1620DRIVER S Old Testament Scholar1883DROSTE-VISCHERING C Archbishop of Cologne1835DRUMMOND H Catholic Apostolic Church Founder1825DRUMMOND H Scottish Writer and Evangelist1884DRYDEN J Essayist, Playwright, and Poet1682DU BOURG A French Protestant Martyr1550DUCHESNE L Archaeologist and Church Historian1895DUFAY G Dutch Composer 1436DUFF A Scottish Missionary to India1830DUFFIELD G American Pastor and Hymn Writer1854DU MOULIN P French Protestant Pastor1590DUNCAN G New English Bible Translators 1919DUNS SCOTUS J Scholastic Theologian1291DUNSTABLE J English Composer1453DUNSTAN Archbishop of Canterbury960DUNSTER H Congregational Minister and Educator1640DUPANLOUP F Bishop of Orleans1850DUPERRON J Archbishop of Sens1604DUPIN L French Church Historian and Theologian1686DURANDUS of St Pourcain Dominican Theologian1317DURER A Painter, Engraver & Woodcut Designer1523DURIE J Scottish Ecumenist and Peacemaker1634DUTCH REFORMED CHURCH1561DUTCH REFORMED CHURCH in SOUTH AFRICA1652DWAYNE J S African Independent Church Leader1898DWIGHT T Congregational Theologian & Educator1795DYER M Quaker Martyr1660DYER S Congregational Missionary to Malaysia1827DYKES J English Composer1862 E EADIE J Scottish secessionist 1857EADMER Anglo-Saxon Biographer and Theologian1055EAST AFRICA KENYA.1844EAST AFRICA TANZANIA1864EAST AFRICA UGANDA1876EASTERN ORTHODOX Church [see 1054]431EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH [see 1612]1054EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH [see 431 & 1054]1612EASTON B American Episcopalian Theologian 1919EBEDJESUS Metropolitan of Nisibis and Armenia1298EBERHARD J German Philosopher and Theologian1766EBERLINN J Reformation preacher and Writer1493ECK J Roman Catholic Scholar and Orator1530ECKHART von Hochheim German mystic1326ECUMENICAL COUNCILS [see 1123]325ECUMENICAL COUNCILS [see 1545]1123ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. [See ].1545ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT1910EDDY M Founder of Christian Science1877EDERSHEIM A Biblical scholar and Author1875EDINBURGH CONFERENCE1937EDINBURGH MISSIONARY CONFERENCE1910EDINGTON W Archbishop of Canterbury 1366EDISON T Inventor1868EDKINS J Missionary to China.1848EDMAN V American College President1940EDMESTON J Hymn Writer1816EDMUND King and Martyr870EDSIGE Archbishop of Canterbury1038EDWARD THE CONFESSOR1045EDWARD VI King of England1552EDWARDS J Calvinist minister1664EDWARDS J Great Awakening Preacher1740EDWARDS L Welsh Calvinistic Methodist1837EGBERT Archbishop of York738EGBERT English Monk from Lindisfarne664EGEDE H Apostle of Greenland1721EGERTON PAPYRUS1934EICHHORN J German Biblical Scholar1780ELAGABALUS Roman Emperor218ELIAS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 963ELIAS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1171ELIAS I Patriarch of Antioch840ELIAS II Patriarch of Antioch1003ELIAS III Patriarch of Antioch1182ELIAS IV Patriarch of Antioch1970ELIAS I Patriarch of Jerusalem494ELIAS II Patriarch of Jerusalem 782ELIAS III Patriarch of Jerusalem 879ELIAS J Welsh Preacher1811ELEUTHERIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1175ELEUTHERIUS Patriarch of Antioch 1023ELEUTHERIUS Bishop of Byzantium 129ELEUTHERIUS Bishop of Rome175ELIAS I Patriarch of Antioch840ELIAS II Patriarch of Antioch1003ELIAS III Patriarch of Antioch1182ELIAS of Cortona General of the Franciscan Order1221ELIJAH of Moqan Missionary Northern Mesopotamia820ELIGIUS Bishop and Builder640ELIOT J Apostle to the Indians1631ELIOT T Poet, Dramatist and Critic1922ELIPANDUS Spanish Originator of Adoptianism 792ELIZABETH of Hungary Ascetic1225ELIZABETH I Queen of England1558ELIZABETHAN SETTLEMENT1559ELLERTON J English hymn writer1850ELLICOTT C Bishop of Gloucester1861ELLIOT C Hymn Writer1823ELLIOT E Anglican Hymn Writer1880ELLIS W Missionary and Author1816ELMO Dominican preacher1240ELVIRA Council of . 305EMBER DAYS Fast days440EMBURY P First Methodist Minister in America1752EMERSON R Transcendentalists Minister1838EMMONS N Congregational Theologian1773EMS Congress of1768ENDECOTT J Puritan Colonial Governor1637ENGLAND Church of 597ENGLAND Church of [see 1532]1066ENGLAND Church of [see also 1066 and 1750]1532ENGLAND Church of [see 1532 and 1919]1750ENGLAND Church of [see also 1750]1919ENGLISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION1847ENGLISH WESLEYAN MISSION1813ENLIGHTENEMENT1790ENNODIUS M Bishop of Pavia514EPHESIANS, Book of60EPHESUS [see also 56] 54EPHESUS Council of 431EPHESUS The Robber Synod of 449EPHRAEM THE SYRIAN Classical writer338EPHRAIM OF AMID Patriarch of Antioch 526EPHRAIM II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1766EPHRATA Society Cloistered Protestant Commune1750EPICTETUS Stoic philosopher90EPIPHANIUS Bishop of Salamis367EPIPHANIUS Constantinople Patriarch520EPISCOPIUS S Dutch Protestant Theologian1610ERASMUS Leading Christian Humanist1514ERASTUS T Physician and Theologian1558ERDMAN C President Board of Foreign Missions1928ERIGENA J Irish Scholar862ERNESTI J German Lutheran Theologian1742ERSKINE E Founder of the Secessionist Church1740ERSKINE OF DUN J Scottish Reformer1560ERSKINE T Scottish Theologian1870ESMER H German Editor and Essayist1520ESTIENNE R Protestant Scholar and Printer1544ESTIUS W van Dutch Biblical Exegete1582ETHICAL MOVEMENT1906ETHIOPIA [see also 1268]340ETHIOPIA [see also 340 and 1634 ]1268ETHIOPIA [see also 1268 and 1935].1634ETHIOPIA [see also 1634]1935EUCHERIUS Bishop of Lyons434EUDES J French missionary and pastor1643EUDOXIUS Bishop of Constantinople360EUDOXIUS Primate of Antioch 350EUGENE I Pope654EUGENE II Pope824EUGENE III Pope1145EUGENE IV Pope1431EUGENIUS Bishop of Byzantium237EUGENIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1821EULALIOS Primate of Antioch 332EULALIUS Antipope418EULOGIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 581EUMENES Patriarch of Alexandria 131EUNOMIUS Heretic395EUODIUS Primate of Antioch 53EUPHEMIUS Constantinople Patriarch489EUPHRASIUS Patriarch of Antioch 521EUPHRATES Limit on Roman Empire123EUPHRONIUS Primate of Antioch 333EUSTATHIUS Constantinople Patriarch1019EUSTATHIUS [G] Constantinople Patriarch1081EUSTATHIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria813EUSTRATIUS Patriarch of Antioch 939EUSEBIUS Bishop of Rome309EUSEBIUS of Caesarea Father of Church history314EUSEBIUS of Nicomedia Bishop of Constantinople339EUSEBIUS Bishop of Doryleum449EUSEBIUS Bishop of Emesa359EUSEBIUS Bishop of Samosata374EUSEBIUS First Bishop of Vercilli355EUSTATHIUS Patriarch of Jerusalem552EUSTATHIUS Primate of Antioch 325EUSTATHIUS Bishop of Sebaste356EUSTOCHIUM J Roman lady follower of Jerome 386EUTHIMIOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1223EUTHYMIUS I Patriarch of Antioch1159EUTHYMIUS II Patriarch of Antioch 1268EUTHYMIUS III Patriarch of Antioch1635EUTHYMIUS IV Patriarch of Antioch 1636EUTHYMIUS V Patriarch of Antioch 1792EUTHYMIUS I Constantinople Patriarch907EUTHYMIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1410EUTYCHIAN Bishop of Rome275EUTYCHES Early Monophysite430EUTYCHIUS Constantinople Patriarch552EUTYCHIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria933EUTYCHUS57EUZIOS Bishop of Byzantium148EUZOIUS Primate of Antioch 360EVAGRIUS Eastern Church Historian590EVAGRIUS P Eastern writer399EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE1846EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE [see also 1846]1951EVANGELICAL CHURCH. [Albright Brethren].1803EVANGELICAL COVENANT CHURCH1885EVANGELICAL FOREIGN MISSIONS ASSOC.1945EVANGELICAL FREE CHURCH OF AMERICA1891EVANGELICAL AND REFORMED CHURCH1934EVANGELICAL UNITED BRETHREN CHURCH1946EVANS C Welsh Baptist Preacher1789EVANS J Missionary and Linguist1840EVANS O Welsh Minister and Author1887EVANSTON ASSEMBLY1954EVARISTUS Bishop of Rome100EVELYN J Diarist and Author1660EVERARD J English Minister and Dissenter1636EWALD G von German Biblical Scholar1827EZNICK Armenian Writer and bishop450 F FABER F English Hymn Writer1849FABER J French humanist1525FABER J Bishop of Vienna1530FABIAN Bishop of Rome236FABIOLA Roman Noblewoman Philanthropist 395FABIUS Primate of Antioch 253FABRI F German Mission Executive1860FACUNDUS Bishop of Hermiane in Byzacena.553FAIRBAIRN A Congregational Minister 1886FAIRBAIRN P Scottish theologian1853FALSE DECRETALS865FAMILY OF LOVE1540FARADAY M English Scientist1827FAREL G French reformer1532FARRAR F Dean of Canterbury1878FAULHABER M VON Archbishop of Munich1921FAUNCE W Baptist minister and educator1884FAUSSET A Anglican Scholar and Author1859FAUSTUS OF REIZ Semi-Pelagian Bishop437FAWCETT J English Baptist Theologian1811FAWKES G Gunpowder Plot Conspirator1605FEAST OF FOOLS.1435FEATLEY D Anglican Controversialist1626FEGAN J English Philanthropist1900FELIX A [see also 57]52FELIX Bishop of Byzantium136FELIX I Bishop of Rome269FELIX II Bishop of Rome483FELIX II Antipope 355FELIX IV Bishop of Rome526FELIX V Antipope1439FELLER H Swiss Missionary and Educator1837FELLOWSHIP OF RECONCILIATION1914FENELON F Archbishop of Cambrai1675FEOLOGILD Archbishop of Canterbury832FERDINAND II Holy Roman Emperor 1624FERDINAND V King of Aragon1491FERGUSON J Scottish Minister and Author 1643FERRAR N Founder Little Gidding Community1625FERRAR R Bishop of St Davids, Wales1548FERRETTI S Organiser Evangelical Italian Church1846FEUARDENT F Franciscan Preacher and Scholar1561FICINO M Florentine humanist1473FIDEI DEFENSOR Papal Title given to Henry VIII1521FIEC [UK]1922FIELD PREACHING1545FIELD F Anglican Scholar1870FIELD R Royal Chaplain 1603FIGGIS J Anglican Historian1892FILASTER Writer against Heresies 397FINDLAY G Methodist Biblical scholar1870FINIAN Second Bishop of Lindisfarne652FINLAND [see also 1889]1249FINLAND [see also 1249]1889FINLEY S Itinerant Great Awakening Preacher1761FINNEY C American Revivalist1821FINNIAN OF MOVILLE Irish monk540FIRMILIAN Bishop of Caesarea230FIRTH J Protestant martyr1532FISHER G Archbishop of Canterbury1945FISHER E Anglican theological writer1643FISHER G Church historian1854FISHER J Roman Catholic Martyr1535FISHER J Fisher the Jesuit1594FISK J American Philosopher, Historian & Lecturer1874FISKE F First single woman Missionary to Persia1843FITZJOCELIN Archbishop of Canterbury1191FITZRALPH R Archbishop of Armagh1347FIVE MILE ACT1665FLACIUS M German Lutheran Theologian.1544FLAD J German missionary to Ethiopia1868FLAGELLANTS1260FLAVELL J English Puritan Nonconformist 1672FLAVIAN Bishop of Constantinople446FLAVIAN I Primate of Antioch384FLAVIAN II Patriarch of Antioch505FLAVIUS SILVA72FLECHE J Missionary Priest to Acadia 1610FLECHIER E Bishop of Nimes1685FLEIDNER T Founder Deaconess Organisation1833FLEMING P Founder of the New Tribes Mission.1942FLETCHER J Methodist Evangelical Arminian 1757FLEURY C French Church Historian1669FLORENCE Council of 1438FLORENTIUS R Brethren of the Common Life1387FLORIAN Roman Emperor275FLORUS French Scholar and Controversialist816FONTANA D Italian St Peters Architect1585FORBES A Bishop of Brechin1848FORBES J Most prominent Aberdeen Doctor1620FORMOSUS Pope891FORSYTH P Congregationalist theologian1901FORTY TWO ARTICLES ACT 15531553FOSDICK H American Baptist minister1908FOSTER G American Baptist Scholar1897FOX G Founder of the Society of Friends1647FOXE J Protestant Historian and Martyrologist1563FRANCE [see 496]250FRANCE [see 250 and 732]496FRANCE [see 496 and 910]732FRANCE [see 732 and 1598]910FRANCE [see 910 and 1793]1598FRANCE [see 1598 and 1905]1793FRANCE [see 1793]1905FRANCIS OF ASSISI Founder of the Franciscans1212FRANCIS OF PAOLA Founder of the Minims Order1435FRANCIS of Sales Counter Reformation leader1610FRANCIS XAVIER Jesuit missionary to the East 1534FRANCISCANS1209FRANCK S Humanist and Anabaptist1525FRANK J Founder of the sect called Frankists1726FRANKE A German Lutheran Pietist1687FRANKFURT Councils of 794FRANKLIN B Inventor, Author, and Diplomat1732FRANSON F Founder Evangelical Alliance Mission1881FRANZELIN J Roman Catholic Scholar1849FRATICELLI A group within the Franciscan Order1316FRAVITAS Constantinople Patriarch488FREDERICK I [Barbarossa] German King1132FREDERICK II German King1196FREDERICK III Elector of Saxony1486FREDERICK III of the Palatinate.1557FREDERICK IV King of Denmark and Norway1699FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND1844FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND1904FREEMAN T Wesleyan Methodist Missionary 1837FREEMASONRY1390FREETHINKERS1825FRELINGHUYSEN T Dutch Calvinist and Pietist1747FRIEDRICH J Church historian1871FRIENDS OF GOD1326FRONTIER RELIGION1790FROST H Mission Director1899FROUDE R Oxford Movement Associate1831FRUCTUOSUS Bishop of Tarragona259FRUMENTIUS First bishop of Axumis339FRY E Quaker Prison Reformer1813FULGENTIUS Bishop of Ruspe508FULKE W Puritan defender of Bishops Bible1580FULLER A Baptist Missionary Society Secretary1775FULLER C American Baptist Radio Evangelist1937FULLER T Anglican Church Historian1655FULLERTON W HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist preacher and hymn writer1908FUNDAMENTALISM1920FUNDAMENTALS [see also Fundamentalism 1920]1910FUX J Catholic Composer Church Music1741 G GABRIEL I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 910GABRIEL II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1131GABRIEL III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1268GABRIEL IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1370GABRIEL V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1408GABRIEL VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1466GABRIEL VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1526GABRIEL VIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1590GABRIEL I Constantinople Patriarch1596GABRIEL II Constantinople Patriarch1657GABRIEL III Constantinople Patriarch1702GABRIEL IV Constantinople Patriarch1780GABRIEL S Greek theologian1577GABRIELI G Italian composer.1611GAEBELEIN A Writer on Prophecy.1894GAINAS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria536GALATIA49GALATIANS, Book of 48GALBA Roman Emperor68GALERIUS Eastern Emperor305GALILEO G Italian Astronomer and Physicist1589GALL Irish Monk and Missionary612GALLA PLACIDA Roman empress,417GALLIC CONFESSION1559GALLICAN ARTICLES The Four 1682GALLICAN PSALTER383GALLIENUS Roman Emperor260GALLIO Roman Proconsul 51GAIRDNER J Scottish Historian and Author1846GAIRDNER W Anglican Missionary and Scholar1901GALESBURG RULE American Lutheran Rule1875GALLITZIN D Catholic Missionary in America 1792GARDINER S Bishop of Winchester1531GARNIER J Jesuit Scholar1628GASCOIGNE T English theologian1431GASQUET F Benedictine Scholar1914GATRY A French Roman Catholic Scholar1863GAUDENTIUS Bishop of Brescia387GAUSSEN F Swiss Reformed Pastor1831GAVAZZI A Italian Patriot and Religious Reformer1863GEAUX Dutch rebels against Spanish Rule1566GEDDIE J. Missionary to the New Hebrides1847GEILER J von Catholic Preacher & Reformer1445GEISELER J German Protestant Church Historian1819GELASIAN DECREE492GELASIUS Bishop of Caesarea367GELASIUS Bishop of Rome492GELASIUS II Pope1118GELLERT C German poet and Hymn Writer1751GENERAL ASSOCIATION of REGULAR BAPTISTS1932GENEVA ACADEMY1559GENEVA BIBLE1560GENEVA CATECHISM1537GENEVIEVE Ascetic 451GENNADIUS I Constantinople Patriarch458GENNADIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1454GENNADIUS OF MARSEILLES Church historian496GEORGE I Patriarch of Antioch640GEORGE II Patriarch of Antioch 690GEORGE III Patriarch of Antioch 902GEORGE IV LASCARIS Patriarch of Antioch1010GEORGE I Constantinople Patriarch679GEORGE II Constantinople Patriarch1191GEORGE I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 619GEORGE II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1021GEORGE Patriarch of Jerusalem 797GEORGE of Brandenburg Patron of the Reformation1527GEORGE of Cappadocia Bishop of Alexandria357GEORGE of Laodicea Bishop of Laodicea359GEORGE Prominent Monophysite Church Writer676GEORGE Hamartolos Byzantine Monk Writer842GEORGE Syncellus Byzantine Church Historian813GERALD DE BARRI Archdeacon of Brecon1175GERARD of Zutphem Brethren of the Common Life1390GERASIMOS Patriarch of Antioch1885GERASIMOS I Constantinople Patriarch1320GERASIMUS II Constantinople Patriarch1673GERASIMUS III Constantinople Patriarch 1794GERASIMUS Patriarch of Jerusalem 1891GERASIMUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1620GERASIMUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1688GERASIMUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1783GERBILLON J Jesuit missionary to China1670GERHARD J Lutheran Theologian1610GERHARDT P German Hymn Writer1651GERHART E American Reformed Theologian.1842GERMAN CHRISTIANS1934GERMANUS I Constantinople Patriarch715GERMANUS II Constantinople Patriarch1223GERMANUS III Constantinople Patriarch1267GERMANUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1842GERMANUS V Constantinople Patriarch1913GERMANUS Patriarch of Jerusalem1537GERMANUS Bishop of Paris555GERMANY Ecclesiastical verse781GERSON J de French theologian1395GERTRUDE the Great German Mystic1281GESENIUS H German Biblical Scholar1811GESS W German Theologian1864GESSIUS FLORES 64GESUATI An Order of Laymen1367GEULINCX A Belgian Calvinist and Philosopher1646GEYMONAT P Waldensian Evangelist1850GHEON H French Roman Catholic Writer1912GIBBON E English Historian1766GIBBONS J Catholic Archbishop of Baltimore.1877GIBBONS O English Composer1625GIBSON E Bishop of London1713GICHTEL J German Mystic1668GIDEONS INTERNATIONAL1898GILBERT of Sempringham Founds Gilbertine Order1148GILES of Rome Theologian and Philosopher1285GILL J Baptist minister and Biblical Scholar1718GILLESPIE G Scottish Covenantor and Author1641GILLESPIE T Scottish Separist Minister1752GILMORE J Scottish missionary to Mongolia1870GILPIN B Apostle of the North1556GIOBERTI V Italian Philosopher and Statesman1833GIOTTO Italian Painter1334GIRGENSOHN K Protestant Religious Psychologist1922GLADBIO M Roman Consul91GLADDEN W Liberal theologian1882GLADSTONE W British Prime Minister1832GLAS J Founder of the Glasites1719GLEGG A British Evangelist1940GLOVER T English Baptist Scholar1911GLYCERIUS Roman Emperor West473GNOSTICISM138GNOSTICS96GOBAT S Bishop of Jerusalem.1845GODESCAL Paintings 782GODET F Swiss Reformed Theologian and Exegete1851GODFREY of Bouillon French Crusader Knight1096GOETHE J von German Poet, Novelist & Scientist1775GOFORTH J Canadian Missionary to China1887GOMAR F Dutch Calvinistic Theologian1593GOMEZ M Filipino Priest and Martyr1872GOODELL W American Near East Missionary 1823GOODRICH C American Minister & Lexicographer.1838GOODSPEED J New Testament Scholar1900GOODWIN J Arminian Puritan 1625GOODWIN T Congregational Savoy Assembly1650GORDIAN I Roman Emperor238GORDIAN II Roman Emperor238GORDIAN III Roman Emperor238GORDON A Baptist Minister, Educator, and Author1869GORDON C Canadian Presbyterian Minister 1890GORDON G Scottish Minister and Writer1884GORDON RIOTS1780GORDON S American Devotional Writer1901GORE C Anglican Bishop1911GORRES J von German Roman Catholic Publicist1817GORTON S Early American Colonist1649GOSSE P Brethren Author 1857GOSSNER J Founder Gossner Missionary Society.1829GOTTSCHALK Theologian and Monk849GOUDIMEL C French Composer1551GOUNOD C French composer1893GOVETT R English Theological Writer1844GRABE J Anglican Scholar1697GRAFTON R Chronicler and Printer1540GRAHAM W American Evangelist1954GRANT G Canadian Minister and Educator1877GRANT R Archbishop of Canterbury 1229GRANT R Hymn Writer. 1834GRATIAN Roman Emperor West378GRAY G English Old Testament Scholar1893GRAY J President Moody Bible Institute1925GRAY R First Anglican Bishop of Cape Town1847GREAT AWAKENING1740GREAT SCHISM The Eastern Schism 1054GREBEL C Leader of the Swiss Anabaptists.1525GREEK EVANGELICAL CHURCH1858GREENHILL W English Nonconformist Minister1644GREENWELL D Hymn Writer1873GREENWOOD J English Separatist1593GREGOIRE H Bishop of Blois1790GREGORIAN CALENDAR1582GREGORY I Patriarch of Antioch571GREGORY II Patriarch of Antioch 610GREGORY III Patriarch of Antioch1483GREGORY IV Patriarch of Antioch 1906GREGORY I Constantinople Patriarch379GREGORY II Constantinople Patriarch1283GREGORY III Constantinople Patriarch1443GREGORY IV Constantinople Patriarch1623GREGORY V Constantinople Patriarch1797GREGORY VI Constantinople Patriarch1835GREGORY VII Constantinople Patriarch1923GREGORY III Patriarch of Jerusalem 1468GREGORY I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1243GREGORY II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1316GREGORY III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1354GREGORY IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1398GREGORY V Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1484GREGORY I Pope590GREGORY II Pope715GREGORY III - Pope731GREGORY IV - Pope827GREGORY V Pope 996GREGORY VI Pope1045GREGORY VI Antipope1012GREGORY VII Pope1073GREGORY VIII Pope1187GREGORY VIII Antipope1118GREGORY IX Pope1227GREGORY X Pope1271GREGORY XI Pope1370GREGORY XII Pope1406GREGORY XIII Pope1572GREGORY XIV Pope1590GREGORY XV Pope1621GREGORY XVI Pope1831GREGORY I Patriarch of Antioch571GREGORY I Bishop of Constantinople379GREGORY of Agrigentum Byzantine Prelate638GREGORY of Elvira Bishop of Elvira392GREGORY of Nazianzus Capadocian Father362GREGORY of Nyssa Bishop of Nyssa371GREGORY of Tours Frankish bishop and historian573GREGORY the Illuminator300GREGORY Palamas Greek Theologian1341GREGORY of Rimini Augustinian Philosopher1357GREGORY T Bishop of Neo Caesarea270GREGORY of Utrecht Missionary and Abbot750GREISBACH J German New Testament Scholar1775GRELLET S Quaker Missionary1813GRENFELL G Baptist missionary to Congo1884GRENFELL W Medical Missionary to Labrador 1892GREY NUNS Sisters of Charity1737GREY J Archbishop of Canterbury1206GRIFFITHS A Welsh Hymn Writer1797GRIGNION L Jesuit Missionary1700GRIMSHAW W Anglican Minister1742GRINDAL E Archbishop of Canterbury1575GRONINGEN SCHOOL1835GROOTE G Founder Brethren of Common Life1380GROPPER J Roman Catholic Theologian1538GROSSETESTE R Bishop of Lincoln1235GROTIUS H Dutch Jurist and Statesman1621GROVES A Plymouth Brethren Missionary 1833GRUNDTVIG N Danish Bishop and Hymn Writer1825GUARANTEES Law of 1871GUICCIARDNI F Italian Historian and Statesman1516GUICCIARDNI P Italian Protestant Leader1853GUINNESS H Evangelist and Writer1866GUNPOWDER PLOT1605GUNTHER A German Religious Philosopher1857GURNEY D Anglican Poetess1889GURNEY J Philanthropist Founder of Gurneyites1827GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS King of Sweden1611GUSTAVUS VASA King of Sweden1523GUTENBERG J Inventor of Printing1456GUTHRIE J Scottish Covenantor1661GUTHRIE T Scottish Minister and Social Reformer1837GUTHRIE W Scottish Covenantor 1642GUTZLAFF K Missionary to China1823GUYARD M Roman Catholic Missionary to Quebec1631GUYON Madame French Quietist1689 H HABERSHON A English Author and Hymn Writer1901HADRIAN Roman Emperor117HADRIAN THE AFRICAN North African Monk709HAGENAU Colloquy of 1540HAGUE D Professor at Wycliffe College1897HALDANE J Scottish evangelist1797HALDANE R Scottish Evangelist and Philanthropist1795HALF-WAY COVENANT1662HALLER B Swiss Reformer1517HALL R English Baptist Minister1785HALLBECK H Moravian Missionary to South Africa1817HALLESBY O Norwegian Theologian.1902HALLEY H Author, Minister, and Bible Lecturer1924HALLEYS BIBLE HANDBOOK1924HALYBURTON T Scottish theologian1700HAMANN J German Religious Thinker1758HAMILTON J Archbishop of St Andrews1546HAMILTON P Scottish Reformation Proto-Martyr.1528HAMLIN C American Congregational Missionary1840HAMMOND H Anglican minister1629HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE1604HANBY B HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer" \o "Composer" composer and Hymn Writer1865HANDEL G Composer1742HANKEY A English hymn writer1864HANNINGTON J Anglican missionary to East Africa1882HARDING S Cistercian Order Co Founder1334HARDOUIN J Catholic Church Historian1683HARLESS G von German Lutheran theologian1829HARMONY SOCIETY1805HARMS L German Mission Organiser1849HARNACK A German theologian 1889HARPER W Semitics scholar1891HARRIS H Welsh Methodist Calvinist Founder1735HARRIS J Quaker scholar and Orientalist1880HART J Calvinist Minister and Hymn Writer1757HARTZELL J Missionary Bishop for Africa.1896HARVARD J Benefactor of Harvard University1636HASSLER H German Renaissance Composer1612HASTINGS J Scottish minister and editor1884HATCH E Early Christian Church Historian1859HATFIELD Council of679HAUGE H Norwegian Lay Preacher Pioneer1796HAUSRATH A German Liberal Lutheran Theologian1909HAVERGAL F Hymn writer1879HAWEIS T Co-founder London Missionary Society 1764HAWKER R Celtic Lore Anglican 1875HAWKS A Poet and Hymn Writer.1849HAYDN F Musical composer1809HAYMO of Faversham English Franciscan 1240HEADLAM A Ecumenical Bishop and Theologian 1923HEBER R Bishop of Calcutta and Hymn writer. 1822HEBICH S Founder Basel Mission Work in India1834HEBREWS, Book of 65HECK B Mother of American Methodism.1760HECKER I Founder of the Paulist Order. 1858HEDBERG F Founder of Evangelical Movement. 1834HEERMANN J Silesian Hymn writer 1611HEFELE K Roman Catholic bishop and historian.1833HEGEL G Anti Christian Philosopher1818HEGESIPPUS Second century church historian. 167HEILER F Leader German Church Union1929HEIM K Lutheran Theologian1920HELENA Mother of Constantine327HELVETIC CONFESSIONS 1536HELWYS T Founder Baptist Churches in England. 1611HENDERSON A Co-author National Covenant 1639HENGSTENBERG E Lutheran scholar 1840HENOTICON Orthodox and Monophysite Union482HENRY II German king and Holy Roman Emperor.1014HENRY III German king and Holy Roman Emperor.1039HENRY IV German king and Holy Roman Emperor.1056HENRY VI King of England 1429HENRY VIII King of England1521HENRY IV King of France 1593HENRY of Blois Bishop of Winchester1129HENRY of Ghent Theologian and Philosopher1293HENRY of Langenstein German theologian1384HENRY of Lausanne Heretic monk and theologian 1119HENRY Suso Swabian mystic 1348HENRY M Biblical expositor and author1704HENRY P Father of Matthew Henry 1657HENSON H Bishop of Durham 1920HEPBURN J Scottish Secessionist Minister 1723HEPBURN J Missionary to Japan 1859HERACLAS Patriarch of Alexandria 232HERACLIUS Byzanitine Emperor 610HERBERT G English poet 1629HERDER J von Lutheran Scholar 1764HERGENROTHER J Scholar and Cardinal1879HERMAN of Reichenau Chronologist and Author 1043HERMANN von Wied Church Reformer1541HERMON Primate of Jerusalem300HEROD AGGRIPA I [see also 40,41]39HEROD AGGRIPA II50HEROD ANTIPAS39HEROS I Primate of Antioch100HEROS II Primate of Antioch154HERRING T Archbishop of Canterbury 1747HERTFORD Council of 673HERZOG J Swiss German Reformed Theologian 1853HESYCHASM Oriental monks 1341HETZER L Anabaptist reformer and hymn writer. 1525HEUMANN C German Protestant theologian.1758HEYLING P First German Protestant missionary. 1634HEYLYN P Anglican Historian 1624HICKS G Non-juror Bishop and Author 1694HICKSITES American Quakers Group1827HIERAPOLIS98HIEROTHEOS Patriarch of Antioch1860HIEROTHEUS Patriarch of Jerusalem 1875HIEROTHEUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1825HIEROTHEUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1847HIGHER CRITICISM.1787HILARION Eastern Ascetic 371HILARY of Arles Bishop of Arles 428HILIARY Bishop of Poitiers353HILIARY Bishop of Rome461HILDA Abbess of Whitby659HILDEGARD German Abbess, Mystic and Writer1179HILL R Founder of Missions and Bible Society1764HILLIS N American Sunday School Association. 1914HINCMAR Archbishop of Reims 845HIPPO Council of393HIPPOLYTUS Presbyter and Teacher217HISPANIC CANONS 1181HOADLY B Anglican Bishop and Theologian 1716HOBBES T British Political Philosopher 1651HOCHMANN E von German Pietist Mystic 1693HODGE A Princeton Presbyterian Theologian 1877HODGE C Princeton Presbyterian Theologian1841HOFBAUER C Redemptionist Priest 1785HOFMANN J von German Lutheran Theologian 1845HOLCOT R Pelagian Biblical Expositor 1349HOLINESS MOVEMENT American1840HOLL K German Church Historian1906HOLLAND H Anglican Preacher and Theologian 1884HOLTZMANN H German New Testaments Scholar1874HOLY ALLIANCE 1815HOLY CLUB 1735HOLY OFFICE 1542HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 962HOLY SYNOD1721HOMBERG SYNOD1526HOMILIES Books of. Anglican Sermons1547HOMOEANS325HONORIUS Emperor West 395HONORIUS Archbishop of Canterbury627HONORIUS I Pope625HONORIUS II Pope1124HONORIUS II Antipope1061HONORIUS III Pope1216HONORIUS IV Pope1285HONORIUS of Autun Monk and writer.1156HONTHEIM J von Founder of Febronianism. 1764HOOK W Dean of Chichester 1837HOOKER R English Theologian and Apologist. 1595HOOKER T Puritan Founder of Connecticut. 1636HOOPER J Protestant Martyr and Anglican Bishop 1550HOPKINS G English poet 1866HOPKINS S New England Theology Minister1770HOPKINSON F American composer 1791HORMISDAS Bishop of Rome514HORNE G Bishop of Norwich 1780HORNE T Librarian and Protestant Commentator. 1819HORNER R Founder Holiness Movement Church 1895HORSLEY S Anglican Bishop 1788HORT F New Testament critic and biblical scholar. 1881HOSIUS Bishop of Cordoba357HOSIUS S Polish Counter Reformation Cardinal 1543HOSKYNS E Anglican Clergyman and Theologian 1933HOSPITALLERS1310HOTMAN F French jurist, scholar and reformer, 1547HOUGHTON W President of Moody Bible Institute1934HOW W Bishop and hymn writer1888HOWARD J Prison reformer 1773HOWARD P Oxford Group Movement Leader1961HOWE J English nonconformist Conciliator 1652HOWE J Writer and Reformer 1876HOWLEY W Archbishop of Canterbury1828HOWSON J New Testament Scholar 1867HROMADKA J Czech Reformed Theologian 1912HUBER S Protestant Lutheran Scholar 1588HUC A Catholic Missionary to China.1844HUGH of Cluny Abbot of Cluny.1049HUGH of Lincoln Bishop of Lincoln 1186HUGH St Victor Exegete and Theologian. 1120HUGHES H Welsh Wesleyan Forward Movement 1890HUGHES J Catholic Archbishop of New York 1850HUGHES S Welsh Puritan Publisher 1659HUGUENOTS French Calvinists. 1540HUMBERT Cardinal Bishop of Silva Candida1054HUME D Scottish Philosopher and Historian 1739HUMILIATI Mediaeval Order of Penitents 1159HUNG H Leader of the Taiping Rebellion.1851HUNGARY [see also 1525] 955HUNGARY [see also 1787]. 1525HUNGARY [see also 1525] 1787HUNT J English missionary to Fiji 1845HUNT W English Pre-Raphaelite Painter1854HUPFELD H German Old Testament Scholar 1838HUS J Bohemian Reformer and Martyr1415HUTCHISON A Early American Colonist 1638HUTTEN U von German Lutheran Reformer 1520HUTTERITES Anabaptist sect 1529HUTTON M Archbishop of Canterbury1757HYACINTH Polish Apostle of the North 1217HYGINUS Bishop of Rome138HYPOSTATIC UNION. 451 I I AM MOVEMENT1934IBAS Bishop of Edessa 435ICELAND [see also 1540].1056ICELAND [see also 1801].1540ICELAND [see 1514]1801ICONIUM45ICONOCLASTIC COUNCIL753IGNATIUS I Primate of Antioch 68IGNATIUS II Patriarch of Antioch 1342IGNATIUS III Patriarch of Antioch 1619IGNATIUS IV Patriarch of Antioch 1979IGNATIUS of Loyola Founder of the Jesuits1548IGNATIUS I Constantinople Patriarch847IGNATIUS Bishop of Antioch98IHMELS L Lutheran Theologian and Bishop1922ILDEFONSUS Archbishop of Toledo657ILLUMINATI [Alumbrados] Spanish group of Mystics 1524IMENAIOS Primate of Jerusalem 260INDEPENDENTS1640INDEX EXPURGATORIUS1559INDIA [see also 1320] 250INDIA [see also 1542]1320INDIA [see also 1793]1542INDIA [see also 1542 and 1919].1793INDIA [also see 1793] 1919INDIA, Evangelical Fellowship of 1951INDONESIA [also see 1811]1522INDONESIA [also see 1522 and 1934]1811INDONESIA [see also 1811]1934INDRE MISSION Danish State Mission 1861INDULGENCES 1095INFALLIBILITY.1569INFALLIBILITY 1854INGE W. Dean of St Pauls1911INGERSOLL R American Politician and Agnostic 1854INGLIS C First Anglican Bishop of Nova Scotia 1787INNOCENT I Bishop of Rome401INNOCENT II Pope1130INNOCENT III Pope 1198INNOCENT III Antipope1179INNOCENT IV Pope1243INNOCENT V Pope1276INNOCENT VI Pope1352INNOCENT VII Pope1404INNOCENT VIII Pope1484INNOCENT IX Pope1591INNOCENT X Pope1644INNOCENT XI Pope1676INNOCENT XII Pope 1691INNOCENT XIII Pope1721INQUISITION THE. 1163INTERCONTINENTAL CHURCH SOCIETY1823INTERDENOM. FOREIGN MISSIONARY ASSOC.1917INTERNATIONAL BIBLE READING Association. 1882INTERNATIONAL CONGREGATIONAL Council1891INTERNAT. COUNCIL OF CHRISTIAN CHURCHES1948INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL1921INTER-VARSITY FELLOWSHIP1927INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY. 1073IONA. 563IONA COMMUNITY1938IRELAND [also see 1172]431IRELAND [also see 1642]. 1172IRELAND [also see 1859]1642IRELAND [ also see 1642]1859IRENAEUS Bishop of Lyons177IRISH ARTICLES [1615]1566IRISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION1840IRONSIDE H Canadian Bible Teacher and Author 1896IRVING E Scottish minister1822ISAAC THE GREAT Armenian patriarch 390ISAAC Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 689ISAAC Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 941ISAAC Patriarch of Jerusalem 601ISAAC H Dutch Musical Composer1501ISAAC OF NINEVEH Nestorian bishop of Nineveh700ISABELLA of Castile1474ISADORE of Pelusium Egyptian Theologian440ISAIAS I Constantinople Patriarch1323ISHODAD of Merv Nestorian bishop of Hedatta 850ISHU YAB III Patriarch of the East 650ISIDORE I Constantinople Patriarch1347ISIDORE II Constantinople Patriarch1456ISIDORE of Seville Educator Archbishop of Seville 619ISLIP S Archbishop of Canterbury1349IVO of Chartres Bishop of Chartres. 1090 J JABLONSKI D Bishop of Unitas Fratrum.1699JACKSON F Professor Union Theological Seminary1916JACKSON S Historian, Educator and Philanthropist.1895JACKSON S Missionary to the West and Alaska. 1884JACOBITES The Monophysites of Syria787JACOB II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1460JACOB BARADAEUS Bishop of Edessa.542JACOB of Edessa Jacobite scholar684JACOB of Nisbis Bishop of Nisbis341JACOB of Sarug Bishop of Batnae519JACOB Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1861JACOPONE DA TODI Franciscan monk and poet1298JAENBERT Archbishop of Canterbury765JAMES44JAMES HALF BROTHER OF JESUS 61JAMES I King of England1603JAMES II Catholic King of Great Britain1685JAMES Constantinople Patriarch1679JAMES, Book of46JAMES W American Psychologist and Philosopher.1902JANE FRANCES de Chantal Order Founder1592JANICKE J German missionary training leader1800JANSEN C Roman Catholic Bishop of Ypres1640JANSENISM A radical Augustinian movement1638JAPAN [see also 1862]1549JAPAN [see also 1549 and 1925]. 1862JAPAN [see also 1862]1925JASPER J American Negro Baptist preacher.1837JASPERS K German Existentialist Philosopher 1948JEFFERSON T Third President of the United States1801JEHOVAHS WITNESSES1931JEREMIAS I Constantinople Patriarch1522JEREMIAS II Constantinople Patriarch1572JEREMIAS III Constantinople Patriarch1716JEREMIAS IV Constantinople Patriarch1809JEROME EMILIANI Founder of the Somaschi1518JEROME of Prague Bohemian reformer and martyr1407JEROME Translator of the Vulgate 382JERUSALEM [see also 68, 70]57JERUSALEM Biblical Prophecy Conference [1971]1971JERUSALEM CONFERENCE [1928]1928JERUSALEM COUNCIL49JERUSALEM PATRIARCHATE451JERUSALEM PRIMATES [99-213]99JERUSALEM Synod of [1672]1672JESUITS1540JEWEL J Bishop of Salisbury 1560JEWISH REVOLT [see also 68] 66JEWS MISSIONS1842JIMENES F de Cisneros Cardinal and Inquisitor1495JOACHIM Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1486JOACHIM I Patriarch of Antioch 1199JOACHIM II Patriarch of Antioch 1411JOACHIM III Patriarch of Antioch 1476JOACHIM IV Patriarch of Antioch1543JOACHIM V Patriarch of Antioch 1581JOACHIM VI Patriarch of Antioch 1593JOANNICUS I Constantinople Patriarch1546JOANNICUS II Constantinople Patriarch1646JOANNICUS III Constantinople Patriarch 1761JOACHIM I Constantinople Patriarch1498JOACHIM II Constantinople Patriarch1860JOACHIM III Constantinople Patriarch1878JOACHIM IV Constantinople Patriarch1884JOACHIM Patriarch of Jerusalem 1431JOACHIM of Fiore Mystic philosopher of history1192JOAN OF ARC1431JOANNES Roman Emperor West423JOANNICIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1645JOASAPH I Constantinople Patriarch1464JOASAPH II Constantinople Patriarch1555JOB Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria954JOB I Patriarch of Antioch 810JOB II Patriarch of Antioch917JOGUES I Jesuit missionary to Canada and martyr1636JOHANSSON G Archbishop of Finland1899JOHN96JOHN, I,2,3 Books of 92JOHN, Book of 90JOHN I Primate of Antioch428JOHN II Patriarch of Antioch 475JOHN IV Patriarch of Antioch797JOHN V Patriarch of Antioch995JOHN VI Patriarch of Antioch1051JOHN VII Patriarch of Antioch1090JOHN IX Patriarch of Antioch1155JOHN I CHRYSOSTOM Bishop of Constantinople398JOHN II Constantinople Patriarch518JOHN III Constantinople Patriarch565JOHN IV Constantinople Patriarch582JOHN V Constantinople Patriarch669JOHN VI Constantinople Patriarch712JOHN VII Constantinople Patriarch837JOHN VIII Constantinople Patriarch1064JOHN IX Constantinople Patriarch1111JOHN X Constantinople Patriarch1198JOHN XI Constantinople Patriarch1275JOHN XII Constantinople Patriarch1294JOHN XIII Constantinople Patriarch1315JOHN XIV Constantinople Patriarch1334JOHN II Primate of Jerusalem386JOHN III Patriarch of Jerusalem516JOHN IV Patriarch of Jerusalem575JOHN V Patriarch of Jerusalem706JOHN VI Patriarch of Jerusalem735JOHN VII Patriarch of Jerusalem 964JOHN VIII Patriarch of Jerusalem1106JOHN IX Patriarch of Jerusalem1156JOHN I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria482JOHN IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 569JOHN V Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 610JOHN VI Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1062JOHN I Bishop of Rome523JOHN II Bishop of Rome533JOHN III Bishop of Rome561JOHN IV Pope640JOHN V Pope685JOHN VI Pope701JOHN VII Pope705JOHN VIII Pope872JOHN VIII Antipope844JOHN IX Pope898JOHN X Pope914JOHN XI Pope931JOHN XII Pope955JOHN XIII Pope965JOHN XIV Pope983JOHN XV Pope985JOHN XVI Antipope996JOHN XVII Pope 1003JOHN XVIII Pope1003JOHN XIX Pope1024JOHN XXI Pope1276JOHN XXII Pope1316JOHN XXIII Antipope1410JOHN XXIII Pope1958JOHN PAUL I Pope1978JOHN PAUL II Pope1978JOHN CODONATUS Patriarch of Antioch495JOHN CLIMACUS Ascetic Monk and Mystic649JOHN FREDERICK German Lutheran Prince1547JOHN G Protestant Missionary in inland China. 1855JOHN GUALBERT Founder Vallumbrosan Order1073JOHN of Avilla Spanish missionary and Scholar 1525JOHN of Beverley Bishop of York 705JOHN of Damascus Greek Eastern Father749JOHN of God Founder of Brothers Hospitallers 1572JOHN of Leyden Militant Anabaptist1536JOHN of Matha Co founder Trinitarian Order 1213JOHN of Monte Corvino Missionary to China1291JOHN of Paris Preacher and in early Conciliarist1306JOHN of Parma Franciscan Minister General1233JOHN of Ragusa Dominican procurator theologian 1426JOHN of Salisbury Bishop of Chatres1176JOHN of Sittingbourne Archbishop of Canterbury1232JOHN of St Thomas Dominican Scholar1620JOHN The Constant Saxon Royal Reformer1525JOHN of The Cross Spanish Carmelite Mystic1567JOHN of Wesel Roman Catholic Reformer1477JOHNSON R First Anglican Australian Chaplain1786JOHNSON S Moralist, Essayist, and Lexicographer 1765JOINVILLE J French nobleman and chronicler1233JONAS J Protestant Reformer and Scholar1536JONES B Founder Fundamentalist University1924JONES E American Missionary to India1930JONES G Welsh preacher and Educator1731JONES J Welsh Expositor and Theologian1867JONES R Quaker Scholar and Professor 1917JONES S Evangelist and Prohibitionist1885JONES T Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Theologian 1783JOSEPH I Constantinople Patriarch1267JOSEPH II Constantinople Patriarch1416JOSEPH II Patriarch of Jerusalem980JOSEPH C Educator and Founder of the Piarists1602JOSEPH of Copertino Franciscan Ascetic Levitator 1628JOSEPHISM Austrian State Control Policy1767JOVIAN Roman Emperor363JOWETT B English Classicist and Theologian 1860JOWETT J English Congregationalist Leader1910JUBILEE Year of Roman Catholic institution based1300JUD L Swiss Reformer and Translator1523JUDE, Book of67JUDSON A Missionary, and Bible Translator1812JULIAN Patriarch of Antioch466JULIAN The Apostate Roman Emperor361JULIAN of Eclanum Pelagian Theologian418JULIAN Patriarch of Alexandria 178JULIAN of Norwich English Mystic Anchoress1373JULICHER A German New Testament Scholar1889JULIUS I Bishop of Rome337JULIUS II Pope1503JULIUS III Pope1550JULIUS AFRICANUS S Christian Scholar240JURIEU P French Reformed Church Theologian1674JUSTIN I Byzantine Emperor 518JUSTIN II Byzantine Emperor565JUSTIN MARTYR138JUSTINIAN I Byzantine Emperor527JUSTINIAN CODE Consolidation of Roman law529JUSTUS Patriarch of Alexandria 118JUSTUS Archbishop of Canterbury624JUVENAL Patriarch of Jerusalem422JUVENCUS G Christian Poet330JUXON W Archbishop of Canterbury 1660 K KAEHLER M German Protestant Theologian1860KAFTAN J German Protestant Theologian1883KAFTAN T German Lutheran Churchman 1886KAGAWA T Japanese Christian Leader1919KAISERSWERTH Nursing Training Centre1836KANT I German Philosopher1770KEBLE J Anglican Hymn Writer and Tractarian1833KEDRON Patriarch of Alexandria 96KEIL J Lutheran Professor and Exegete1833KEIM K German Theologian and Church Historian1860KEITH-FALCONER I Missionary and Arabic scholar1885KELLS Synod of 1152KELLY T Irish Hymn Writer1792KELLY W Plymouth Brethren Critic and Editor1841KEMP J Archbishop of Canterbury1452KEMPE M English Mystic1413KEN T Bishop of Bath and Wells1684KENRICK F Catholic Archbishop and Educator1821KENSIT J Protestant Preacher and Controversialist1902KENTIGERN Early Missionaries in Scotland603KENYON Sir F Greek Manuscript Scholar1889KEPLER J A Founder of Modern Astronomy1630KERR A Educator of Africans in South Africa1915KESWICK CONVENTION1875KETHE W Bible translator and Hymn Writer1561KETTLEWELL J Nonjuror 1678KGAMA III African Christian Chief1862KHOMYAKOV A Russian Theologian1830KHRISTOSOLOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1047KIDD B Church Historian 1887KIERKEGAARD S Danish Philosopher1848KIKUYU CONTROVERSY1913KILHAM A Founder of Methodist New Connexion 1796KILLIAN Missionary to the Franks and Martyr689KILWARDBY R Archbishop of Canterbury1273KING E Archaeologist and Writer 1796KING J Author and Missionary to Greece1830KING, M American civil rights leader1964KINGS EVIL The 1270KINGSLEY C Novelist and Christian Socialist1842KIRELLOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1078KIRELLOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1235KIRELLOS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1854KIRELLOS V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1874KIRELLOS VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1959KIRK K Bishop of Oxford 1937KIRKLAND S Missionary to American Indians 1793KITTEL G German Biblical Scholar1926KITTEL R German Old Testament Scholar 1898KITTO J English Biblical scholar and Author1824KLOPSTOCK F German Poet1751KNIBB W Early Baptist Missionary in Jamaica1824KNOX E Bishop of Manchester1903KNOX J Scottish Reformer1559KNOX R Roman Catholic Scholar1919KNOX W Anglican Apologist and NT Scholar 1915KOHLER C&H Swiss Heretics1745KOREA [see also 1950]1884KOREA [see also 1884]1950KOSMA I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria729KOSMA II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 851KOSMA III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 921KOSMAS I Constantinople Patriarch1075KRAEMER H Ecumenist and Writer on Missions1922KRAPF J Pioneer missionary to Kenya1844KRUDENER B von Russian born Pietist1804KRUMMACHER F German Reformed Pastor1819KUENEN A Netherlands Protestant Theologian1855KUNG H Roman Catholic Theologian 1955KUYPER A Dutch Calvinist Leader1880 L LA BADIE J Founder of the Labadists1650LABARUM The First Christian Military Standard324LACHMANN K Modern Textural Criticism Founder1825LACORDAIRE J French Roman Catholic Orator1827LACTANTIUS Apologist and Historian317LAGRANGE M French Roman Catholic Scholar1883LAKE K British Biblical Scholar1914LALEMANT J Jesuit Missionary to Canada1638LAMBERT Bishop, Monk and Missionary670LAMBERT F Reformer of Hesse1526LAMBERT of Hersfeld Benedictine Historian1081LAMBETH ARTICLES. [1595]1595LAMBETH CONFERENCES1867LAMBRUSCHINI R Social, and Religious Reformer1814LAMBUTH W Missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea" \o "Korea" Korea and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" \o "Japan" Japan1877LAMENNAIS F French Roman Catholic Writer1830LANDUS Pope913LANFRANC Archbishop of Canterbury1070LANG C Archbishop of Canterbury1928LANGHAM S Archbishop of Canterbury1366LANGLEY C Archbishop of Canterbury1862LANGTON S Archbishop of Canterbury 1207LANGTON T Archbishop of Canterbury1501LAODICEA Synod of361LAPSED CONTROVERSY251LARDNER N Nonconformist Scholar And Author1727LAS SALLE J French Educational Reformer1678LASKI J Polish Protestant1521LASSUS O Musical Composer1594LAS CASAS B Spanish missionary to West Indies1510LATERAN COUNCIL 1. 1123LATERAN COUNCIL 21138LATERAN COUNCIL 31179LATERAN COUNCIL 41215LATERAN COUNCIL 51512LATERAN TREATY1929LATHBURY M Teacher and Hymn Writer1880LATIMER H English Reformer and Martyr1555LATIN AMERICA [see also 1735]1510LATIN AMERICA [see also 1510 and 1844]1735LATIN AMERICA [see also 1735 and 1916] 1844LATIN AMERICA [see also 1844]1916LATITUDINARIANISM1689LATOURETTE K Church historian and Orientalist1921LAUBACH F American Missionary and Linguist1929LAUD W Archbishop of Canterbury 1633LAURENCE Bishop of Byzantium154LAURENCE Archbishop of Canterbury604LAURENCE Martyr258LAURENTIUS Antipope 498LAUSANNE CONFERENCE [1927]1927LAUSANNE EVANGELISATION CONGRESS1974LAVAL F First Bishop of Quebec1674LAW W English Devotional Writer 1714LAWS R Scottish Medical Missionary1875LAYNEZ J Spanish Jesuit Theologian Leader1558LAZARISTS Congregation of Priests of the Mission1632LAZARUS Patriarch of Jerusalem1334LEANDER Bishop of Seville577LECLERC J French Protestant Remonstrant1684LEE A Founder of the Shakers1766LEE J The apostle of Methodism in New England1801LEGATE B Last Heretic burnt in London1611LEGGE J Missionary and Chinese Scholar1839LEIBNITZ G German Philosopher1703LEIGHTON R Archbishop of Glasgow1641LEIPZIG DISPUTATION OF [1519]1519LE JEUNE C French composer1564LEO [S] Constantinople Patriarch1134LEO [T] Constantinople Patriarch1189LEO I Bishop of Rome440LEO II Pope681LEO III Pope795LEO IV Pope847LEO V Pope903LEO VI Pope928LEO VII Pope936LEO VIII Pope963LEO IX Pope1049LEO X Pope1513LEO XI Pope1605LEO XII Pope1823LEO XIII Pope 1878LEO I Emperor East457LEO II Emperor East474LEONARDO DA VINCI Florentine artist and inventor 1482LEONTIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1052LEONTIUS Primate of Antioch345LEONTIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem911LEONTIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem1170LEONITUS of Byzantium Anti-Monophysite 520LEPORIUS Latin Theologian from Gaul430LEPSIUS J Founder of the German Orient Mission1900LEVELLERS1645LEWIS C S Novelist, Poet and Apologist. 1941LIANG-A-FAH Chinese Protestant Evangelist1814LIBERAL CATHOLIC CHURCH1918LIBERIAN CATALOGUE List of Roman bishops 354LIBERIUS Bishop of Rome352LIBERTINES 1555LICINIUS Joint Emperor West308LIDDELL E Athlete and Missionary to China1925LIDDON H Anglican Tractarian Preacher1870LIEBENZELL MISSION1899LIETZMANN H German Church Historian1905LIGHTFOOT J Bishop of Durham1879LIGHTFOOT J English Biblical Scholar1643LIGHTFOOT R English Biblical Scholar1913LIGUORI A Roman Catholic Moral Theologian1726LINCOLN A 16th President of the United States1861LINCOLN W English Preacher1849LINDLEY D American Missionary to South Africa1835LINDSAY T Scottish Church Historian 1869LINGARD J English Roman Catholic Historian1795LINUS Bishop of Rome67LIPSIUS R German Protestant Theologian1892LISZT F Hungarian Composer and Pianist1886LIUTPRAND Bishop and Church Historian949LIVINGSTONE D Scottish Missionary and Explorer1841LLWYD M Welsh Puritan Author and Poet1650LOBSTEIN P French Protestant Theologian1876LOEHE J Lutheran Missions Pastor1831LOISY A Founder of French Catholic Modernism1908LOLLARDS1395LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY1795LONGFELLOW H American Poet1836LONGSTAFF W Hymn Writer and Church Leader1891LOOFS F Lutheran Church Historian1888LOPEZ G First Chinese Bishop1656LOSEE W Methodist Episcopal Itinerant Preacher1791LOUIS of Granada Spanish Dominican Mystic1553LOUIS I Frankish Emperor [Louis the Pious]814LOUIS IX King of France [St Louis]1226LOURDES1858LOVE C Welsh Presbyterian Puritan1639LOVEJOY E Presbyterian Editor and Abolitionist1832LOW COUNTRIES. [see also 1609]650LOW COUNTRIES [see also 1832]1609LOW COUNTRIES [see also 1609]1832LOWRY R Baptist Pastor and Hymn Writer.1854LUBBERTUS S Calvinist Contra-Remonstrant1585LUCIFER Bishop of Cagliari 370LUCIUS I Bishop of Rome253LUCIUS II Pope1144LUCIUS III Pope1181LUDGER Missionary to the Saxons775LUDLOW J Christian Social Reformer1854LUDOLF of Saxony Carthusian Writer 1340LUKE, Book of 59LUKE Constantinople Patriarch1156LULL R Franciscan Missionary Mystic and Author1263LULLY J Italian Composer of Louis XIV1687LUND CONFERENCE [1952]1952LUTHER M German Reformer1517LUX MUNDI1889LYDIA49LYFING Archbishop of Canterbury1013LYNE J Preacher and Community Leader1860LYONS Councils of1245LYSTRA [see also 49]45LYTE H Scottish born Hymn Writer and Author1823 M MABILLE A Swiss missionary to South Africa 1860MACARI I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 933MACARI II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1102MACARIUS I Primate of Jerusalem 314MACARIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem [also 564]544MACARIUS of Alexandria Desert Father404MACARIUS of Egypt Ascetic Writer390MACARIUS I Patriarch of Antioch656MACARIUS II THE VIRTUOUS Patriarch of Antioch 1015MACARIUS III Patriarch of Antioch 1164MACARIUS Constantinople Patriarch1376MACARIUS of Moscow Metropolitan of Moscow 1879MACAULAY Z Evangelical Anti Slave Leader 1793MACEDONIA63MACEDONIUS I Bishop of Constantinople 342MACEDONIUS II Constantinople Patriarch495MACEDONIUS Patriarch of Antioch628MACGREGOR J Presbyterian Pioneer in Canada1786MACHEN J American Presbyterian Apologist1914MACHRAY R Anglican Primate of Canada1893MACK A First Leader of the Brethren1708MACKAY A Scottish Missionary to Uganda1875MACKAY G Canadian Missionary to Formosa1871MACKENZIE J Scottish missionary to South Africa1858MACKINTOSH H Scottish Theologian1897MACLAREN A Baptist Preacher and Leader1858MACLEOD N Scottish Chaplain and Editor1872MACRINA THE YOUNGER Eastern Ascetic379MACRINUS Roman Emperor217MADAURAN MARTYRS African Martyrs180MADSEN P Danish Bishop and Theologian1909MAGDALENES Refuges for Prostitutes1227MAGDEBURG CENTURIES Church History1559MAIER W Lutheran Scholar and Radio Preacher 1917MAIMONIDES M Mediaeval Jewish Philosopher1204MAITLAND S Anglican Historian and Editor1832MAJORAN Emperor West456MAJORISITIC CONTROVERSY1577MAKEMIE F Founder of American Presbyterianism1682MAKARI III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1944MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 1330]345MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 1653]1330MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also1816] 1653MALABAR CHRISTIANS [see also 1653]1816MALACHY Archbishop of Armagh1148MALAN C Swiss Preacher1817MALCHION OF ANTIOCH Teacher of Rhetoric269MALDONALDO J Spanish Exegete1562MALEBRANCHE N French Catholic Philosopher1664MALINES CONVERSATIONS1921MALTA59MANALO F Founder of Christian Church 1914MANDE H Dutch Brethren of Common Life Mystic1431MANEGOLD of Lautenbach Roman Catholic Scholar1086MANICHAEISM240MANNING E Premier of Alberta and Broadcaster1943MANNING H Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster1865MANNING J Founder of Brown University1765MANSEL H Dean of St Pauls1868MANSON T British Biblical Scholar1936MANTEGNA A North Italian Renaissance Painter1454MANUEL I Constantinople Patriarch1216MANUEL II Constantinople Patriarch1244MANZ F Anabaptist Reformer and Martyr1527MANZONI A Romantic Poet and Italian Novelist1812MARBURG COLLOQUY1529MARCELLA Christian Ascetic and Patron410MARCELLINA353MARCELLINUS Bishop of Rome296MARCELLUS I Bishop of Rome308MARCELLUS II Pope1555MARCELLUS36MARCELLUS of Ancyra Bishop of Ancyra374MARCIAN Emperor East450MARCION138MARCUS AURELIUS Roman Emperor161MARCUS JULIANAS 66MARGARET Queen of Scotland1070MARGARET of Navarre French Reform Champion1509MARIANA J de Spanish Jesuit Writer1554MARIANISTS Society of Mary1817MARIAVITES Polish Sect1906MARIOLATRY The worship of Mary1854MARISTS [Society of Mary] 1816MARITAIN J French Philosopher1906MARINUS I Pope882MARINUS II Pope942MARK, Book of 59MARK Patriarch of Antioch 1308MARK III Patriarch of Antioch1426MARK IV Patriarch of Antioch 1476MARK I Bishop of Byzantium198MARK II Constantinople Patriarch1466MARK I the Evangelist Patriarch of Alexandria43MARK II Patriarch of Alexandria 142MARKOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 799MARKOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1166MARKOS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1348MARCOS VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1610MARCOS VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1645MARKOS VIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1745MARKOS IX Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1797MARK III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1180MARK IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1385MARK V Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1425MARK VI Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1459MARK II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1191MARK III Patriarch of Jerusalem 1503MARK Bishop of Rome336MARCIUS III Patriarch of Antioch 1648MARNIX P Calvinist Diplomat and Religious Writer1566MARONITES1584MAROT C French Protestant hymn writer and poet1518MARPRELATE TRACTS1588MARQUETTE J French Missionary and Explorer1673MARROW CONTROVERSY1645MARSDEN S Anglican Chaplain New South Wales. 1794MARSHALL P Presbyterian Senate Chaplain 1931MARSHALL S Westminster Assembly Member1630MARSHMAN J Baptist Missionary to India 1799MARSIGLIO of Padua Political Philosopher1313MARTENSEN H Danish bishop and Theologian1854MARTIN I Pope649MARTIN IV Pope1281MARTIN V Pope1417MARTIN of Braga Archbishop of Braga and Writer572MARTIN of Tours Pioneer of monasticism in Gaul372MARTINEAU J Unitarian Minister and Teacher1832MARTYN H Anglican missionary to India1805MARTYRDOM in France177MARTYRIUS Patriarch of Antioch461MARTYRIUS Patriarch of Jerusalem478MARTYRS311MARULLUS38MARVELL A English poet1678MARY Queen of Scots1542MARY Tudor Queen of England1553MASADA 73MASON L American Church Music Composer 1847MATHEOS I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1378MATHEOS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1453MATHEOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1631MATHEOS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1660MATHER C Puritan Minister and Theologian1690MATHESON G Scottish Minister and Hymn Writer1866MATTHEW, Book of 58MATTHEW Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1746MATTHEW I Constantinople Patriarch1397MATTHEW II Constantinople Patriarch1596MATTHEW of Janov Czech Reformer1381MATTHEWS BIBLE First English authorised version 1537MATTHEWS S American Liberal Theologian1894MAURIAC F French Roman Catholic Writer1952MAURICE F Christian Socialist Theologian1838MAURICE Roman Army Martyr286MAURICE Byzantium Emperor572MAURISTS French Benedictine Writers1621MAXENTIUS Rival Emperor West306MAXIMIAN Rival Emperor West306MAXIMILLA Ecstatic Prophetess of Phrygia179MAXIMINUS DAIA Joint Emperor East308MAXIMINUS THRAX Roman Emperor235MAXIMUS Patriarch of Alexandria 265MAXIMUS I Primate of Antioch182MAXIMUS II Patriarch of Antioch 450MAXIMUS II Constantinople Patriarch1215MAXIMUS III Constantinople Patriarch1476MAXIMUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1491MAXIMUS V Constantinople Patriarch1946MAXIMUS III Primate of Jerusalem334MAXIMUS Emperor West455MAXIMUS Bishop of Turin451MAXWELL J First HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian" \o "Presbyterian" Presbyterian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan" \o "Taiwan" Taiwan1864MAXWELL J Scottish Christian Physicist 1879MAY LAWS Bismarcks State Religious Laws 1873MAYFLOWER COMPACT. [1620]1620MAYNE C English Roman Catholic Martyr1575MAZABANIS Primate of Jerusalem251MAZARIN J French Statesman Conciliator1641MAZZARELLA B Italian Protestant Scholar1860MCCULLOCH T Nova Scotia Presbyterian Minister 1838MCGIFFERT A American Church Historian1893MCHEYNE R Church of Scotland Minister 1836MCGRANAHAN J Evangelistic Singer,Hymn Writer1876MCGREADY J American Presbyterian Revivalist1800MCKENDREE W First American Methodist Bishop1791MCNICOL J Toronto Bible College Principal1902MCPHERSON A Canadian Foursquare Gospel1922MECHITARISTS Armenian Catholic Monks1701MECHTHILD of Magdeburg German Mystic1345MEDE J English Biblical Scholar1643MEDHURST W Protestant Missionary to China1843MELANCHTON P Protestant Theologian1519MELCHITES Byzantine Christian Sects1724MELETIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem 1731MELETIUS II Patriarch of Antioch1899MELETIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1597MELETIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1769MELETIUS III Constantinople Patriarch1845MELETIUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1921MELETIUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1590MELETIUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1926MELITO Bishop of Sardis175MELLITUS Archbishop of Canterbury619MELVILLE A Scottish Presbyterian Reformer1582MENAS Constantinople Patriarch536MENDELSSOHN BARTHOLDY F Composer1846MENDICANT ORDERS Begging Orders1210MENNONITES Conservative Evangelical Christians1536MEPEHAM S Archbishop of Canterbury1328MERBECKE J English Musician and Theologian1544MERCEDARIANS Order of our Lady of Mercy1218MERCERSBURG THEOLOGY1840MERCIER D Belgian Cardinal and Philosopher1921MERICI A Founder of Ursalines1535METHODISM1731METHODIST NEW CONNEXION1798METHODIST NEW CONNEXION1860METHODIUS Patriarch of Antioch 1843METHODIUS I Constantinople Patriarch843METHODIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1240METHODIUS III Constantinople Patriarch1668METROPHANES I Bishop of Byzantium306METROPHANES II Constantinople Patriarch1440METROPHANES III Constantinople Patriarch1565METROPHANES Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1636MICHAEL I Patriarch of Antioch879MICHAEL III Patriarch of Antioch1401MICHAEL IV Patriarch of Antioch 1454MICHAEL V Patriarch of Antioch 1523MICHAEL VI Patriarch of Antioch1577MICHAEL I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 860MICHAEL II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria870MICHAEL I Constantinople Patriarch1043MICHAEL II Constantinople Patriarch1143MICHAEL III Constantinople Patriarch1170MICHAEL IV Constantinople Patriarch1207MICHAEL of Cesena General Franciscan Order1328MICHELANGELO B Religious Artist of Genius 1508MIDLANE A British HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet" \o "Poet" poet and Hymn Writer1859MIKHAEL I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria743MIKHAEL II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 849MIKHAEL III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria880MIKHAEL IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1092MIKHAEL V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1145MIKHAEL VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1477MELETIUS Primate of Antioch354MELITUS Bishop of Antioch 381MESROB Armenian Translator and Philologist392MEYER E German Early Church Historian1902MEYER F Evangelical Baptist Leader1904MEYER H German Protestant N T Scholar1829MIALL E Nonconformist Social Reformer1871MIDLANE A British HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet" \o "Poet" poet and Hymn Writer1859MIGNE J French Roman Catholic Publisher1830MILAN Edict of313MILES J Welsh Baptist Calvinistic Pioneer1663MILETUS57MILIC J Moravian Reformer1363MILLENARY PETITION1603MILLER W Founder of the Adventists1833MILLIGAN G Scottish New Testament Scholar1923MILLIGAN W Scottish New Testament Scholar1892MILLS B Evangelist and Christian Socialist1878MILMAN H Anglican Poet Translator and Historian1816MILNE W Missionary to China and Printer1815MILNER I Evangelical Anglican1775MILNER J Evangelical Anglican Headmaster1797MILTIADES Bishop of Rome311MILTITZ C von Papal Secretary 1518MILTON J English Poet1667MINA I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria767MINA II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 956MINIMS An order of Friars1435MITCHELL W Missionary to India and Australia1826MOBERLY R Anglo Catholic Liberal Theologian1892MODERATES 18th Cent Moderate Scottish Ministers 1733MODESTUS Patriarch of Jerusalem 632MOFFAT R Scottish missionary to Africa1816MOFFATT J Moffatt Bible Translator 1896MOFFATT BIBLE1924MOGILA P Metropolitan of Kiev and Reformer1633MOHLER J German scholar Ecumenist1828MOHR J Parish Priest and Composer of Silent Night 1815MOKITIMI S South African Methodist Minister1931MOLINOS M de Spanish Quietist1675MONARCHIASM200MONICA Mother of Augustine of Hippo372MONOD A French Great Protestant Preacher1847MONOD F French Protestant Pastor and Editor1832MONOPHYSITISM451MONOTHELITES. The number of Christs wills681MONTANUS172MONTEVERDI C Creator of modern music1643MONTGOMERY J Hymn writer and Editor1796MOODY Evangelist and Bible Institute Founder1886MOON, C HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention" \o "Southern Baptist Convention" Southern Baptist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China1873MOORE J Archbishop of Canterbury1783MOORE G American Old Testament Scholar1899MOOREHEAD W Dispensationalist Professor1862MORAVIAN BRETHREN1722MORE H English Cambridge Platonist1653MORE H English writer and Philanthropist1788MORE T English Lord Chancellor1529MORGAN G Bible Teacher, Preacher and Author1919MORGAN W Welsh bishop and Bible Translator1588MORISON J Founder of the Evangelical Union1843MORMONISM1830MORNAY P de French Huguenot Leader1589MORONE G Bishop of Modena, Reformer 1542MORRIS G Anglican Missionary and Bishop1943MORRISON R Pioneer Missionary to China1807MORTMAIN1217MORTON J Archbishop of Canterbury 1486MORTON J Founder Mission to Indians in Trinidad 1868MOSHEIM J von Lutheran Church Historian1755MOULE H Bishop of Durham and Author1901MOULTON J Greek and Iranian Scholar1908MOLTON W Headmaster and Biblical Scholar1870MONSELL J Anglican Minister and Hymn Writer.1853MOTE E Pastor and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" \o "Hymn" hymn writer. 1834MOTT J American Ecumenical Movement Leader1948MOUNTAIN J First Anglican Bishop of Quebec1793MOWINCKEL S Norwegian Biblical Scholar1922MOWLL H Archbishop of Sydney1933MOZART W Austrian Composer1791MOZLEY J Anglican Theologian and Editor1871MUGGLETON L Leader of the Muggletonians Cult1650MUHLENBERG H Father of American Lutheranism1739MULLER G Christian Brethren Pastor Philanthropist1834MULLER J German Evangelical Theologian1825MULLINS E American Baptist Leader Educator1921MUNSTER S German Linguist and Translator1534MUNZER T Leader of the Radical Reformation1525MURILLO B Spanish Religious Painter 1644MUROMA U Finnish Pastor and Educator1940MURRAY A South African Dutch Reformed Leader1848MURRAY J Founder of American Universalism1793MUSCULUS W German Reformer and Author1531MYCONIUS F German Reformer 1516MYCONIUS O Swiss Humanist Reformed Minister1532MYERS F Society of Psychical Research Founder1882MYNSTER J Danish Bishop and Theologian1834MYSOS D Eastern Deacon Lutheran Visitor 1559 N NANTES Edict of [1598] 1598NARSAI Nestorian Theologian and Poet437NATALIS A French Historian and Theologian1655NATIONAL COVENANT [1638]1638NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF EVANGELICALS1942NAUMBURG CONVENTION1561NAVIGATORS, THE 1943NAYLOR J English Quaker1656NAZARENE Church of the1906NEAL D Historian of the Puritans1704NEALE J Anglican Scholar and Hymn Writer1846NEANDER J German Hymn Writer1674NEANDER J German Protestant Church Historian1813NECTARIUS Bishop of Constantinople 381NECTARIUS Patriarch of Jerusalem 1660NEESHIMA Y Japanese Christian Educator1874NEOPHYTOS Patriarch of Antioch 1674NEPHON I Constantinople Patriarch1310NEPHON II Constantinople Patriarch1486NEPOS Emperor West474NERO Roman Emperor [see also 64, 68]54NERSES [Narses the Great] Armenian Patriarch 353NESTLE E German Scholar and Textural Critic1898NESTORIUS Bishop of Constantinople428NERVA Roman Emperor 96NEOPHYTUS I Constantinople Patriarch1153NEOPHYTUS II Constantinople Patriarch1602NEOPHYTUS III Constantinople Patriarch1636NEOPHYTUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1688NEOPHYTUS V Constantinople Patriarch1707NEOPHYTUS VI Constantinople Patriarch1734NEOPHYTUS VII Constantinople Patriarch1789NEOPHYTUS VIII Constantinople Patriarch1891NETTER T Carmelite Theologian Wycliffe Critic1396NEVILLE R Archbishop of Canterbury1231NEVIN J German Reformed Theologian, 1840NEVIUS J American Missionary to China1854NEW APOSTOLIC CHURCH1863NEW DELHI ASSEMBLY of the W.C.C1961NEW ENGLAND THEOLOGY1750NEW JERUSALEM Church of the1787NEW TESTAMENT Canon Complete Eastern Church367NEW TESTAMENT CRITICISM1875NEW TRIBES MISSION1942NEWHAVEN THEOLOGY1834NEWLIGHTISM1740NEWMAN F English Scholar and Missionary1822NEWMAN J Tractarian Cardinal1845NEWTON B Early Plymouth Brethren leader1847NEWTON I Scientist and President Royal Society1705NEWTON J Anglican clergyman and Hymn Writer 1779NEW ZEALAND1814NIAGARA CONFERENCES1876NICANOR Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1866NICEA Council of325NICEA 2ND COUNCIL787NICENE CREED325NICEPHORUS Patriarch of Antioch 1084NICEPHORUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1639NICEPHORUS G Byzantine Historian1359NICETAS I Constantinople Patriarch766NICETAS A Byzantine Historian and Governor1189NICHOLAS I Patriarch of Antioch826NICHOLAS II Patriarch of Antioch860NICHOLAS III Patriarch of Antioch1000NICHOLAS I Constantinople Patriarch901NICHOLAS II Constantinople Patriarch984NICHOLAS III Constantinople Patriarch1084NICHOLAS IV Constantinople Patriarch1147NICHOLAS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1210NICHOLAS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1263NICHOLAS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1389NICHOLAS IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1412NICHOLAS V Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1936NICHOLAS VI Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1968NICHOLAS Patriarch of Jerusalem 937NICHOLAS I Pope858NICHOLAS II Pope1059NICHOLAS III Pope1277NICHOLAS IV Pope1288NICHOLAS V Pope1447NICHOLAS V Antipope1328NICHOLAS of Basle Free Spirit Movement Founder1395NICHOLAS of Cusa Papal Legate and Cardinal1423NICHOLAS of Flue Hermit1467NICHOLAS of Hereford Lollard Writer1382NICHOLAS of Lyra Franciscan Scholar and Author 1308NICHOLAS of Myra325NICHOLAS H Founder of Family of Love [Familist]1540NICODEMUS Patriarch of Jerusalem1882NICHOL H Musician and Hymn Writer1888NICHOLSON W Irish Evangelist 1914NICOLAI P Pastor and Hymn Writer1583NICOLL W Religious Editor and Journalist1886NIEBUHR H American Neo-orthodox Theologian1931NIEBUHR R American Neo-Orthodox Theologian1928NIELSEN F Danish Bishop and Theologian1905NIEMOLLER M German Anti Nazi Theologian1961NIETZSCHE F German Philosopher and Nihilist1889NIKEPHORUS I Constantinople Patriarch806NIKEPHORUS II Constantinople Patriarch1260NIKETAS II Constantinople Patriarch1186NIKOLAI Russian Orthodox Missionary to Japan1861NIKIPHOROS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 1020NIKIPHOROS II Patriarch of Jerusalem1166NILUS Patriarch of Antioch1393NILUS Constantinople Patriarch1379NINETY FIVE THESES1517NINIAN British Missionary to Scotland400NIPHON Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1366NITSCHMANN D Moravian Missionary and Bishop1735NITZSCH K German Lutheran Theologian1847NOEL C Hymn Writer1861NOMMENSEN L German Missionary to Sumatra1861NONCONFORMITY1662NONJURORS Oath of Allegiance Rejecters1688NORBERT Founder of the Premonstratensians1120NORIS H Roman Catholic Scholar and Cardinal1695NORTH AFRICA1888NORTH INDIA CHURCH OF1970NORWAY [see also 1796]1537NORWAY [see also 1537]1796NOTHELM Archbishop of Canterbury735NOTKER Bishop of Liege Chaplain and Reformer 972NOVATION 251NOYES J Perfectionist and Social Reformer1834NUELSEN J Methodist Bishop1908NUMERIAN Roman Emperor283NUNCIO AND LEGATE, PAPAL1815NUREMBERG DECLARATION1870NUTTALL E First Archbishop of the West Indies1893NYE P Congregational Minister and Theologian1643NYGREN A Bishop of Lund, WCC Delegate1949 O OAK Synod of 403OATES T Leader of the Popish Plot1678OBERAMMERGAU Passion Play1633OBERLIN J Lutheran minister and philanthropist1769OBOOKIAH H Hawaiian Christian1809OBRECHT J Dutch Composer1505OCCOM S American Indian Preacher1759OCHINO B Italian Reformer1542OCKEGHEM J Belgian Musical Composer1495ODA Archbishop of Canterbury941ODENSE Diet of [1527]1520ODILIA Abbess and Patroness of Alsace720ODILO Fifth abbot of Cluny999ODO Abbot of Cluny927OECUMENIUS Author of Revelation Commentary 563OENGUS Irish Monk and Author850OFFA King of Mercia787OIKONOMOS C Greek Scholar and Theologian1844OLAV King of Norway1015OLD BELIEVERS Russian Orthodox Dissidents1551OLD CATHOLICS1889OLDCASTLE J English Lollard Leader1413OLDHAM J Ecumenical Missions Pioneer1921OLEVIANUS C Reformed Theologian1562OLIER J Founder Society of Priests of St Sulpice1641OLIVETAN Protestant Reformer and Translator1528OLIVI P Leader of the Spiritual Franciscans1260OLYBRIUS Emperor West472OLYMPIANUS Bishop of Byzantium187OMAN J Presbyterian Theologian1907ONESIMUS Bishop of Byzantium54OOSTERZEE J van Dutch Reformed Editor1845ORANGE Councils of Synods of 441 and 529441ORANGEMEN Members of the Orange Order1690ORATORIANS Association of Secular Priests1564ORDEALS1215ORESTES Patriarch of Jerusalem 983ORGANIC ARTICLES French Church Law1802ORIGEN225ORIGINAL SECESSIONIST CHURCH1842OROSIUS P Historian Friend of Augustine414ORR J Scottish Conservative Theologian1874ORTHODOX PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH1936ORTLEIB of Strasbourg Radical Sect Leader1225OSIANDER A German Reformer1549OSWALD Christian King of Northumbria633OSWALD Archbishop of York972OTHO Roman Emperor 69OTTO Bishop of Bamberg1102OTTO I [The Great] Holy Roman Emperor936OTTO of Freising Bishop of Freising, Crusader1137OTTO R German Theologian and Author1917OTTERBEIN P United Brethren in Christ Founder1752OUEN Archbishop of Rouen 641OVERBECK F Atheist Professor of Church History1870OWEN J Dissenting Academy Tutor1690OWEN J Advocate of the Congregational Way1651OWENS P American song writer and teacher1882OXFORD GROUP Moral Rearmament Movement 1921OXFORD MOVEMENT1833OXYRHYNCHUS PAPYRI1897OZANAM A St Vincent de Paul Society Founder1833 P PACHOMIUS Egyptian Pioneer of Monasticism.337PACHOMIUS I Patriarch of Antioch 1386PACHOMIUS II Patriarch of Antioch 1410PACHOMIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1503PACHOMIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1584PAGE K Social Evangelists and Author1919PAGNINUS S Dominican Scholar and Translator1541PAINE T Deistic Writer and Political Propagandist1776PAISIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem 1645PAISIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1657PAISIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1654PAISIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1726PAKISTAN [see also 1794]1601PAKISTAN [also see 1601 and 1947]1794PAKISTAN [see also 1794]1947PALESTRINA G Italian composer1594PALEY W Anglican Scholar Archdeacon of Carlisle1780PALLADIUS Patriarch of Antioch497PALLADIUS Bishop of Helenopolis and Ascetic400PALLADIUS Missionary to Ireland from Gaul429PALLADIUS P Danish bishop and Reformer1538PALMER B Southern Presbyterian Minister1856PALMER R Congregational minister and Hymn Writer1865PALMER W High Church Prebendary of Salisbury1849PAMMACHIUS Aristocrat Monk410PAMPHILUS 310PANTAENUS180PANTALEON Martyr and Physician305PAPAL STATES 756PAPHNUTIUS Bishop of Upper Thebaid, Egypt360PAPIAS Bishop of Hierapolis98PARACELSUS Doctor, Chemist and Philosopher1515PARAGRAPH BIBLES1755PARIS M English Benedictine Historian and Artist1236PARIS POLYGLOT 1629PARK E American Congregational Theologian1847PARKER H American Composer1890PARKER J English Congregational Preacher1853PARKER M Archbishop of Canterbury1559PARKER P First Medical Missionary to China 1838PARKER T American Congregational Minister1837PARKER W Baptist Hymn Writer.1885PARTHENIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem1737PARTHENIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1639PARTHENIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1644PARTHENIUS III Constantinople Patriarch1656PARTHENIUS IV Constantinople Patriarch1657PARTHENIUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1678PARTHENIUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1987PARTHENIUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1788PARTICULAR BAPTISTS1633PASCAL B Christian Genius in many fields1654PASCHAL I Pope817PASCHAL I Antipope687PASCHAL II Pope1099PASCHAL III Antipope1164PASCHASIUS R Abbott and Scholar853PASSAVANT W American Editor and Philanthropist1867PASSIONISTS Catholic religious groups1725PASCHAL DISAGREEMENT 155PASTOR L Church Historian Vatican Librarian1874PATARINES Italian Lay Reform Movement1075PATMOS96PATON J Pioneer New Hebrides Missionary 1858PATON W Missionary Organiser and Writer1911PATRICK OF IRELAND461PATRICK S Bishop of Ely and Educator1691PATRIMONY OF ST PETER 1870PATTERSON J Missionary Bishop to Melanesia1856PAUL42-67PAUL I Bishop of Constantinople 337PAUL II Constantinople Patriarch641PAUL III Constantinople Patriarch687PAUL IV Constantinople Patriarch780PAUL I Pope757PAUL II Pope1464PAUL III Pope1534PAUL IV Pope 1555PAUL V Pope1605PAUL VI Pope1963PAUL of the Cross Founder of the Passionists1720PAUL the Deacon Church Historian782PAUL of Samosata267PAUL Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria537PAUL II Patriarch of Antioch 518PAUL of Thebes Traditional First Christian Hermit340PAULA Ascetic Founder of Religious Houses404PAULICIANS Evangelical anti-hierarchal sect719PAULINUS Bishop of Aquileia787PAULINUS Primate of Antioch 371PAULINUS of Nola Bishop of Nola 409PAULINUS of Trier Anti-Arian Bishop 353PAULINUS of Tyre Primate of Antioch 324PAULINUS of York Bishop and Missionary625PEAKE A English Nonconformist Scholar and Writer1892PEARSON C Pioneer HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda" \o "Uganda" Uganda1878PEARSON J Bishop of Chester1673PEASANTS REVOLT1524PECK J Pioneer Baptist American Missionary1817PECKHAM J Archbishop of Canterbury1279PECOCK R Bishop of Chichester1450PECULIAR PEOPLE1838PELAGIA Martyr311PELAGIANISM Movement named after Pelagius 409PELAGIUS I Bishop of Rome556PELAGIUS II Bishop of Rome579PELOUBERT F Writer of Sunday School Literature. 1857PEMBERTON E American Pastor and Educator1746PENINGTON I Quaker Apologist1658PENN W English Quaker, Founder of Pennsylvania1670PENRY J Elizabethan Puritan Minister1587PENTECOSTAL CHURCHES.1914PEPIN III King of the Franks 743PERGA45PERKINS J American Missionary to Persia1835PERPETUA Young Carthaginian Martyr203PERRONET E Hymn Writer and Poet.1779PERRY C First Anglican Bishop of Melbourne1847PERTH FIVE ARTICLES OF [1618]. 1618PERTINAX Bishop of Byzantium169PERTINAX Roman Emperor193PETAVIUS D French Jesuit Lecturer1621PETER [see also 47]44PETER, I Book of63PETER, II Book of67PETER I Patriarch of Alexandria 300PETER II Patriarch of Alexandria 373PETER III MONGUS Patriarch of Alexandria477PETER IV Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria643PETER IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria565PETER VII Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1997PETER THE FULLER Patriarch of Antioch 465PETER III Patriarch of Antioch1028PETER Constantinople Patriarch654PETER Patriarch of Jerusalem524PETER of Alexandria Martyr311PETER COMESTOR Scholar, Exegete & Historian1169PETER DE BRUYS Heretical Preacher in France 1131PETER LOMBARD Mediaeval Theologian1159PETER MARTYR Dominican Reformer Inquisitor 1232PETER MARTYR Protestant Reformer1552PETER of Alcantara Spanish Franciscan1515PETER NOLASKO Co-founder of Mercedarians1235PETER of Blois Author, Churchmen & Royal Officer1191PETER of Tarantaise Reforming Archbishop who 1142PETER PENCE Tax sent from England to the Pope787PETER the Hermit Preacher of the First Crusade1096PETER the Venerable French Abbott and Scholar1122PETRARCH Early Italian Humanist Scholar1352PETRI L Archbishop of Uppsala, Translator1541PETRI O Swedish Reformer and Author1529PETROS V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1340PETROS VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1718PETROS VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1810PFLEIDERER O German Protestant Scholar1875PFLUG J Bishop of Naumburg, Conciliator1541PHILACLUS Primate of Antioch334PHILADELPHIANS 17th century English sect1670PHILADELPHUS Bishop of Byzantium211PHILARET T Patriarch of Moscow and Reformer1619PHILEAS of Thmuis Martyr & Lower Egypt Bishop306PHILEMON, Book of 60PHILEMON Patriarch of Antioch1766PHILARET D Metropolitan of Moscow, Humanitarian1826PHILETUS Primate of Antioch 220PHILIP38PHILIP THE ARABIAN Roman Emperor244PHILIP Antipope 768PHILIP IV [Philip the Fair] King of France1285PHILIP II Catholic King of Spain1580PHILIP J Scottish missionary to South Africa.1828PHILIP NERI Congregation of the Oratory Founder1551PHILIP of Hesse Protestant Supporter of Luther 1519PHILIP SIDETES Historian439PHILIPPI49PHILIPPIANS, Book of61PHILIPPINES. [see also 1841]1521PHILIPPINES [see also 1521] 1841PHILLIPS D Mennonite Theologian1534PHILLIPS O Dutch Anabaptist Leader1534PHILOGONIUS Primate of Antioch 314PHILOSTORGIUS Historian420PHILOTHEOS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 979PHILOTHEOS Constantinople Patriarch1354PHILOTHEUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1435PHILOXENUS Monophysite Bishop of Hierapolis485PHILPOT J Protestant Martyr1555PHOTIUS I Constantinople Patriarch858PHOTIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1929PHOTIUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 1900PHRYGIA49PIARISTS Roman Catholic Educational Order1621PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA G Italian Philosopher1484PIDGEON G Moderator United Church of Canada1909PIERPOINT F Schoolmaster and Hymn Writer1864PIERSON A Presbyterian Minister and Writer 1891PIETISM 17th&18th century Protestants Movement1674PIETROCOLA-ROSSETTI T Italian Protestant Poet1857PIGHI A Roman Catholic Apologist1522PIGOTT J Irish Poetess and Hymn Writer1882PIKE J American Episcopal Bishop1946PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE1536PILKINGTON G Missionary to Africa1890PILKINGTON J Bishop of Durham1560PIONIUS Martyr Elder of the Church of Smyrna250PIRCKHEIMER W German Catholic Scholar1530PISA COUNCIL OF1409PISTOIA Synod of1786PITRA J Cardinal Legate and Librarian1880PIUS I Bishop of Rome140PIUS II Pope1458PIUS III Pope1503PIUS IV Pope1559PIUS V Pope1566PIUS VI Pope1775PIUS VII Pope1800PIUS VIII Pope1829PIUS IX Pope1846PIUS X Pope1903PIUS XI Pope1922PIUS XII Pope1939PLAN OF UNION The 1801PLEGMUND Archbishop of Canterbury 890PLESSIS J Roman Catholic Archbishop of Quebec1806PLINY the Younger110PLUMTRE E Theological Writer & Classical Scholar 1881PLUNKET O Primate of Ireland1670PLUTARCH Bishop of Byzantium89PLUTSCHAU H Missionary to India1706PLYMOUTH BRETHREN1831POISSY COLLOQUY OF1561POLE R Archbishop of Canterbury1556POLITIANUS Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria768POLLARD A Bible teacher and Hymn Writer1902POLLARD S English Missionary to China1887POLLOCK A Plymouth Brethren Minister 1894POLYCARP Bishop of Smyrna98 POLYCARPUS I Bishop of Byzantium69POLYCARPUS II Bishop of Byzantium141POLYCARP I Patriarch of Jerusalem 1808POLYCHRONIUS Exegete and Bishop of Apamea430POLYEUCTUS Constantinople Patriarch956POLYGLOT BIBLES 1522POOLE M Biblical Commentator and Educator1658POPISH PLOT1678PORPHYRIUS Primate of Antioch 404PONTIAN Bishop of Rome 230PONTIUS PILATE 36POOR CLARES The second Order of St Francis1213POPE W Canadian Wesleyan Theologian1842PORCIUS FESTUS59PORTEUS B Bishop of London Reformer1787PORTUGAL [see also 1845]1614PORTUGAL [see also 1614]1845POSSIDIUS Biographer of Augustine440POTHINUS Bishop of Lyons177POTTER J Archbishop of Canterbury1737POWELL V Welsh Puritan Minister and Activist1646PRAEMUNIRE Statutes of1393PRAEPOSTINUS of Cremona Paris Theologian1206PRAETORIUS M German Composer1621PRAGMATIC SANCTION OF BOURGES1438PRATT G LMS Missionary to Samoa1839PRAULIUS Primate of Jerusalem417PREMILLENNIALISM1887PREMONSTRATENSIANS White Canons1120PRICHARD R Welsh Clergyman and Poet1626PRIESTLEY J Scientist and Nonconformist Minister1767PRIMUS Patriarch of Alexandria 106PRISCILLIAN Heretical Bishop of Avila385PROBST F German Liturgical Scholar1896PROBUS Bishop of Byzantium293PROBUS Roman Emperor276PROCLUS Bishop of Constantinople434PROCOPIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1785PROCOPIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 1787PROCOPIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1872PROCOPIUS of Caesarea Byzantine Historian562PROCOPIUS of Gaza Christian Exegete538PROPAGANDA Catholic Missionary Co-ordinators1622PROSPER of Aquitaine Writer440PROTERIUS Patriarch of Alexandria452PROTESTANT DISSENTING DEPUTIES1732PROTESTERS Section of the Scottish Covenanters1651PROVENCHER J Canadian Roman Catholic Bishop1818PROVISORS Statutes of1351PRUDENTIUS C Christian Latin Poet410PRUDENTIUS Bishop of Troyes861PRUITT C HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist" \o "Southern Baptist" Southern Baptist Missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China.1882PRYNNE W Puritan Pamphleteer1645PSELLUS M Byzantine Scholar and Statesman1057PTOLEMAIS57PUFENDORF S German Professor and Essayist1672PULCHERIA Eastern Empress450PULLEN R English Theologian & Sentence Writer1144PUNSHON W Methodist Minister in Canada1849PUPIENUS Roman Emperor238PURCELL H English Composer 1679PURDIE J Canadian Anglican Pentecostal Educator1919PURITANS PURITANISM1559PURVEY J Lollard Colleague of Wycliffe1377PUSEY E Leader of the Oxford Movement1828PUSEY P English Anglican Scholar1854PYRRHUS I Constantinople Patriarch638 QR QUADRATUS124QUARLES F English Poet and Chronologist 1639QUARRIER W Founder of Orphan Homes1871QUEBEC ACT1774QUENTIN H Roman Catholic Biblical Scholar1933QUESNEL P French Jansenist Theologian1672QUIERCY SYNODS OF838QUIETISM1687QUIMBY P Founder of Christian Science1847QUINONES F de Spanish Reforming Cardinal 1527RABANUS MAURUS Archbishop of Mainz847RABAUT P French Huguenot Leader1756RABULA Syrian Theologian 411RACOVIAN CATECHISM1605RAIKES R Promoter of Sunday Schools1780RAINEY R Free Church of Scotland Minister1874RAINOLDS J Moderate Puritan Theologian1604RALPH of Escures Archbishop of Canterbury 1114RAMABAI PANDITA Indian Christian Reformer1891RAMSEY A Archbishop of Canterbury1961RAMSEY B Hymn Writer1916RAMSAY W Classical Scholar and Archaeologist1895RAMUS P French Humanist Reformer1561RANDALL B Co Founder Free World Baptists.1780RANKE L Lutheran Historian1825RANKIN J Pastor, Academic and Hymn Writer1869RANTERS Primitive Apostolic Christianity Groups1650RAPHAEL I Constantinople Patriarch 1475RAPHAEL II Constantinople Patriarch1603RAPHAEL S Florentine Renaissance Painter1505RAS SHAMRA TABLETS1929RASHDALL H Anglican Philosopher and Theologian1898RASTAFARIANS Jamaican Heretical Movement 1930RATHERIUS Bishop of Verona and Liege931RATISBON Colloquy of [1541]1541RATRAMNUS Early Mediaeval Theologian 868RAUCH C First Moravian Missionary to Mohicans1740RAUSCHENBUSCH W Baptist Minister & Educator1917RAWSON G Congregationalist Hymn Writer1858RAYMOND NONNATUS Cardinal1239RAYMOND of Penafort Mercedarians Founder1236RAYMOND of Sebonde Spanish Philosopher1434REBAPTISM CONTROVERSY254REBMANN J German Missionary to East Africa1846RECARED Anti Arian Spanish Visigoth King586RECOLLETS Franciscan Missionaries to Canada 1615RECUSANTS Rejecters of the Act of Uniformity1559REDEMPTIONISTS Catholic Mission among Poor1732REES T English Evangelist1970REES T Welsh Congregational Religious Historian1836REES W Welsh Congregational Minister and Author1853REGINALD Archbishop of Canterbury1205REGINALD of Piperno Thomist Theologian1260REICHSBISCHOF Bishop of Nazi Germany 1935REIMARUS H German Scholar and Pastor1723REINKENS J German Old Catholic Bishop1873RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY1799REMBRANDT VAN RIJN Dutch Painter1669REMIGIUS of Auxerre Leader in Education908REMIGIUS Archbishop and Apostle to the Franks496REMONSTRANTS Revisionist Dutch Calvinists1610RENAN J French Humanist Author and Linguist1879RENAUDOT E Roman Catholic Linguist & Scholar1720RENQVIST H Finnish Author and Translator1804RENWICK J Last Scottish Covenanting Martyr1683RESCISSORY ACT [1661]1661RESERVED SACRAMENT1549RESOLUTIONERS1651RETZ Cardinal de Archbishop of Paris1651REUBLIN W Anabaptist Reformer 1523REUCHLIN J German Humanist and Linguist1509REUSCH H Old Catholic Theologian1849REUSS E German Biblical Scholar1834REVEIL LE Swiss Evangelical Revival1825REVELATION, Book of96REYES I Founder Philippine Independent Church1936REVIVALISM1734REYNOLDS E Bishop of Norwich1645REYNOLDS W Archbishop of Canterbury1314RHENANUS B German Humanist1540RHENISH MISSIONARY SOCIETY1799RHENIUS K Missionary to South India 1814RICASOLI B Italian Politician and Patriot1861RICCI M Italian Jesuit Missionary to China1583RICCI S de Bishop of Pistoia-Prato1780RICE L American Baptist Missionary to India1812RICH E Archbishop of Canterbury1234RICHARD I King of England and Crusader Leader1191RICHARD of Chichester Bishop of Chichester1235RICHARD of Dover Archbishop of Canterbury1174RICHARD of Middleton Franciscan Philosopher1295RICHARD of St Victor Scottish Scholar and Mystic 1162RICHARD T Baptist Missionary to China 1870RICHELIEU A French Cardinal and Statesman1624RICHTER J German Missiologist and Educator 1920RIDLEY N Reformer and Bishop of London1555RIENZO C Italian Leader1347RILEY W Baptist Minister and Educator1893RINCKART M Poet and Hymn Writer1617RIPLEY D Missionary to American slaves1797RITES Congregation of Sacred1588RITSCHL A German Protestant Theologian1864RIZAL J Filipino Physician and Political Writer1896ROBERT of Abrissel Order of Fontevrault Founder 1096ROBERT of Jumiges Archbishop of Canterbury 1051ROBERT of Melun English Scholar and Bishop1163ROBERT of Molesme Abbot of Molesme, Burgundy1111ROBERTS E Welsh Revivalist1904ROBERTS I HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist" \o "Baptist" Baptist missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China.1860ROBERTSON F Anglican Preacher1847ROBINSON G Poet and Hymn Writer1876ROBINSON H English Scholar and Author1921ROBINSON J Pilgrim Fathers Separatist Pastor. 1620ROCH Late Mediaeval Healer and Miracle Worker1378ROCK J German Religious Sect Leader1707RODEHEAVER H Song Evangelist and Publisher1920ROGERS J Protestant Publisher and Martyr1555ROLLE R of Hampole Hermit 1349ROMAINE W Evangelical Anglican 1766ROMANIA 1688ROMAN CITIZENSHIP212ROMANS56ROMANUS Pope897ROME [see also 60 and 96] 59ROME Synod of313ROMULUS AUGUSTUS Emperor West475ROSCELLINUS Founder of Mediaeval Nominalism1125ROSE of Lima Peruvian Ascetic Leader1617ROSE H Anglican High Churchmen1833ROSENMULLER E German Biblical Scholar1813ROSMINI A Founder Sisters of Providence Order1846ROSS J HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people" \o "Scottish people" Scottish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant Missionary to China 1872ROSSETTI C Anglican Poet and Hymn Writer1862ROTHMAN B German Anabaptist Leader1534ROUAULT G French Painter1956ROUSSEAU J French Writer and Philosopher1728ROUTH M English Patristic Scholar1791ROWE S Methodist Missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" \o "South Africa" South Africa1890ROWLAND D Welsh Calvinistic Methodism Leader1763ROWLEY F Baptist Minister and Hymn Writer1886ROWLEY H English Bible Scholar1917ROWNTREE J Quaker Social Reformer1837ROYAL SOCIETY1662RUFINUS I Bishop of Byzantium284RUFINUS TYRANNIUS Presbyter and Scholar381RUINART T French Benedictine Author and Scholar 1674RUNCIE R Archbishop of Canterbury1980RUSSELL C Founder of Jehovah's Witnesses1911RUTHERFORD J Jehovah's Witnesses Leader1931RUOTSLAINEN P Finnish Pietist Leader1852RUPERT of Deutz German Mediaeval Theologian 1120RUSSIA [see also 1589]978RUSSIA [see also 1917]. 1589RUSSIAN BIBLE SOCIETY founded.1819RUTHERFORD S Scottish Pastor and Theologian 1627RUYSBROECK J van Flemish Mystic and Writer1317RYCAUT Sir P English Traveller, Diplomat & Writer 1667RYERSON A Methodist Leader and Educationalist 1874RYLE H Anglican Bishop and Preacher1903RYLE J Bishop of Liverpool1880 S SABAS Founder of the Order of Sabaites.497SABATIER L French Protestant Scholar1877SABATIER P French Calvinistic Scholar1885SABATIER P French Biblical Scholar1742SABINIAN Pope604SADOLETO J Cardinal Humanist & Biblical Scholar1539SAILER J Jesuit Scholar and Educator1775SAINT-CYRIAN Abbe de Jansenist Theologian1633SAINT-VALLIER J Second Bishop of Quebec1688SAKER A Missionary to the Cameroon1845SALESIANS Order1859SALESBURY W Welsh New Testament Translator 1567SALLUST Patriarch of Jerusalem486SALMASIUS C French Protestants Scholar1606SALMON G Anglican Theologian & Mathematician1845SALTMARSH J Anglican Writer and Controversialist 1646SALVATION ARMY1865SALVIAN Christian Writer470SALVIENUS M75SAMMIS J Presbyterian Pastor and Hymn Writer1887SAMSON of Arbil Martyr 123SAMUEL Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1710SAMUEL I Constantinople Patriarch1763SANCROFT W Archbishop of Canterbury1678SANDEMANIANS Bible Loving Christians1764SANDERS N Roman Catholic Controversialist1561SANDYS E Archbishop of York1575SANGSTER W Methodist Preacher and Scholar1926SANKEY I Singing Evangelist and Hymn Writer1870SANQUHAR DECLARATION [1680]1680SAPHIR A Jewish Presbyterian Minister1854SARAVIA H Spanish Protestant Anglican 1582SARDICA Synod of342SARKILAX P Finnish Reformer1523SARPI P Servite Order Theologian1578SATURNINUS117SAUL OF TARSUS [see also 37, 42 and 45]36SAVA Patron Saint of Serbia 1191SAVONAROLA G Italian Reformer1496SAVOY CONFERENCE 16611661SAVOY DECLARATION [1658]1658SAWTREY W Lollard Martyr1401SAXON CONFESSION [1551] 1551SAYBROOK PLATFORM [1708].1708SAYCE A Professor of Assyriology1874SAYERS D Writer and Playwright1941SCALIGER J Huguenot Scholar1593SCHAFF P Church Historian and Pioneer Ecumenist 1870SCHALL J Jesuit missionary to China1619SCHEEL O German Church Historian 1924SCHEFFLER J Polish Hymn Writer1671SCHEIDT S German Composer and Organist 1624SCHEIN J German Baroque Composer1630SCHERESCHEWSKY S Missionary Translator1877SCHLATTER A von Swiss New Testament Scholar 1898SCHLATTER M German Reformed Church Leader 1739SCHLEIERMACHER F German Theologian1804SCHMIDT G Moravian Brethren Missionary1742SCHMIEDEL P Critical New Testament Scholar1923SCHMUKER S Founder Lutheran Seminary1825SCHUTZ H German Lutheran Composer1612SCHWABACH Articles of Lutheran Confessional1529SCHWARTZ C German Missionary Translator1750SCHWARTZ E German Church Historian1919SCHWEITZER A German Medical Missionary1913SCHWENKFELDERS German Sect1540SCIENTOLOGY1968SCILLITAN MARTYRS185SCOFIELD C American Biblical Scholar1909SCOPES TRIAL Creation versus Evolution1925SCOTLAND [see also 1559]1057SCOTLAND [see also 1057 and 1843]1559SCOTLAND [see also 1559]1843SCOTS CONFESSION1560SCOTT C Music Teacher and Hymn Writer1882SCOTT T Biblical Commentator1801SCOTTISH BIBLE SOCIETY1809SCOTTISH UNITED PRESBYTERIAN MISSION1796SCRIPTURE UNION1867SCRIVENER F New Testament Scholar1846SCROGGIE W Baptist minister and Bible Expositor1948SCROPE R Archbishop of York1398SCOUGAL H Scottish Devotional Writer1672SCUDDER I Missionary Doctor to South India1893SCUDDER J American Missionary to India1821SEABURY S First Bishop Episcopal Church USA1753SEBASTE THE 40 MARTYRS326SEBASTIAN Patriarch of Antioch687SECKER T Archbishop of Canterbury1758SECOND GREAT AWAKENING1797SECRETAN C Protestant Philosopher & Theologian1839SEDECION Bishop of Byzantium105SEDULIUS SCOTUS Poet and Scholar858SEEKERS Sect of Independents1531SEELEY J Sir Professor of Modern History 1869SEGNERI P Jesuit Preacher and Theologian1653SELDEN J Jurist and Orientalist1612SELEUCIA Council of359SELWYN G First Anglican N.Z. Bishop1841SEMLER J German Biblical Scholar1752SENS Council of1141SEPARISTS1667SEPTIMUS SEVERUS Roman Emperor 193SEPTIMUS SEVERUS Persecutions of193SERAPHEIM I HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" \o "Patriarch of Constantinople" Patriarch of Constantinople1733SERAPHEIM II Constantinople Patriarch1757SERAPHIM Patriarch of Antioch 1813SERAPION Primate of Antioch 191SERAPION OF THMIUS Bishop of Thmius339SERGIUS Russian Monk and Conciliator1336SERGIUS I Constantinople Patriarch610SERGIUS II Constantinople Patriarch999SERGIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 842SERGIUS II Patriarch of Jerusalem908SERGIUS I Pope687SERGIUS II Pope844SERGIUS III Pope904SERGIUS IV Pope1009SERGIUS PAULUS45SERVITES Catholic Order1240SERVETUS M Anti-Trinitarian Theologian1553SEVENTH CENTURY ORTHODOX PATRIARCHS. 651SEVENTH DAY ADVENTISTS1863SEVERIAN Opponent of John Chrysostom 408SEVERINUS Monk Apostle to Austria 482SEVERINUS Pope638SEVERUS Rival Emperor West306SEVERUS Emperor West461SEVERUS OF ANTIOCH512SEVILLE POGROM Against the Jews 1391SHAFTESBURY A Earl Evangelical Social Reformer1826SHAKERS 1787SHARP J Archbishop of St Andrews1649SHAW W Wesleyan Methodist Missionary1823SHEDD W American Calvinistic Theologian1888SHEEN F American Roman Catholic Broadcaster1969SHEKLETON M Hymn Writer1883SHELDON C Congregational Minister and Writer1896SHELDON G Archbishop of Canterbury 1663SHEMBE I Founder of a group in South Africa1935SHENOUDA I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 859SHENOUDA II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1032SHENOUDA III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1971SHEPHERD R Missionary to South Africa1920SHEPPARD H Anglican Minister and Pacifist1914SHERIPANDO G Archbishop of Salerno1553SHIELDS A Scottish Covenantor1688SHIELDS T Baptist Fundamentalist Minister1922SHOEMAKER S Episcopal Clergyman and Writer1925SHORT A First Anglican Bishop of Adelaide1847SICARD Bishop of Cremona, Historian 1185SICILIAN VESPERS Massacre of the French.1282SICKINGEN F German Knight1520SIDONIUS A French Latin poet, Bishop of Clermont468SIEUR DE MONTS French Coloniser in Canada.1604SI GAN FU STONE Chinese and Syriac Inscription1625SIGEBERT of Gembloux Mediaeval Chronicler1070SIGER of Brabant Radical Aristotelian Philosopher 1266SIGERIC Archbishop of Canterbury990SIGISMUND Holy Roman Emperor1433SILAS [see also 51] 49SILVERIUS Bishop of Rome536SIMEON I Patriarch of Antioch834SIMEON II Patriarch of Antioch 1245SIMEON I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria692SIMEON II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria830SIMEON I Primate of Jerusalem62SIMEON II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1084SIMEON C Cambridge Evangelical Leader1782SIMEON of Thessalonica Orthodox Archbishop 1429SIMON the Stylite Pillar Ascetic 459SIMONS M Founder of the Mennonites1536SIMPLICANUS Bishop of Milan397SIMPLICIUS Bishop of Rome468SIMPSON Sir J Discoverer of Chloroform1839SIMPSON J Scottish Natural Scientist1925SIRICIUS Bishop of Rome384SIRMOND J Jesuit Scholar and Historian1576SISINNIUS I Bishop of Constantinople426SISINNIUS II Constantinople Patriarch 996SISINNIUS Pope708SIX ARTICLES The [1539]1539SIXTUS I Bishop of Rome115SIXTUS II Bishop of Rome257SIXTUS III Bishop of Rome432SIXTUS IV Pope1471SIXTUS V Pope1585SLEEPER W Congregational pastor and Hymn Writer1887SLEIDANUS J Historian of the Reformation1542SLESSOR M Missionary to West Africa1876SMALCALD ARTICLES [1537]1537SMALCALD LEAGUE1525SMALL J Scottish Minister and Hymn Writer1863SMART P Puritan Minister1598SMITH E Missionary, Writer and Anthropologist. 1902SMITH E Congregational Missionary and Orientalist1826SMITH Sir G Old Testament Scholar 1892SMITH H "Higher Christian Life" Speaker1874SMITH H Old Testament Scholar 1874SMITH J Bishop and Chaplain General1897SMITH J Missionary to the West Indies1817SMITH J Mormon Prophet and Founder 1830SMITH R [Gypsy] English Evangelist1889SMITH S English Minister Writer and Wit1796SMITH W Scottish Old Testament Scholar1870SMITH W Founder of Boys Brigade1883SMITH W Pastor, Hymn Writer and Poet1893SMYTH J Father of English General Baptists1608SOCIETY for Promoting Christian Knowledge1698SOCIETY of St John the Evangelist 1866SOCINIANISM1578SODERBLOM N Archbishop and Ecumenist1914SOGA T First African Ordained Minister in S Africa1860SOISSONS COUNCIL of. 1121SOLEMN LEAGUE AND CONVENANT [1643] 1643SOLOMON Patriarch of Jerusalem 855SOLOVIEV V Russian Theologian and Philosopher1877SOPHRONIUS I Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 841SOPHRONIUS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria941SOPHRONIUS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 634SOPHRONIOS III Patriarch of Jerusalem 1236SOPHRONIOS IV Patriarch of Jerusalem 1579SOPHRONIOS V Patriarch of Jerusalem 1771SOPHRONIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1462SOPHRONIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1774SOPHRONIUS III Constantinople Patriarch1863SOTER Bishop of Rome167SOTO D Spanish Theologian1532SOUTER A Scottish New Testament Scholar1927SOUTH AFRICA 1857SOUTH AFRICA MISSIONS1821SOUTH AMERICAN MISSION SOCIETY1844SOUTH R Anglican Minister and Orator1660SOUTHCOTT J Self-styled Prophet1792SOUTHERN AFRICA MALAWI1861SOUTHERN AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE 1870SOUTHERN AFRICA ZAMBIA 1886SOUTHERN AFRICA ZIMBABWE 1859SOUTHERN BAPTIST CONVENTION1845SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN Leadership Conference1957SOUTHERN METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION1845SOWERBY L American Composer and Organist1940SPAFFORD H Hymn Writer1873SPAIN [see also 1479]300SPAIN [see also 1576]1479SPAIN [see also 1479 and 1808]1576SPAIN [see also 1576] 1808SPALATIN G German Reformer and Educationalist 1508SPANGENBERG A Moravian Missionary Leader 1732SPEER R Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions1896SPENER P German Lutheran Pietist Leader1666SPINOZA B Jewish Rationalist Philosopher1656SPITTA K Lutheran Hymn Writer 1824SPITTLER C Swiss German Mission Founder1846SPURGEON C English Baptist Preacher1865SPURGEON T Baptist Pastor1889SPYRIDON Bishop of Tremithius, Cyprus348SPYRIDON Patriarch of Antioch 1892STACHYS Bishop of Byzantium38STAFFORD J Archbishop of Canterbury1443STAINER J English composer1887STALKER J Scottish Minister Scholar and Writer1873STALLYBRASS E Missionary to Siberia1817STANFORD Sir C British Church Music Composer1895STANLEY A Dean of Westminster1839STANISLAUS Bishop of Krakw and Martyr1072STAPLETON T Roman Catholic Apologist1584STAUPITZ J von Roman Catholic Scholar1500STEBBINS G American Gospel Hymn Writer1874STEINER R Mystical Philosopher1913STEPHEN First Christian Martyr34STEPHEN of Hungary First King of Hungary1001STEPHEN I Primate of Antioch341STEPHEN II Patriarch of Antioch 490STEPHEN III Patriarch of Antioch 493STEPHEN IV Patriarch of Antioch742STEPHEN I Constantinople Patriarch886STEPHEN II Constantinople Patriarch925STEPHEN I Bishop of Rome254STEPHEN II Pope752STEPHEN III Pope752STEPHEN IV Pope768STEPHEN V Pope816STEPHEN VI Pope885STEPHEN VII Pope896STEPHEN VIII Pope929STEPHEN IX Pope 939STEPHEN X Pope1057STERN H Missionary to the Jews1844STERNHOLD T Scholar of the Psalms1545STERRY P Chaplain to Oliver Cromwell1649STIGAND Archbishop of Canterbury1052STILLINGFLEET E Bishop of Worcester1689STOCKHOLM CONFERENCE [1925]1925STOCKTON B Missionary to Hawaii1823STODDARD American Congregational Pastor1672STONE B American Frontier Evangelist.1801STONE J Presbyterian New Life Movement Minister 1909STONE S Anglican Hymn Writer1874STONEHOUSE N New Testament Scholar1937STOWE H Abolitionist and Author1851STRACHAN J Anglican Educator and Bishop1813STRACHAN R Protestant Missionary Leader1950STRANG J Mormon Leader1850STRATFORD J Archbishop of Canterbury1333STRAUS D German Tubingen Theologian1835STREETER B Liberal N T Biblical Scholar1924STRIGEL V German Lutheran Theologian1567STRONG A American Baptist Pastor and Educator1861STRONG Sir P Anglican Primate in Australia1966STROSSMAYER J Roman Catholic Bishop1850STRYPE J English Church Historian & Biographer. 1689STUBBS J Protestant Controversialist1589STUBBS W Bishop of Chester and Historian 1889STUDD C Pioneer Missionary Founder of WEC1885STUDENT CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT1895STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT1896STUNDISTS Russian Evangelical Sect1862STURM J German Reformer and Statesman 1526STURM J Protestant Educationalist1538SUAREZ F Spanish Jesuit Philosopher1572SUDBURY S Archbishop of Canterbury1375SUICER J Swiss Reformed Theologian1644SULPICANS The Society of St Sulpice.1642SUMNER C Bishop of Winchester1827SUMNER J Archbishop of Canterbury1848SUNDAR SINGH S Indian Christian Mystic1905SUNDAY W American Evangelist 1896SUNDAY SCHOOLS1780SUPREMACY Act of [1534]1534SURIN J French Mystic 1616SUTTON C Archbishop of Canterbury1805SVERDRUP G Norwegian American Church Leader1874SWAINSON C Anglican Church Creed Specialist.1885SWAN, W LMS Missionary to Siberia1840SWEDEN [see also 1528]1130SWEDEN [see also 1856]1528SWEDEN [see also 1528]1856SWEDENBORG E Swedish Scientist & Theologian1771SWEELINCK J Dutch Composer and Organist1580SWEET W Methodist Historian and Scholar1927SWIFT J Irish Satirist and Clergyman1714SWISS GUARDS1506SWITHIN Bishop of Winchester862SYLLABUS OF ERRORS1864SYLVESTER Patriarch of Antioch 1724SYLVESTER Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1569SYLVESTER I Bishop of Rome314SYLVESTER II Pope999SYLVESTER III Pope1045SYLVESTER IV Antipope1105SYLVESTRINES Minor Monastic Order1231SYMEON I Constantinople Patriarch1466SYMMACHUS Bishop of Rome498SYRIA49SYRIAN CHURCHES451 T TABORITES Radical Branch of Hussite Movement1419TACHE A Canadian Roman Catholic Bishop1845TACITUS Roman Emperor275TAIT A Archbishop of Canterbury1868TAIZE COMMUNITY1940TAMBARAM CONFERENCE1938TALLIS T English Composer1540TARASIUS Constantinople Patriarch784TATE N Irish Poet and Dramatist1696TATWIN Archbishop of Canterbury731TAULER J German Mystic 1315TAUSEN H Bishop of Ribe and Danish Reformer1541TAYLOR J Anglican Bishop and Writer1655TAYLOR J English Missionary Pioneer to China1865TAYLOR J Nonconformist Minister1757TAYLOR N American Theologian and Educator1812TAYLOR W Methodist Evangelist and Missionary 1884TEILHARD DE CHARDIN P Jesuit Palaeontologist1920TELEMACHUS Eastern Monk, Martyr391TELESPHORUS Bishop of Rome 125TEMPLE F Archbishop of Canterbury1896TEMPLE W Archbishop of Canterbury1942TEN ARTICLES THE [1536]1536TEN YEARS CONFLICT [1834 1843]1834TENISON T Archbishop of Canterbury 1695TENNENT G Presbyterian Minister and Revivalist 1740TENNENT W Presbyterian Minister and Educator 1735TERESA of Avila Carmelite Reformer, Mystic1562TERESA of Lisieux Carmelite and Devotional Writer 1886TERESA, MOTHER Catholic Missionary to India 1928TERSTEEGEN G German Hymn Writer 1724TERTULLIAN200TETRAPOLITAN CONFESSION [1530]1530TETZEL J Dominican Indulgence Friar 1517TEUTONIC KNIGHTS ORDER1199TEXTUS RECEPTUS 1516THADDEUS Patriarch of Jerusalem 1298THAILAND1828THANKSGIVING DAY1621THEATINES Roman Catholic Order 1516THEOBOLD of Bec Archbishop of Canterbury1139THEODORA I Wife of Byzantine Emperor523THEODORE Bishop of Mopsuestia 392THEODORE THE LECTOR. Church Historian518THEODORET Bishop of Cyrrhus in Syria416THEODORE Patriarch of Antioch 767THEODORE IV Patriarch of Antioch 1185THEODORE II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 2004THEODORE Archbishop of Canterbury668THEODORE I Constantinople Patriarch677THEODORE II Constantinople Patriarch1213THEODORE Patriarch of Jerusalem 760THEODORE I Pope642THEODORE II Pope 897THEODORE II Antipope 687THEODORE of STUDIUM Byzantine Abbott794THEODORIC Antipope1100THEODOROS II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria730THEODOROS I, Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria 608THEODOSIOS Patriarch of Jerusalem864THEODOSIOS I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria535THEODOSIOS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1294THEODOSIUS I Patriarch of Antioch852THEODORUS II Patriarch of Antioch966THEODOSIUS II Patriarch of Antioch1075THEODOSIUS III Patriarch of Antioch1180THEODOSIUS IV Patriarch of Antioch1269THEODOSIUS V Patriarch of Antioch1276THEODOSIUS VI Patriarch of Antioch 1958THEODOSIUS I Constantinople Patriarch1179THEODOSIUS II Constantinople Patriarch1769THEODOSIUS I Emperor East378THEODOSIUS II Emperor East408THEODOTUS Primate of Antioch418THEODOTUS I Constantinople Patriarch815THEODOTUS II Constantinople Patriarch1151THEODULF Bishop of Orleans and Hymn Writer 798THEOLEPTUS I Constantinople Patriarch1513THEOLEPTUS II Constantinople Patriarch1585THEONAS Patriarch of Alexandria 282THEOPHANES Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 953THEOPHANES Patriarch of Antioch 681THEOPHANES I Patriarch of Jerusalem1424THEOPHANES II Patriarch of Jerusalem1450THEOPHANES III Patriarch of Jerusalem 1608THEOPHANES I Constantinople Patriarch1597THEOPHANES II Constantinople Patriarch1659THEOPHILOS II Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1010THEOPHILUS III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria1805THEOPHILOS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 1012THEOPHILOS II Patriarch of Jerusalem 1417THEOPHILUS Primate of Antioch 169THEOPHILUS Patriarch of Alexandria385THEOPHYLACT Archbishop of Achrida 1078THEOPHYLACT Patriarch of Antioch748THEOPHYLACTUS Constantinople Patriarch933THEOSOPHY1912THEOTOKOS451THESSALONIANS, I&II Books of51THESSALONIA EDICT380THESSALONIKA49THIERRY of Chartres Theologian and Philosopher1136THIRTEEN ARTICLES. [1538] 1538THIRTY NINE ARTICLES1571THIRTY YEAR WAR1618THOLUCK F German Protestant Theologian1826THOMAS in India 100THOMAS I Constantinople Patriarch607THOMAS I Patriarch of Jerusalem 807THOMAS II Patriarch of Jerusalem969THOMAS a Kempis German Mystic and Author 1413THOMAS of Celano Founder Order of Friars Minor 1228THOMAS of Marga Nestorian Historian832THOMAS O Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Author1844THOMAS N American Presbyterian Socialist1922THOMAS W Anglican Scholar and Teacher1910THOMPSON W [Lord Kelvin] Physicist1846THORN CONFERENCE of 1645THORNWELL J Presbyterian Minister and Scholar 1851THREE CHAPTERS CONTROVERSY553THRELKELD L Missionary to Australia1817TIBERIUS Roman Emperor37TIBERIUS II Byzantine Emperor578TIBERIUS ALEXANDER 46TIELE C Dutch Theologian1877TIKHON V Patriarch of Moscow1917TILAK N Marathi Hymn Writer and Poet 1904TILLEMONT L Roman Catholic Historian1676TILLICH P Protestant Theologian and Philosopher1933TILLITSON J Archbishop of Canterbury1691TIMAEUS Primate of Antioch273TIMOTHY 51TIMOTHY, I Book of63TIMOTHY, II Book of67TIMOTHY I Patriarch of Alexandria 380TIMOTHY II ELUROS Patriarch of Alexandria457TIMOTHY III Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria460TIMOTHY III [IV] Patriarch of Alexandria 517TIMOTHY I Constantinople Patriarch511TIMOTHY II Constantinople Patriarch1612TIMOTHY I Patriarch of the East780TIMOTHY AELURUS Patriarch of Alexandria457TINDAL M Deist Writer 1678TINTORETTO J Italian Painter1594TISCHENDORF L German Scholar & Textual Critic1869TITIAN Italian Painter 1576TITUS 64TITUS, Book of 64TITUS Bishop of Byzantium242TITUS Roman Emperor [see also 79 and 81]70TOLERATION ACT [1689]1689TOLKIEN J Lord of the Rings Author1954TOLSTOY L Russian Novelist and Social Reformer 1861TOME OF LEO449TOME OF ST DAMASUS369TOMLINSON A Church of God Leader & Revivalist 1903TOPLADY A Anglican Hymn Writer1762TORGAU ARTICLES [1576]1576TORQUEMADA J Spanish Theologian and Cardinal 1403TORQUEMADA T Spanish Grand Inquisitor1484TORREY C American Linguist1900TORREY R American Evangelist and Bible Scholar 1889TOWARDS THE CONVERSION OF ENGLAND 1943TOWNSEND H HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria" \o "Nigeria" Nigeria.1842TRACTARIANISM1833TRAHERNE T English Poet 1673TRAJAN Roman Emperor98TRANSCENDENTALISTS1836TRAPP J English Bible Commentator 1636TRAPPISTS Cistercian Reform Order1664TRAVERS W Puritan Minister1594TREBONIANUS GALLUS Roman Emperor251TREGELLES S English N T Textual Critic1857TREMELLIUS J Italian Reformer & Semitic Scholar 1561TRENCH R Archbishop of Dublin1846TRENT COUNCIL of [1545 -- 1563.]1545TRINITARIAN BIBLE SOCIETY1831TRINITARIANS1198TROAS [see also 56 and 57] 49TROELTSCH E Liberal German Theologian1890TROTTER I Missionary to North Africa1888TRUCE OF GOD1015TRUMBULL C Evangelical Writer and Journalist 1903TRYPHON Constantinople Patriarch928TUBINGEN SCHOOL1826TUCKER A Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa 1890TUCKER W Congregational Minister and Educator 1893TUCKNEY A Puritan Minister and Professor1655TULCHAN BISHOPS1572TUNSTALL C Bishop of Durham 1530TURNER C Anglican Historian of Early Christianity 1889TWELFTH CENTURY ORTHODOX PATRIARCHS1100TWELVE ARTICLES [1525] 1525TYE C English Composer and Organist1573TYLER B American Congregational Theologian1808TYNDALE-BISCOE C Missionary in Kashmir1890TYNDALE W English Reformer & Bible Translator1525TYRANNION Primate of Antioch 299TYRE57TYRE Synod of335TYRRELL G Roman Catholic Modernist1880TYRRELL W First Bishop of Newcastle, Australia1848 U UBERTINO of Casale Franciscan Spiritual Leader1272UCHIMURA K Japanese Church Founder1881UDALL J Elizabethan Puritan Minister 1584UDALL N English Scholar and Dramatist1548UFFORD J Archbishop of Canterbury1348ULLMANN K German Lutheran Theologian 1821ULTRAMONTANISM Catholic Revival Movement1814UNAMUNO M Spanish Scholar and Controversialist 1924UNDERHILL E English Mystic and Author1937UNDERWOOD H Reformed Missionary to Korea 1885UNIAT[E] CHURCHES1595UNIFORMITY ACTS of1549UNITARIANISM1558UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST1800UNITED CHURCH OF CANADA1925UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS1789UNITED FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND1900UNITED REFORMED CHURCH1972UNITED SECESSION CHURCH1820UNITED SOCIETY for PROPAGATION of the GOSPEL1701UNITED STATES [see also 1776 and 1914] 1607UNITED STATES [see also 1607 and 1914] 1776UNITED STATES [see also 1607 and 1776]1914UPPSALA ASSEMBLY OF THE W.C.C.1968URBAN I Bishop of Rome222URBAN II Pope1088URBAN III Pope1185URBAN IV Pope1261URBAN V Pope1362URBAN VI Pope1378URBAN VII Pope1590URBAN VIII Pope 1623URLICH of Augsburg993URSICINUS Antipope366URSINUS Z German Reformer and Theologian1562URSULINES Oldest Women's Teaching Order 1535USSHER J Irish Archbishop and Chronologist1625USUARD MARTYROLOGY875UTRAQUISTS Moderate Group Hussites1431UTRECHT DECLARATION of1889 V VAISON Councils of442VALDES J Spanish Humanist and Reformer1527VALENS Emperor of East364VALENTINE Pope 827VALENTINIAN I Emperor364VALENTINIAN II Emperor West375VALENTINIAN III Emperor West425VALENTINUS136VALERIAN Roman Emperor253VALLA L Italian Philologist and Rhetorician1457VANDERKEMP J Dutch Missionary to South Africa1799VAN DYCK A Flemish Painter1620VAN ECK H and J Flemish Painters1432VAN ESS L German Scholar and Translator 1790VAN MANEN W Dutch Theologian 1885VANE H Statesman and Puritan1640VASQUEZ G Jesuit Philosopher and Theologian 1591VATICAN I1869VATICAN 21962VAUGHAN C Dean of Llandaff Wales & Teacher1841VAUGHAN H Poet1695VAUGHAN WILLIAMS R English Composer1906VEDAST Bishop of Arras539VENN H Anglican Evangelical Minister1749VENN H Church Missionary Society Secretary. 1841VENN J Clapham Sect Chaplain1783VERBECK G Dutch American missionary to Japan1869VERBIEST F Jesuit missionary to China1688VESTIARIAN CONTROVERSY1566VENTIDIUS CUMANUS48VESPASIAN Roman Emperor [see also 69, 70 94]66VEUILLOT L French Roman Catholic Writer1839VICELIN Missionary bishop Apostle to the Wends 1149VICTOR I Bishop of Rome189VICTOR II Pope1055VICTOR III Pope1086VICTOR IV Antipope1138VICTOR IV Antipope 1159VICTORINUS Bishop of Pettau303VICTRICIUS Bishop of Rouen380VIENNE Council of 1311VIGILANTIUS of Barcelona 406VIGILIUS Bishop of Rome537VIMONT B French Jesuit Missionary to Canada1629VINCENT F Dominican Preacher1368VINCENT of Beauvais Mediaeval Encyclopaedist1220VINCENT De Paul Founder of the Lazarists 1617VINCENT J Bishop and Sunday School Educator1888VINEGAR BIBLE1716VINES R Puritan Minister1654VINET A French-speaking Swiss Theologian1819VIRET P Protestant Calvinistic Reformer1563VIRGILIUS of Salzburg Mediaeval Irish Scholar, 767VISSER T HOOFT W Dutch Ecumenical Leader1948VITALIAN Pope657VITALIUS I Primate of Antioch308VITALIUS II Primate of Antioch376VITELLIUS Roman Emperor [see also 69]36VITORIA F Spanish Dominican Theologian1504VITRINGA C Protestant Orientalist, Biblical Exegete 1693VITUS Martyr 303VLADIMIR Christian Prince of Kiev988VOETIUS G Dutch Calvinist Theologian 1634VOLTAIRE French Philosopher and Writer1726VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA1896VON HUGEL F Roman Catholic Writer1867VORSTIUS C Reformed Remonstrant Theologian1610VOSS G Dutch Church Historian1632VULGATE The Latin version of the Bible1546 W WACE H Dean of Canterbury1903WAKE W Archbishop of Canterbury1715WALAFRID S Theologian and Monk829WALCH J German Protestant 1734WALDEN R Archbishop of Canterbury 1397WALDENSES1210WALDENSTROM P Swedish Churchman1864WALES [see also 1323]547WALES [see also 1567]1323WALES [see also 1735]1567WALES [see also 1567]1735WALKER M Hymn Writer1855WALKER T Anglican Missionary to South India1885WALKER W American Church Historian1888WALMSLEY R English jeweller and Hymn Writer1905WALTER H Archbishop of Canterbury1193WALTER de Hempsham Archbishop of Canterbury1228WALTER of St Victor Prior St Victor in Paris1180WALTHER C American Lutheran Theologian1837WALTHER J German Lutheran Composer1524WALTON B Bishop of Chester1657WANGEMANN H German Mission Executive1865WARD N English Puritan Minister and Author1634WARD W Printer and Missionary to India 1799WARFIELD B American Presbyterian Scholar1887WARHAM W Archbishop of Canterbury1503WARING A Poet and Hymn Writer1863WARNECK G Professor of Missions and Ecumenist 1896WARNER A&S Hymn writers for children1849WASHINGTON B Negro Educator 1881WATERLAND D Theologian and Writer1715WATKINS O Wesleyan Methodist Missionary1880WATSON R Wesleyan Social Reformer 1812WATTS I Pastor and Hymn Writer1702WAYLAND F Baptist Pastor and Social Reformer1827WEBB-PEPLOE H Anglican Minister and Missioner1876WEC INTERNATIONAL1913WEIL S French Jewish Idealist 1943WEIGEL V Lutheran Mystical Writer1572WEISS B German New Testament Scholar1877WEISS J German Protestant New Testament Critic1914WEIZSACKER K German Protestant Theologian1861WELD T American Abolitionist1835WELLHAUSEN J German Biblical Critic1892WELSH BIBLE [see also 1770]1567WELSH BIBLE [see also 1567]1770WENTWORTH P Puritan Political Leader 1571WESSEL J Biblical Humanist 1474WESLEY C Hymn Writer1738WESLEY J Founder of Methodism1738WESLEY S English Composer and Organist1876WESSENBERG I Radical Roman Catholic1817WEST J Anglican Missionary to Canada1820WESTCOTT B Bishop of Durham1851WESTERN TEXT1851WESTON F Bishop of Zanzibar1908WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY [1643]1643WESTMINSTER CONFESSION1643WESTPHALIA PEACE OF [1648]1648WEYDEN R Flemish Painter1464WEYMOUTH NEW TESTAMENT1903WHARTON H Anglican Scholar and Historian1691WHARTON P Philanthropist 1662WHATELEY R Archbishop of Dublin1831WHEATON DECLARATION1966WHEELOCK E Founder of Dartmouth College1733WHICHCOTE B Cambridge Platonist1668WHISTON W Mathematician and Translator1703WHITAKER W Cambridge Puritan Theologian 1578WHITBY SYNOD OF 663WHITBY D Anglican Scholar and Writer1703WHITE E Leader Seventh-day Adventist Church1846WHITE F Bishop of Ely1631WHITE J Wesleyan Missionary to Zimbabwe1894WHITE W Organiser USA Protestant Episcopals1786WHITE FATHERS1868WHITEFIELD G English Preacher1737WHITELAW T Scottish Presbyterian Scholar1864WHITFIELD F Anglican minister and hymn writer1855WHITGIFT J Archbishop of Canterbury1583WHITING W Hymn Writer1860WHITMAN M Presbyterian Medical Missionary1842WHITTIER J American Quaker Poet and Abolitionist1833WHITTIER J An American Quaker Poet1872WHITTINGHAM W Dean of Durham 1563WHITTLE D American poet, hymn writer and teacher1883WHITTLESEY W Archbishop of Canterbury1368WHYTE A Scottish Minister, Educator and Writer1909WICHERN J Founder of the Innere Mission 1857WIGHARD Archbishop of Canterbury666WILBERFORCE S Bishop of Winchester1869WILBERFORCE W Slave Trade Abolitionist1807WILBER J American Quaker Preacher1845WILDER R Missionary to India 1892WILFRID Bishop of York669WILKES P Missionary to Japan1897WILKINS J Bishop of Chester1668WILKINSON J Religious Cult Leader1758WILLAERT A Flemish Composer for Choirs1527WILLAN H English Organist and Musical Composer1914WILLARD F Educator and Temperance Leader1859WILLIEHAD Missionary to the Saxons765WILLIAM III King of Great Britain1689WILLIAM of Auvergne Bishop of Paris1228WILLIAM of Auxerre Philosopher and Theologian 1230WILLIAM of Champeaux Reforming Bishop1113WILLIAM of Conches Norman Philosopher1140WILLIAM of Corbell Archbishop of Canterbury1123WILLIAM of Malmesbury English Historian 1140WILLIAM of Moerbeke Philosopher and Translator 1260WILLIAM of Norwich Boy Saint & Alleged Martyr 1144WILLIAM of Ockham Scholastic Theologian 1310WILLIAM of St Theirry Scholastic Philosopher1119WILLIAM of Tyre Archbishop of Tyre1175WILLIAM of Wykeham Bishop of Winchester1367WILLIAM of York Archbishop of York1142WILLIAMS D Founder of Doctor Williams' Library1665WILLIAMS Sir G Founder of the YMCA 1844WILLIAMS I Welsh Tractarian Poet and Theologian1829WILLIAMS J Missionary Apostle of Polynesia 1817WILLIAMS R Founder of Rhode Island1636WILLIAMS R Archbishop of Canterbury2003WILLIAMS S American Missionary to China1833WILLIAMS W Welsh Methodist Hymn Writer1744WILLIAMS W Welsh Preacher1808WILLIAMSON A HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people" \o "Scottish people" Scottish HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" \o "Missionary" missionary to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" \o "China" China 1863WILLIBRORD Anglo-Saxon Missionary695WILLIS L American Hymn Writer1856WILSON D Anglican Bishop of Calcutta1833WINCHELSEY R Archbishop of Canterbury1294WINDISCH H German Biblical Scholar and Author 1914WINEBRENNER J German Reformed Pastor 1830WINER J Protestant New Testament Grammarian1832WINKWORTH C Translator of German Hymns1855WINSLOW E American Pilgrim Father Leader 1620WINTHROP J English Governor of Massachusetts 1630WISEMAN N Cardinal, Archbishop of Westminster 1850WISHART G Scottish Reformer and Martyr1545WITHERSPOON J President Princetown University1768WITTENBERG Concord of1536WOLSEY T English Cardinal and Chancellor1515WOODSWORTH J Canadian Methodist Minister1864WOOLLEY C Biblical Archaeologists and Author1922WOOLMAN J American Quaker Abolitionist1743WOOLSTON T English Deist 1727WORDSWORTH C Bishop of Lincoln Hymn Writer 1869WORDSWORTH J Bishop of Salisbury 1885WORLD ALLIANCE OF REFORMED CHURCHES1877WORLD CONGRESS ON EVANGELISM1966WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES1948WORLD EVANGELICAL FELLOWSHIP1951WORLD STUDENT CHRISTIAN FEDERATION1895WORMS COLLOQUY OF 1541WORMS DIET OF [1521]1521WORSHIP of GOD, DIRECTORY for the PUBLIC. 1645WREN C Architect, Church Builder1661WULFRED I Archbishop of Canterbury805WULFHELM Archbishop of Canterbury926WULFILA Bishop of the Goths351WULFSTAN Bishop of Worcester1062WURTTEMBERG CONFESSION [1552].1552WYCLIFFE J English Reformer 1377WYCLIFFE BIBLE TRANSLATORS1934WYTTENBACH T Swiss Reformer1515 YZ YAKUB Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 819YOANNIS I Patriarch of Alexandria 496YOANNIS II Patriarch of Alexandria 505YOANNIS III Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria681YOANNIS IV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria776YOANNIS V Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1146YOANNIS VI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1189YOANNIS VII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1261YOANNIS VIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1300YOANNIS IX Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1320YOANNIS X Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1363YOANNIS XI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1428YOANNIS XII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1480YOANNIS XIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1483YOANNIS XIV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1573YOANNIS XV Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1621YOANNIS XVI Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1676YOANNIS XVII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1727YOANNIS XVIII Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria1770YOANNIS XIX Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1929YOUNG B Founder of Mormons in Utah1850YOUNG E English Poet1738YOUNG E Old Testament Scholar and Linguist1946YOUNG P Biblical and Patristic Scholar1623YOUNG R Concordance Author 1879YOUNG MENS CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION1844YOUNG WOMENS CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION1855YOUSAB I Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 831YOUSAB II Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1946YOUTH FOR CHRIST INTERNATIONAL 1934ZABARELLA F Cardinal Deacon of Florence1385ZACCARIA A Catholic Educator 1533ZACHARIAS Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 1004ZACHARIAS Patriarch of Antioch 890ZACHARIAS Patriarch of Jerusalem 609ZACHARIAS S Church Historian and Bishop492ZACHARY Pope741ZAHN T German Lutheran Patristic Aut / 0 1 4 L O ^ _ g v y l ެއvevTvF4F#h 5>*CJ \^J aJ mH sH h CJ ^J aJ mH sH hZ* 5CJ, \^J aJ, mH sH hP 5CJ, \^J aJ, mH sH h 5CJ, \^J aJ, mH sH h 5CJ0 \^J aJ0 mH sH &h;C h 5CJ0 \^J aJ0 mH sH hZ* 5CJ0 \^J aJ0 mH sH h 5CJ4 \^J aJ4 mH sH j h 5B*CJ0 Uph h 5CJ$ \^J aJ$ mH sH h 5CJ \^J aJ mH sH / 0 2 3 4 L M N O _ ` a d e f g v w x y $a$gd $a$gd l m 8 9 V W 3 W $a$gd l m 9 V ? @ e f g w x L M N i j Y Z rcOc 'jM hCn hD CJ U^J aJ hCn hD 0J CJ ^J aJ 'jl hCn hD CJ U^J aJ !j hCn hD CJ U^J aJ hCn hD CJ ^J aJ hCn hD 5CJ ^J aJ hD CJ ^J aJ mH sH h CJ ^J aJ mH sH h >*CJ ^J aJ mH sH #h 5>*CJ \^J aJ mH sH h 5CJ \^J aJ mH sH - . k l Y Z [ d e f g $a$gd# gd gdD $a$gdD $a$gd Z [ d g s ~ ! 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